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ABSTRACT Compositional Quality of Service Semantics

ABSTRACT Compositional Quality of Service Semantics
ABSTRACT Compositional Quality of Service Semantics

Compositional Quality of Service Semantics

Richard Staehli Simula Research Laboratory

P.O.Box134

N-1325Lysaker,Norway

richard@simula.no

Frank Eliassen Simula Research Laboratory

P.O.Box134

N-1325Lysaker,Norway

frank@simula.no

ABSTRACT

Mapping QoS descriptions between implementation levels has been a well known problem for many years.In compo-nent-based software systems,the problem becomes how to predict the quality of a service from the quality of its com-ponent services.The weak semantics of many QoS speci-?cation techniques has complicated the solution.This pa-per describes a model for de?ning the rigorous QoS seman-tics needed for component architectures.We give a de-tailed analysis of compositional QoS relations in a video Object-Tracker and discuss how the model simpli?es the analysis.

1.INTRODUCTION

The need for QoS management support in component ar-chitectures is well known[4].While many aspects of QoS management have been investigated in the context of dis-tributed systems,component architectures present new chal-lenges.One of those new challenges is how to reliably predict QoS properties for a composition of components. Component architectures such as the CORBA Compo-nent Model(CCM)guarantee that applications assembled from independently developed components will function cor-rectly when deployed on any su?ciently provisioned imple-mentation of the component architecture platform.We refer to this as the safe deployment property.Although current component standards have had good success in some do-mains,such as e-business,an application that performs well in one deployment may be unusable as load scales up or when connections are re-distributed across low-bandwidth connec-tions.We use the term QoS-sensitive application to refer to an application that will commonly perform unacceptably if platform resources are scarce or if the deployment is not carefully con?gured and tuned for the anticipated load. State-of-the-art middleware and component technologies provide QoS management APIs that force application de-velopers to code deployment-speci?c knowledge into the ap-plication[1][6][8].Rather than specifying an assembly of Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for pro?t or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the?rst page.To copy otherwise,to republish,to post on servers or to redistribute to lists,requires prior speci?c permission and/or a fee.

SAVCBS’04,October31,2004,Newport Beach,California,USA Copyright2004ACM...$5.00.black-box components that will run on any standard plat-form,developers instead write deployment-speci?c con?gu-ration code that depends on knowledge of component and platform service implementations.This approach compli-cates development and fails to preserve the safe deployment property.

1.1The QuA Project

The QuA project is investigating how a component archi-tecture can preserve the safe-deployment property for QoS-sensitive applications[9].We believe that platform-managed QoS is the only general solution that preserves the safe de-ployment property.This means that applications and appli-cation components should be written without knowledge of the runtime platform implementation and resource alloca-tion decisions.Application speci?cations for accuracy and timeliness of outputs must refer only to the logical properties of the component interfaces.

Platform-managed QoS means that the platform must be able to reason about how end-to-end QoS depends on the quality of component services.The composition relationship is often non-trivial as in the case of a remote video conference where image quality may depend on both packet transport loss and video encoding.

We refer to the set of characteristics used to specify QoS as a quality model and the concepts used to de?ne such char-acteristics as a QoS meta-model.To enable a component platform to reason about composition and conformance,we need a QoS meta-model that allows us to uniformly model every level of implementation as a service,from the appli-cation level down to physical resources,and that,for any service,allows us to de?ne a quality model that does not depend on implementation.These properties allow the cre-ation of QoS speci?cation standards and developer provided mapping functions that can be used to derive composition QoS properties from independently developed components. In the next section,we describe how the QuA QoS meta-model satis?es the above requirements.In Section3the model is applied recursively to de?ne QoS models for a com-plex real-time video processing application and its compo-nents.We show how the model permits a precise mapping of component-composition QoS dependencies.Section4dis-cusses related work and Section5presents our conclusions.

2.THE QUA QOS META-MODEL

The QuA QoS Meta-Model(QQMM)de?nes the seman-tics of our QoS speci?cations.It de?nes a generic model of a service and de?nes quality in a way that allows us to cre-

ate precise and practical QoS models for any speci?c service type.

To begin,we need to be precise about what a service is.In common use,the term service means work done for another. In computing systems,we want the term to apply both to the work performed by a complex distributed application for its clients and to the work performed by the simplest of hardware resources,such as a memory address that stores a binary value for some computation.

De?nition1A service is a subset of output messages and causally related inputs to some composition of objects. This is consistent with the common de?nition,since the output messages represent the”work done”and the inputs represent the work request.An object’s type semantics de-?ne which inputs cause which outputs.

Since network packet delivery is a service that is well known in the QoS literature,we will use it to illustrate our de?nitions.We can model an IP network port as a distributed port object that can accept send(packet)mes-sages at multiple locations and emit deliver(packet)mes-sages at an endpoint identi?ed by the host and port num-ber.This service is illustrated in Figure1.We can de-?ne a service provided by this port object as consisting of only the deliver(packet)output events and causally re-lated send(packet)input events for which the input came from source A.These packets are colored black in Figure1.

Figure1:Example packet transport service.

In the QQMM de?nition of a service,we assume the most basic model of object-oriented analysis,where objects in some platform-de?ned identity space communicate by send-ing messages.The sending of a message is both an input event for the receiver and an output event for the sender. In the packet service,we can de?ne the occurrence of the send event as precisely the moment when the send func-tion is invoked and the occurrence of the deliver event as the precise moment when the received packet is made avail-able in the output bu?er.The QQMM makes no assump-tions about object implementations and so we must allow that objects may receive input messages concurrently from multiple senders and send output messages concurrently to multiple receivers.This suits a general model of distributed computation.

As in the packet service example,other services may share the same object and even the same interface to that object, so long as they have a disjoint set of output events.

A service speci?cation can be as simple as identifying an output interface for an object;the causally related inputs are implied by the semantics for the object type.For ex-ample,the semantics of the distributed port object dictate that every packet delivered has exactly one send event that caused it.The semantics also dictates that the value of the packet delivered should be the same as the packet that was sent.

Now,to reason about the behavior of a service,we need to talk about the history of input and output events.

De?nition2A message event trace is a set of message val-ues associated with the sending interface and the time it was sent.

A message value represents all content of the message, including its type or signature.The sending interface is the location of the mechanism used to send the message.In the packet service example,the sending interface used by Source A is the?rst PortProxy object,while the sending interface for packet service outputs is the Endpoint object.The time associated with an event comes from a local clock at the sending interface.We assume that clocks are synchronized, but acknowledge that when times from remote clocks are compared there will always be some uncertainty about how well they were synchronized.

The QQMM de?nes a message send to be a local and instantaneous event.All preparation for a message send is done in the sender and all processing of a message after the send event is done in the receiver.This property assures us that end-to-end processing time is consistently and properly accounted for.In the packet service example,all real delay occurs within one of the service components,including the Network object that encapsulates physical network access. We use the term input trace to refer to the message event trace with all input events for a service,and output trace to refer to the message event trace with all output events for a service.The behavior of a service implementation is deter-mined not only by the semantics of its declared interfaces, but also by the availability and scheduling of resources in the underlying platform.To de?ne quality of service,we need to ask what is the ideal behavior of a service.

De?nition3For a given input trace,the ideal output trace is generated when the service executes completely and correctly on an in?nitely fast platform with unlimited resources.

That is,computation takes no time and results are ob-tained at the same time they are requested.Of course, events in an ideal output trace still only occur as frequently as the inputs that cause them!

Although we believe the QQMM can model QoS for non-deterministic computations,we ignore them for now to sim-plify the presentation.For deterministic computations,the semantics of a service’s interfaces de?nes the ideal output trace as a function of an input trace.This means that the best possible quality for a service is always well de?ned.

In a real implementation of a service,the actual output trace will di?er from the ideal in both the timing and value of message events.The causes for this deviation from ideal include?nite CPU speed,queueing delays,and bandwidth reduction strategies.This is the stu?of QoS management. We would like to view the possible output traces for a service as points in a behavioral space and consider distance from the ideal output trace as an error measurement,but to use this concept in QoS speci?cations,we must?rst de?ne the dimensions of this behavioral space.

Consider again,the packet service example.Figure2 shows the input trace as incoming messages on the left side

Figure2:Ideal(shown in grey)versus actual(black) behavior.

of the service’s timeline and the actual output trace as out-going messages on the right.The ideal output trace is shown in grey.Assuming that this trace shows the entire lifetime of the service,we can see that each event in the ideal out-put trace can occur at a later time in the actual trace and may have its packet value corrupted or degraded in some way.The second and third packets have apparently been corrupted and it is not possible to be certain which is which without some knowledge of the service implementation.The fourth packet sent had not been delivered at the time of reckoning and may be considered lost.

The important point to observe about the packet service output is that every event can vary independently from the others in its delay from the ideal and in the change to its packet value.The QQMM generalizes from this example to make the assumption that the only possible values in an ac-tual output trace that can di?er from the ideal are the time of the output event and the values of message arguments. Each of these variables in the output trace represents an independent dimension of the behavioral space.

Let X be the vector of values that may di?er in a trace X,ordered by event order in the ideal trace and by the order they occur in the message value.Then the di?erence between an actual output trace A and the ideal trace I is the di?erence vector δ= A? I.

For the packet service example,the values that may di?er in the actual output trace are the event times and the packet values.If I is the ideal output trace for the example,the order of values in I is packet value followed by time for the ?rst output,then for the second and so forth as shown in Equation1.

I=(1,0,2,10,3,20,4,30)(1) If A is the actual output trace for the example,then the ?rst two values of A are1and5.

A=(1,5,9,21,9,24,0,∞)(2) As noted above,it is not possible to be certain which of the next two packets delivered corresponds to the second event in the ideal trace.This is an inescapable problem in QoS management:unreliable systems cannot be relied on to communicate enough information to unambiguously de-termine error.Instead,the di?erence vector can have many possible values depending on di?erent interpretations of the correspondence between actual and ideal events[11].Fortu-nately,it is usually safe to consider only the interpretation corresponding to the least error as it is unlikely that random faults would yield better service.So,we choose the following interpretation of A and the di?erence vector δ:

δ=(0,5,7,11,6,4,?4,∞)(3) Although this de?nition of the di?erence between actual and ideal allows us to de?ne quality in a weak sense,i.e., actual traces in which every vector component is below a corresponding threshold value,it fails to tell us which of two output traces is better when each contain some com-ponents that are worse than the other.Another problem is that as the complexity of an ideal trace increases,through additional messages and more complex message structure, the number of ways in which actual traces may di?er ex-plodes.Fortunately,we frequently are concerned only with an overall measure of distance from the ideal.For exam-ple,we can ignore the individual values for event delay and instead monitor aggregate statistics such as maximum and median.

The QQMM concept of an error model provides a rigorous way to de?ne the type of quality characteristics that are most useful for QoS management.

De?nition4An error model =

`

1( δ),..., n( δ)

is a vec-tor of n functions that each map from a di?erence vec-tor δto a real number such that|| ( δ)||=0when || δ||=0.

The notation|| δ||represents the magnitude of the vec-tor δ.According to this de?nition,a function in an error model(error function)must be zero if there are no di?er-ences between the actual and the ideal.We also expect that the magnitude of an error model will generally increase as the di?erence from ideal grows larger,but we have found it di?cult to formalize this requirement without being overly restrictive.

One trivial error model is the set of projection functions πi( δ)=δi;these are zero when|| δ||=0and increase as the respective component of δincreases.But the value of our error model de?nition is that it allows us to construct a much simpler error space with the type of QoS characteris-tics commonly discussed in the QoS management literature.

A point in this simpli?ed error space represents an equiva-lence class of output traces that are the same distance from the ideal with respect to the error model.

To continue the packet service example,if we de?ne the service as consisting of all deliver(packet)messages,then both the input trace and its associated ideal output trace may contain an unbounded number of events.To de?ne an error model for this service we need to decide how to interpret packet delivery events that are expected but never happen,or that cannot be distinguished from other packet delivery events.For this error model,we consider a packet to be lost if either the time di?erence in δfor its deliver event exceeds some limit,such as20seconds,or its value di?erence is non-zero.We associate a packet delivery event with an ideal delivery event if the the actual event happened after the ideal event and there is no other interpretation that o?ers fewer packet losses.

To allow us to model quality at time t during the service, we de?ne i(p,t, δ)to be the sequence of consecutive values

in δassociated with ideal events in the interval(t?p,t].Let d(p,t, δ)be the values in i(p,t, δ)associated with packets that were correctly delivered(not lost).A value of10sec-onds was chosen arbitrarily for the period p in this example. We can then construct an error model with the following functions:

?delay(t)is the mean of time di?erences in d(10,t, δ).

?jitter(t)is the variance of time di?erences in d(10,t, δ).

?loss(t)is the ratio of the number of packets lost in i(10,t, δ)to the number sent,or zero if none were sent.

These satisfy our de?nition of an error model,since each is zero when the di?erence values in δare zero and none decrease when a di?erence value in δincreases.

Note that these de?nitions model only the error in the recent history of time t.To constrain error over the lifetime of a service we would need to use expressions like:for all time t,delay(t)<5.We could de?ne many other similar error models with di?erent parameters or di?erent functions. For example,it may be useful to model the95th percentile of delay values.Still,the simple error model above is quite useful for specifying and measuring the quality of a packet delivery service and is similar to other common de?nitions of packet service QoS characteristics.

A point in this error space;say delay(t)=1second, jitter(t)=0.5second,and loss(t)=0.2;corresponds to all output traces in which the mean delay for recent events before time t is one second,and so forth.This set of output traces forms a surface in the behavioral space that surrounds a neighborhood of the ideal output trace.Inside this neigh-borhood,all output traces are closer to the ideal and can be considered better at time t according to this error model. We can use an error model to both quantify the loss of quality and to constrain it.Let ( A? I)be the tuple of error values for an error model ,an actual trace A and the ideal trace for a service I.Let limits be a tuple of positive real numbers representing an upper bound for each of the functions in .Then we say a service with output trace A is acceptable if for each i,| i( A? I)|

Since many error models can be de?ned for a given service, we would like some criteria to judge which error models are better than others.The QQMM allows us to formally de-?ne desirable properties of a good error model.For brevity, we suggest only informal de?nitions here.We say an error model is sound if any set of non-zero error limits can be sat-is?ed by some set of actual output traces.An error model is complete if,for any output trace that is di?erent from the ideal,we can?nd a set of non-zero error limits that would exclude this trace.An error model is minimal if no function can be removed without losing the ability to distinguish be-tween some output traces.We say an error model M is more expressive than an error model N if it can de?ne exactly the same sets of acceptable output traces as N,and then some more.

The example error model for the packet service appears to be sound,because any non-zero limits can be satis?ed by output traces with non-zero delay,jitter,and loss.The error model also appears to be complete:for any time di?erence value x>0in some i(10,t, δ)with n successfully delivered packets,x/(n+1)is a non-zero delay limit that must be less than|delay(t)|even if all n?1other time di?erences are zero,and if v>0is a value di?erence in such an interval with m packets,1/(m+1)is a non-zero loss limit that must be less than|loss(t)|even if all other packets are delivered in a timely manner without corruption.

The error model is also minimal,as each function models an independent facet of error.The error model could be made more expressive by adding functions,to distinguish packet corruption from loss for example.

3.APPLICATION TO AN OBJECT TRACK-

ING SERVICE

In this section,we?rst de?ne error models for a real appli-cation and its component services,and then show how error for the application service can be predicted from error in the component services.We apply QQMM to an example of a class of applications we refer to as real-time content-based video analysis.These applications must process the video data at least as fast as the video data is made available and perform analysis with acceptable accuracy.

Real-time content analysis is an active research?eld where e?cient techniques have been found for problems such as multi-object detection and tracking.In such applications, pattern classi?cation systems which automatically classify media content in terms of high-level concepts have been adopted.Such pattern classi?cation systems must bridge the gap between the low-level signal processing services(?l-tering and feature extraction)and the high-level services desired by the end-user.

The design of such a pattern classi?cation system must select analysis algorithms that balance requirements of ac-curacy against requirements of timeliness.

3.1The object tracking service

In this example,we refer to a simple object tracking ser-vice as an Object-Tracker.The service is simple in the sense that it can track a single object on a stationary back-ground(i.e.the camera remains still).This example is adapted from our earlier work on supporting quality con-straints in real-time content-based video analysis[12]. Figure3shows the Object-Tracker as a component re-ceiving input from a VideoSrc and sending output to an EventSink.The Object-Tracker is implemented as a com-position of Feature extractor and Classifier components with multicast input to the feature extractors and pub-lish/subscribe middleware for communications between the feature extractors and the classi?er.The extractors and the classi?er are further decomposed into functional and com-munication components.

The VideoSrc sends each frame of an uncompressed video stream to a?lter component(not shown)that divides the frame into regions,publishing the data for each to a mul-ticast channel for that region.The multicast channel is an e?cient mechanism to communicate high-bandwidth data to multiple clients over a local area network.However,in this example,exactly one Feature Extractor receives the data for each frame region.

Each Feature Extractor calculates features from the set of frame data it has received.In this example,the Feature Extractor components compute a two dimensional array of motion vectors;one for each block of the frame region, where a block is a subdivision of the frame into?xed size rectangles of pixels.A motion vector indicates the direction

Figure3:Functional decomposition of the Object-Tracker.

and distance that most pixels within a block appear to have moved from a previous frame.

The motion vectors and the associated frame number are then published by the Feature Extractor as event noti?-cations on a channel for the frame region.The Classifier subscribes to these channels to receive motion vector data from multiple Feature Extractor components.In this ex-ample,the Classifier examines the history of motion vec-tors over several frames to identify and determine the center of a moving object.

We use Dynamic Bayesian Networks(DBNs)as a classi-?er speci?cation language.DBNs[5]represent a particularly ?exible class of pattern classi?ers that allows statistical in-ference and learning to be combined with domain knowledge. In order to automatically associate high-level concepts (e.g.object position)with the features produced through feature extraction,a DBN can be trained on manually an-notated media streams.The goal of the training is to?nd a mapping between the feature space and high-level con-cept space,within a hypothesis space of possible mappings. After training the DBN can be evaluated by measuring the number of misclassi?cations on a manually annotated media stream not used in the training.This measured error rate can be used as an estimate of how accurately the DBN will classify novel media streams and can be associated with the classi?er as meta data.

One important reason for using DBNs is the fact that DBNs allow features to be missing during classi?cation at the cost of some decrease in accuracy.This fact is exploited in our work with the Object-Tracker to trade accuracy for timeliness as discussed below.

3.2QoS role in planning service con?guration Even this simple Object-Tracker implementation requires many deployment con?guration choices with associated QoS tradeo?https://www.doczj.com/doc/6515858483.html,ponents may be deployed to di?erent proces-sors to work in parallel,increasing throughput and reduc-ing delay.Throughput may also be increased by deploying pipeline components on di?erent processors.But distribu-tion may also increase communication overhead and add to delay.

Since the motion vector Feature Extractor operates lo-cally on image regions,the performance can scale with the size of video processing task by distributing the work among a greater number of Feature Extractor components,each on its own processor.Similarly,the Classifier could be parallelized if classi?cation should become a processing bot-tleneck[12].In this paper,we consider only the case of parallelizing the Feature Extractor.

The amount of processing required for acceptable accu-racy in object tracking is another tradeo?point.The level of accuracy provided by the Object-Tracker depends on the misclassi?cation behavior(error rate)of the classi?er algorithm,which in turn depends on the quality of the fea-ture extraction input.Greater accuracy can be achieved by processing video data at a higher frame rate or higher resolution,but the increased processing requirements might increased delay in reporting the object location.Hence the con?guration must be carefully selected based on both the desired level of accuracy and the tolerance for delay.

To reason about which con?gurations might satisfy the Object-Tracker QoS requirements,it must be possible to estimate what QoS the components will o?er and how these QoS o?ers compose to satisfy the end-to-end requirements. To do this in practice,we exploit knowledge of the measured behavior of the components in the target physical processing environment.

3.3Error model de?nitions

We model the Object-Tracker as a service that has un-compressed video frames as input and that produces a lo-cation event for every video frame as its output.A video frame number accompanies each frame,frame region,set of motion vectors,and each location output event so that there is no ambiguity about which frame these events are to be associated with.Each video frame is divided into m×n blocks.A location is represented as a block number in the video frame and indicates the center position of the tracked object.

For this service,the variables in the output trace are the time of the output and the location coordinates.It matters little whether the di?erence between actual and ideal loca-tion coordinates is in one axis or another,so we will refer to location as an aggregate value.

We would like to model three quality characteristics for this service:latency,errorRate and period.Let i(p,t, δ) be the values from the di?erence vector for the interval of period p up to time t as de?ned in the last section.

We can de?ne the error model as follows:

?latency(t)is the mean of time di?erences in i(10,t, δ).

?errorRate(t)is the ratio of non-zero location di?er-

ences in i(10,t, δ)to the total number of location val-ues.

?period(t)is the maximum q such that location dif-ference is non-zero for all values in i(q,t , δ),where t?10≤t ≤t.

The latency(t)is the mean of recent values for the elapsed time from when a frame containing a motion event is sent to the Object-Tracker until a causally related location event is output.The ideal latency is zero,but any real application will permit some latency greater than zero.

The errorRate(t)gives the fraction of the recent location di?erence values that were non-zero.The ideal error rate of zero may be achieved if all video blocks are processed and the moving object is similar to those used in classi?er training.

The period(t)is the amount of time that may elapse before a updated and correct object location is reported.As with the errorRate,the ideal value of zero may be achieved with su?cient processing resources and good video input,but frame dropping will cause this error to increase.

Because the Classifier has the same output interface as the Object-Tracker,we can and should use the same error model.This shows a good feature of the QQMM: Error model de?nitions refer only to the output interface of a service and so an error model may be used for any service with the same output interface.

We model a Feature Extractor as a service that receives uncompressed video frames(or some region of a frame)as input and that produces a motion vector array and asso-ciated frame number as its output.The variables between actual and ideal output traces for this service are the time of output events and the motion vector array values.

For this example,we are not concerned with trading accu-racy in the motion vectors against other quality dimensions so we again treat this complex data type as a single aggre-gate value in the following error model:

Let i(p,t, δ)be as de?ned in the last section.

?latency(t)is the mean time di?erence in i(10,t, δ).

?errorRate(t)is the ratio of non-zero motion vector array di?erences in i(10,t, δ)to the total number of motion vector array values.

These are the same de?nitions given for the functions of the same name in the previous error model except that here we reference the motion vector array as the output trace variable.Because we do not anticipate error in the deter-ministic algorithm for computing motion vectors,it might seem that errorRate(t)could be left out of our model,but this would leave our model incomplete and unable to ex-press even the constraint that the motion vectors should be correct.

Our work with this application has been in a local area network environment where the remote communication has not been a bottleneck,but we understand that modeling the QoS of these communication links is necessary for future work.At this time,we have not de?ned error models for the the communication protocols or the component which divides the video frames into regions.3.4Modeling compositional QoS relations

To con?gure the Object-Tracker to perform with accept-able errorRate,latency and period requires an ability to predict these values for alternative con?gurations.Systems engineers accomplish this task with a combination of anal-ysis and experimental observations of component behavior. The QQMM allows us to de?ne an error model for each component service type that does not depend on its imple-mentation,and thus can be used as a standard QoS spec-i?cation model used by both component clients and inde-pendent component developers.Given such standards,a component developer can encode knowledge of the relation between component and composition QoS independently for each implementation.Thus,the QQMM enables a kind of QoS composition algebra:the algebraic operators are error prediction functions provided by the developer with each component implementation and the operands are the sub-component QoS predictions.

As mentioned earlier,meta data measuring the errorRate for various con?gurations may be associated with the Cla-ssifier.For all of the components,measurements of pro-cessing time for a periodic task on a particular class of CPU and with a particular class of workload may be associated with the component type as meta data for use in estimating latency.

Another input to the latency prediction function is a model of the available computing resources in terms of both the number and class of CPUs,and the latency and bandwidth of communication between each pair of CPUs.

To simplify the estimation of latency for a service con?g-uration,we assume that the communication between each pair of CPUs is contention free and that the latency and bandwidth are constant.These assumptions are valid for a signi?cant class of distributed processing environments(e.g. dedicated homogeneous computers connected in a dedicated switched LAN)and allow us to ignore the complexity of com-munication contention,routing,etc.,which are not the focus of this paper.

Given an allocation of components to processors,the pro-cessing period of each Object-Tracker component can be estimated.From the component QoS predictions and con-?guration values such as the classi?er location output rate, the end-to-end error for this example of the Object-Tracker can be predicted.

The composition of latency for serial tasks,such as remote communication of video frame data and Feature Extractor processing of that frame,is the sum of the delays.The QQMM semantics ensure that this composition is seamless: that end-to-end accounting of time attributes every moment to exactly one service in the sequence.If the latency mea-surements follow these semantics than there is good reason to hope that the composition estimate will be good.

The serial composition of Feature Extractor and Cla-ssifier is not strictly serial processing however.The Cla-ssifier does not wait for all features from a frame to ar-rive before reporting a guess about the location,but instead is con?gured with its own periodic schedule to update hy-potheses,including hypotheses about past.In this imple-mentation,the composition trades the risk of an increase in the errorRate to avoid the high latency of waiting for every serial dependency.The end-to-end latency is held constant at runtime while the errorRate may vary.

The prediction of the errorRate can be made analyti-

cally from estimates of the availability of extracted features and knowledge of the classi?er.The ARCAMIDE algorithm exploits the fact that DBNs allow features to be missing during classi?cation to trade accuracy for timeliness[12]. Alternatives are generated for removing feature extractors from an initial con?guration.The error prediction for the Object-Tracker is used to sort the alternatives,least in-crease in the errorRate?rst.This algorithm then tests each con?guration to determine if the latency and period predic-tion will satisfy application requirements.In this sequence, the?rst service con?guration which meets the latency and period requirements,must also meet the accuracy require-ment,otherwise it is not possible to satisfy the requirements with the speci?ed processing resources.

The period can be predicted from the absolute value of the di?erence between the classi?er update period and the V ideoSrc frame period.

This example suggests that the error prediction for a com-position can be a complex function of component inter-actions and component error.The QQMM semantics en-able such error prediction functions to be written without knowledge of component implementations and thus,to pre-dict error regardless of which component implementation is plugged in to the composition.However,we have only begun to de?ne error models for real services and error predictions for compositions.Future work is needed to learn if there are important patterns for error prediction in compositions. 4.RELATED WORK

There has been little work published speci?cally address-ing QoS models for component architectures.Researchers at BBN developed QuO(Quality of Service for Objects)[13]as a framework for management of QoS properties in CORBA applications.A more recent QuO paper introduced qoskets as a means for reusing adaptive QoS behaviors,but they have not yet adapted this work to a component architec-ture[10].They specify QoS contracts between client and server objects,but do not address other service types such as a pipeline component that receives input from one ob-ject and sends output to another.Also,they do not focus on QoS semantics,so it is not clear that a description of QoS provided by one component would be understood cor-rectly by an independent developer who would use such a component.

SLAng is a language for specifying service level agree-ments between very large grain components that may be owned and operated by separate commercial entities[3]. The authors acknowledge that SLAng’s informal semantics for QoS characteristics is a weakness[2].Our model is complementary and could provide a formal semantics and a method to expand the SLAng catalog with QoS charac-teristics for new service types.

Nahrstedt,et al.,describe a QoS-aware middleware archi-tecture designed to support QoS-sensitive applications[7]. They propose a QoS compiler to map from user-perceived QoS down to system-level QoS,but we understand that this compiler understands only a?xed set of QoS characteristics. They conclude that more research is needed to allow uniform speci?cation of QoS for di?erent application domains.We agree and we believe that QQMM provides a prerequisite common semantics independent of any particular middle-ware or component architecture.5.CONCLUSIONS

In this paper we have described the QuA QoS Meta-Model (QQMM)for de?ning QoS semantics for an arbitrary ser-vice.The key features of the QQMM are a de?nition of a service that is based on component interface semantics and a de?nition of quality dimensions based on a metric space with ideal service behavior at the origin.Error models that conform to the QQMM de?ne QoS dimensions that can be observed by a client without knowledge of the service imple-mentation.This allows independent component developers to agree on a common standard for specifying client QoS requirements and component QoS o?ers.The QQMM al-lows us to analyze any implementation as a composition of component services and to de?ne error models for these com-ponent services that fully account for loss of quality in the implementation.From this analysis,a component developer may be able to provide a mapping relation between QoS of component services and the QoS of a composition.

The QQMM provides clear guidelines for de?ning QoS measures with a rigorous semantics,but we have learned from initial experiments that it can be di?cult to de?ne precise error models that correspond to our intuition about quality dimensions.Despite this note of caution,we believe a strong semantics are a prerequisite for QoS management in component-base software engineering where representations of QoS properties come with”o?-the-shelf”components. 5.1Acknowledgment

Thanks to Jonathan Walpole for comments on an early draft and to the referees for their suggestions to improve the paper.This work was funded in part by a grant from the Research Council of Norway.

6.REFERENCES

[1]G.Coulson,G.S.Blair,M.Clarke,and

N.Parlavantzas.The design of a con?gurable and

recon?gurable middleware platform.ACM Distributed Computing Journal,15(2):109–126,2002.

[2]D.Davide Lamanna and James Skene and Wolfgang

Emmerich.Speci?cation Language for Service Level

Agreements,2003.https://www.doczj.com/doc/6515858483.html,/tapas/deliverables/D2.pdf.

[3]Wolfgang Emmerich,D.Davide Lamanna,Giacomo

Piccinelli,and James Skene.Method for service

composition and analysis,2003.

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ables/d3.pdf.

[4]I.Foster,C.Kesselman,J.Nick,and S.Tuecke.Grid

services for distributed system https://www.doczj.com/doc/6515858483.html,puter, 35(6),2002.

[5]F.V.Jensen.Bayesian networks and decision graphs,

2001.Series for Statistics and Engineering and

Information Science,Springer Verlag.

[6]J.P.Loyall,R.E.Schantz,J.A.Zinky,and D.E.

Bakken.Specifying and measuring quality of service in distributed object systems.In Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Object-Oriented

Real-Time Distributed Computing(ISORC’98),pages 20–22,Kyoto,Japan,1998.

[7]Klara Nahrstedt,Dongyan Xu,Duangdao

Wichadakul,and Baochun Li.QoS-aware middleware for ubiquitous computing.IEEE Communications

Magazine,39(11):140–148,November2001.

[8]I.Pyarali,D.Schmidt,and R.Cytron.Achieving

end-to-end predictability of the TAO real-time

CORBA ORB.In Proceedings of the8th IEEE

Real-Time Technology and Applications Symposium, San Jose,CA,2002.

[9]Richard Staehli,Frank https://www.doczj.com/doc/6515858483.html,ponent-Based

Service Planning For Platform-Managed QoS.

Submitted to Middleware2004,2004.

[10]R.Schantz,J.Loyall,M.Atighetchi,and P.Pal.

Packaging quality of service control behaviors for

reuse.In Proceedings of ISORC2002,The5th IEEE International Symposium on Object-Oriented

Real-time distributed Computing,Washington,DC,

2002.

[11]Richard Staehli and Jonathan Walpole.Quality of

service speci?cations for multimedia presentations.

Multimedia Systems,3(5/6),1995.

[12]Viktor S.Vold Eide and Frank Eliassen and

Ole-Christo?er Granmo and Olav Lysne.Supporting Timeliness and Accuracy in Distributed Real-Time

Content-based Video Analysis.In ACM Multimedia, 2003.

[13]J.A.Zinky,D.E.Bakken,and R.E.Schantz.

Architectural support for quality of service for

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论文的写作格式及规范

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大学本科生毕业论文(设计)撰写要求与格式规范

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