外文文献原文
The bridge crack produced the reason to simply analyse
In recent years, the traffic capital construction of our province gets swift and violent development, all parts have built a large number of concrete bridges. In the course of building and using in the bridge, relevant to influence project quality lead of common occurrence report that bridge collapse even because the crack appears The concrete can be said to " often have illness coming on " while fracturing and " frequently-occurring disease ", often perplex bridge engineers and technicians. In fact , if take certain design and construction measure, a lot of cracks can be overcome and controlled. For strengthen understanding of concrete bridge crack further, is it prevent project from endanger larger crack to try one's best, this text make an more overall analysis , summary to concrete kind and reason of production , bridge of crack as much as possible, in order to design , construct and find out the feasible method which control the crack , get the result of taking precautions against Yu WeiRan.
Concrete bridge crack kind, origin cause of formation In fact, the origin cause of formation of the concrete structure crack is complicated and various, even many kinds of factors influence each other , but every crack has its one or several kinds of main reasons produced . The kind of the concrete bridge crack, on its reason to produce, can roughly divide several kinds as follows :
(1) load the crack caused Concrete in routine quiet .
Is it load to move and crack that produce claim to load the crack under the times of stress bridge, summing up has direct stress cracks , two kinds stress crack onces mainly. Direct stress crack refer to outside load direct crack that stress produce that cause. The reason why the crack produces is as follows, 1, Design the stage of calculating , does not calculate or leaks and calculates partly while calculating in structure; Calculate the model is unreasonable; The structure is supposed and accorded with by strength actually by strength ; Load and calculate or leak and calculate few; Internal force and matching the mistake in computation of muscle; Safety coefficient of structure is not enough. Do not consider the possibility that construct at the time of the structural design; It is insufficient
to design the section; It is simply little and assigning the mistake for reinforcing bar to set up; Structure rigidity is insufficient; Construct and deal with improperly; The design drawing can not be explained clearly etc.. 2, Construction stage, does not pile up and construct the machines , material limiting ; Is it prefabricate structure structure receive strength characteristic , stand up , is it hang , transport , install to get up at will to understand; Construct not according to the design drawing, alter the construction order of the structure without authorization , change the structure and receive the strength mode; Do not do the tired intensity checking computations under machine vibration and wait to the structure . 3, Using stage, the heavy-duty vehicle which goes beyond the design load passes the bridge; Receive the contact , striking of the vehicle , shipping; Strong wind , heavy snow , earthquake happen , explode etc.. Stress crack once means the stress of secondary caused by loading outside produces the crack. The reason why the crack produces is as follows, 1, In design outside load function , because actual working state and routine , structure of thing calculate have discrepancy or is it consider to calculate, thus cause stress once to cause the structure to fracture in some position. Two is it join bridge arch foot is it is it assign " X " shape reinforcing bar , cut down this place way , section of size design and cut with scissors at the same time to adopt often to design to cut with scissors, theory calculate place this can store curved square in , but reality should is it can resist curved still to cut with scissors, so that present the crack and cause the reinforcing bar corrosion. 2, Bridge structure is it dig trough , turn on hole , set up ox leg ,etc. to need often, difficult to use a accurate one diagrammatic to is it is it calculate to imitate to go on in calculating in routine, set up and receive the strength reinforcing bar in general foundation experience. Studies have shown , after being dug the hole by the strength component , it will produce the diffraction phenomenon that strength flows, intensive near the hole in a utensil, produced the enormous stress to concentrate. In long to step prestressing force of the continuous roof beam , often block the steel bunch according to the needs of section internal force in stepping, set up the anchor head, but can often see the crack in the anchor firm section adjacent place. So if deal with improper, in corner or component form sudden change office , block place to be easy to appear crack strength
reinforcing bar of structure the. In the actual project, stress crack once produced the most common reason which loads the crack. Stress crack once belong to one more piece of nature of drawing , splitting off , shearing. Stress crack once is loaded and caused, only seldom calculate according to the routine too, but with modern to calculate constant perfection of means, times of stress crack to can accomplish reasonable checking computations too. For example to such stresses 2 times of producing as prestressing force , creeping ,etc., department's finite element procedure calculates levels pole correctly now, but more difficult 40 years ago. In the design, should pay attention to avoiding structure sudden change (or section sudden change), when it is unable to avoid , should do part deal with , corner for instance, make round horn , sudden change office make into the gradation zone transition, is it is it mix muscle to construct to strengthen at the same time, corner mix again oblique to reinforcing bar , as to large hole in a utensil can set up protecting in the perimeter at the terms of having angle steel. Load the crack characteristic in accordance with loading differently and presenting different characteristics differently. The crack appear person who draw more, the cutting area or the serious position of vibration. Must point out , is it get up cover or have along keep into short crack of direction to appear person who press, often the structure reaches the sign of bearing the weight of strength limit, it is an omen that the structure is destroyed, its reason is often that sectional size is partial and small. Receive the strength way differently according to the structure, the crack characteristic produced is as follows: 1, The centre is drawn. The crack runs through the component cross section , the interval is equal on the whole , and is perpendicular to receiving the strength direction. While adopting the whorl reinforcing bar , lie in the second-class crack near the reinforcing bar between the cracks. 2, The centre is pressed. It is parallel on the short and dense parallel crack which receive the strength direction to appear along the component. 3, Receive curved. Most near the large section from border is it appear and draw into direction vertical crack to begin person who draw curved square, and develop toward neutralization axle gradually. While adopting the whorl reinforcing bar , can see shorter second-class crack among the cracks. When the structure matches muscles less, there are few but wide cracks, fragility destruction may take place in the
structure 4, Pressed big and partial. Heavy to press and mix person who draw muscle a less one light to pigeonhole into the component while being partial while being partial, similar to receiving the curved component. 5, Pressed small and partial. Small to press and mix person who draw muscle a more one heavy to pigeonhole into the component while being partial while being partial, similar to the centre and pressed the component. 6, Cut. Press obliquly when the hoop muscle is too dense and destroy, the oblique crack which is greater than 45?? direction appears along the belly of roof beam end; Is it is it is it destroy to press to cut to happen when the hoop muscle is proper, underpart is it invite 45?? direction parallel oblique crack each other to appear along roof beam end. 7, Sprained. Component one side belly appear many direction oblique crack, 45?? of treaty, first, and to launch with spiral direction being adjoint. 8, Washed and cut. 4 side is it invite 45?? direction inclined plane draw and split to take place along column cap board, form the tangent plane of washing. 9, Some and is pressed. Some to appear person who press direction roughly parallel large short cracks with pressure.
(2) crack caused in temperature change
The concrete has nature of expanding with heat and contract with cold, look on as the external environment condition or the structure temperature changes, concrete take place out of shape, if out of shape to restrain from, produce the stress in the structure, produce the temperature crack promptly when exceeding concrete tensile strength in stress. In some being heavy to step foot-path among the bridge , temperature stress can is it go beyond living year stress even to reach. The temperature crack distinguishes the main characteristic of other cracks will be varied with temperature and expanded or closed up. The main factor is as follows, to cause temperature and change 1, Annual difference in temperature. Temperature is changing constantly in four seasons in one year, but change relatively slowly, the impact on structure of the bridge is mainly the vertical displacement which causes the bridge, can prop up seat move or set up flexible mound ,etc. not to construct measure coordinate , through bridge floor expansion joint generally, can cause temperature crack only when the displacement of the structure is limited, for example arched bridge , just bridge etc. The annual difference in temperature of our country generally changes the
range with the conduct of the average temperature in the moon of January and July. Considering the creep characteristic of the concrete, the elastic mould amount of concrete should be considered rolling over and reducing when the internal force of the annual difference in temperature is calculated. 2, Rizhao. After being tanned by the sun by the sun to the side of bridge panel , the girder or the pier, temperature is obviously higher than other position, the temperature gradient is presented and distributed by the line shape . Because of restrain oneself function, cause part draw stress to be relatively heavy, the crack appears. Rizhao and following to is it cause structure common reason most , temperature of crack to lower the temperature suddenly 3, Lower the temperature suddenly. Fall heavy rain , cold air attack , sunset ,etc. can cause structure surface temperature suddenly dropped suddenly, but because inside temperature change relatively slow producing temperature gradient. Rizhao and lower the temperature internal force can adopt design specification or consult real bridge materials go on when calculating suddenly, concrete elastic mould amount does not consider converting into and reducing 4, Heat of hydration. Appear in the course of constructing, the large volume concrete (thickness exceeds 2. 0), after building because cement water send out heat, cause inside very much high temperature, the internal and external difference in temperature is too large, cause the surface to appear in the crack. Should according to actual conditions in constructing, is it choose heat of hydration low cement variety to try one's best, limit cement unit's consumption, reduce the aggregate and enter the temperature of the mould , reduce the internal and external difference in temperature, and lower the temperature slowly , can adopt the circulation cooling system to carry on the inside to dispel the heat in case of necessity, or adopt the thin layer and build it in succession in order to accelerate dispelling the heat. 5, The construction measure is improper at the time of steam maintenance or the winter construction , the concrete is sudden and cold and sudden and hot, internal and external temperature is uneven , apt to appear in the crack. 6, Prefabricate T roof beam horizontal baffle when the installation , prop up seat bury stencil plate with transfer flat stencil plate when welding in advance, if weld measure to be improper, iron pieces of nearby concrete easy to is it fracture to burn. Adopt electric heat piece draw law piece draw prestressing force at the component ,
prestressing force steel temperature can rise to 350 degrees Centigrade , the concrete component is apt to fracture. Experimental study indicates , are caused the intensity of concrete that the high temperature burns to obviously reduce with rising of temperature by such reasons as the fire ,etc., glueing forming the decline thereupon of strength of reinforcing bar and concrete, tensile strength drop by 50% after concrete temperature reaches 300 degrees Centigrade, compression strength drops by 60%, glueing the strength of forming to drop by 80% of only round reinforcing bar and concrete; Because heat, concrete body dissociate ink evaporate and can produce and shrink sharply in a large amount
(3) shrink the crack caused
In the actual project, it is the most common because concrete shrinks the crack caused. Shrink kind in concrete, plasticity shrink is it it shrinks (is it contract to do ) to be the main reason that the volume of concrete out of shape happens to shrink, shrink spontaneously in addition and the char shrink. Plasticity shrink. About 4 hours after it is built that in the course of constructing , concrete happens, the cement water response is fierce at this moment, the strand takes shape gradually, secrete water and moisture to evaporate sharply, the concrete desiccates and shrinks, it is at the same time conduct oneself with dignity not sinking because aggregate,so when harden concrete yet,it call plasticity shrink. The plasticity shrink producing amount grade is very big, can be up to about 1%. If stopped by the reinforcing bar while the aggregate sinks, form the crack along the reinforcing bar direction. If web , roof beam of T and roof beam of case and carry baseplate hand over office in component vertical to become sectional place, because sink too really to superficial obeying the web direction crack will happen evenly before hardenning. For reducing concrete plasticity shrink,it should control by water dust when being construct than,last long-time mixing, unloading should not too quick, is it is it take closely knit to smash to shake, vertical to become sectional place should divide layer build. Shrink and shrink (do and contract). After the concrete is formed hard , as the top layer moisture is evaporated progressively , the humidity is reduced progressively , the volume of concrete is reduced, is called and shrunk to shrink (do and contract). Because concrete top layer
moisture loss soon, it is slow for inside to lose, produce surface shrink heavy , inside shrink a light one even to shrink, it is out of shape to restrain from by the inside concrete for surface to shrink, cause the surface concrete to bear pulling force, when the surface concrete bears pulling force to exceed its tensile strength, produce and shrink the crack. The concrete hardens after-contraction to just shrink and shrink mainly .Such as mix muscle rate heavy component (exceed 3% ), between reinforcing bar and more obvious restraints relatively that concrete shrink, the concrete surface is apt to appear in the full of cracks crackle. Shrink spontaneously. Spontaneous to it shrinks to be concrete in the course of hardenning , cement and water take place ink react, the shrink with have nothing to do by external humidity, and can positive (whether shrink, such as ordinary portland cement concrete), can negative too (whether expand, such as concrete, concrete of slag cement and cement of fly ash). The char shrinks. Between carbon dioxide and hyrate of cement of atmosphere take place out of shape shrink that chemical reaction cause. The char shrinks and could happen only about 50% of humidity, and accelerate with increase of the density of the carbon dioxide. The char shrinks and seldom calculates . The characteristic that the concrete shrinks the crack is that the majority belongs to the surface crack, the crack is relatively detailed in width , and criss-cross, become the full of cracks form , the form does not have any law . Studies have shown , influence concrete shrink main factor of crack as follows, 1, Variety of cement , grade and consumption. Slag cement , quick-hardening cement , low-heat cement concrete contractivity are relatively high, ordinary cement , volcanic ash cement , alumina cement concrete contractivity are relatively low. Cement grade low in addition, unit volume consumption heavy rubing detailed degree heavy, then the concrete shrinks the more greatly, and shrink time is the longer. For example, in order to improve the intensity of the concrete , often adopt and increase the cement consumption method by force while constructing, the result shrinks the stress to obviously strengthen . 2, Variety of aggregate. Such absorbing water rates as the quartz , limestone , cloud rock , granite , feldspar ,etc. are smaller, contractivity is relatively low in the aggregate; And such absorbing water rates as the sandstone , slate , angle amphibolite ,etc. are greater, contractivity is relatively high. Aggregate grains of foot-path heavy to shrink light in
addition, water content big to shrink the larger. 3, Water gray than. The heavier water consumption is, the higher water and dust are, the concrete shrinks the more greatly. 4, Mix the pharmaceutical outside. It is the better to mix pharmaceutical water-retaining property outside, then the concrete shrinks the smaller. 5, Maintain the method . Water that good maintenance can accelerate the concrete reacts, obtain the intensity of higher concrete. Keep humidity high , low maintaining time to be the longer temperature when maintaining, then the concrete shrinks the smaller. Steam maintain way than maintain way concrete is it take light to shrink naturall. 6, External environment. The humidity is little, the air drying , temperature are high, the wind speed is large in the atmosphere, then the concrete moisture is evaporated fast, the concrete shrinks the faster. 7, Shake and smash the way and time. Machinery shake way of smashing than make firm by ramming or tamping way concrete contractivity take little by hand. Shaking should determine according to mechanical performance to smash time , are generally suitable for 55s / time. It is too short, shake and can not smash closely knit , it is insufficient or not even in intensity to form the concrete; It is too long, cause and divide storey, thick aggregate sinks to the ground floor, the upper strata that the detailed aggregate stays, the intensity is not even , the upper strata incident shrink the crack. And shrink the crack caused to temperature, worthy of constructing the reinforcing bar againing can obviously improve the resisting the splitting of concrete , structure of especially thin wall (thick 200cm of wall ). Mix muscle should is it adopt light diameter reinforcing bar (8 |? construct 14 |? ) to have priority , little interval assign (whether @ 10 construct @ 15cm ) on constructing, the whole section is it mix muscle to be rate unsuitable to be lower than 0 to construct. 3%, can generally adopt 0 . 3%~0. 5%.
(4), crack that causes out of shape of plinth of the ground
Because foundation vertical to even to subside or horizontal direction displacement, make the structure produce the additional stress, go beyond resisting the ability of drawing of concrete structure, cause the structure to fracture. The even main reason that subside of the foundation is as follows, 1, Reconnoitres the precision and is not enough for , test the materials inaccuratly in geology. Designing, constructing without fully grasping the geological situation, this is the main reason that cause the ground not to subside evenly .
Such as hills area or bridge, district of mountain ridge,, hole interval to be too far when reconnoitring, and ground rise and fall big the rock, reconnoitring the report can't fully reflect the real geological situation . 2, The geological difference of the ground is too large. Building it in the bridge of the valley of the ditch of mountain area, geology of the stream place and place on the hillside change larger, even there are weak grounds in the stream, because the soil of the ground does not causes and does not subside evenly with the compressing. 3, The structure loads the difference too big. Under the unanimous terms, when every foundation too heavy to load difference in geological situation, may cause evenly to subside, for example high to fill out soil case shape in the middle part of the culvert than to is it take heavy to load both sides, to subside soon heavy than both sides middle part, case is it might fracture to contain 4, The difference of basic type of structure is great. Unite it in the bridge the samly , mix and use and does not expand the foundation and a foundation with the foundation, or adopt a foundation when a foot-path or a long difference is great at the same time , or adopt the foundation of expanding when basis elevation is widely different at the same time , may cause the ground not to subside evenly too 5, Foundation built by stages. In the newly-built bridge near the foundation of original bridge, if the half a bridge about expressway built by stages, the newly-built bridge loads or the foundation causes the soil of the ground to consolidate again while dealing with, may cause and subside the foundation of original bridge greatly 6, The ground is frozen bloatedly. The ground soil of higher moisture content on terms that lower than zero degree expands because of being icy; Once temperature goes up , the frozen soil is melted, the setting of ground. So the ground is icy or melts causes and does not subside evenly . 7, Bridge foundation put on body, cave with stalactites and stalagmites, activity fault,etc. of coming down at the bad geology, may cause and does not subside evenly . 8, After the bridge is built up , the condition change of original ground . After most natural grounds and artificial grounds are soaked with water, especially usually fill out such soil of special ground as the soil , loess , expanding in the land ,etc., soil body intensity meet water drop, compress out of shape to strengthen. In the soft soil ground , season causes the water table to drop to draw water or arid artificially, the ground soil layer consolidates and sinks again,
reduce the buoyancy on the foundation at the same time , shouldering the obstruction of rubing to increase, the foundation is carried on one's shoulder or back and strengthened .Some bridge foundation is it put too shallow to bury, erode , is it dig to wash flood, the foundation might be moved. Ground load change of terms, bridge nearby is it is it abolish square , grit ,etc. in a large amount to put to pile with cave in , landslide ,etc. reason for instance, it is out of shape that the bridge location range soil layer may be compressed again. So, the condition of original ground change while using may cause and does not subside evenly Produce the structure thing of horizontal thrust to arched bridge ,etc., it is the main reason that horizontal displacement crack emerges to destroy the original geological condition when to that it is unreasonable to grasp incompletely , design and construct in the geological situation.
目录
桥梁裂缝产生原因浅析 (11)
一、荷载引起的裂缝 (11)
二、温度变化引起的裂缝 (13)
三、收缩引起的裂缝 (14)
四、地基础变形引起的裂缝 (15)
桥梁裂缝产生原因浅析
近年来，我省交通基础建设得到迅猛发展，各地兴建了大量的混凝土桥梁。在桥梁建造和使用过程中，有关因出现裂缝而影响工程质量甚至导桥梁垮塌的报道屡见不鲜。混凝土开裂可以说是“常发病”和“多发病”，经常困扰着桥梁工程技术人员。其实，如果采取一定的设计和施工措施，很多裂缝是可以克服和控制的。为了进一步加强对混凝土桥梁裂缝的认识，尽量避免工程中出现危害较大的裂缝，本文尽可能对混凝土桥梁裂缝的种类和产生的原因作较全面的分析、总结，以方便设计、施工找出控制裂缝的可行办法，达到防范于未然的作用。
混凝土桥梁裂缝种类、成因实际上，混凝土结构裂缝的成因复杂而繁多，甚至多种因素相互影响，但每一条裂缝均有其产生的一种或几种主要原因。混凝土桥梁裂缝的种类，就其产生的原因，大致可划分如下几种：
一、荷载引起的裂缝
混凝土桥梁在常规静、动荷载及次应力下产生的裂缝称荷载裂缝，归纳起来主要有直接应力裂缝、次应力裂缝两种。直接应力裂缝是指外荷载引起的直接应力产生的裂缝。裂缝产生的原因有： 1、设计计算阶段，结构计算时不计算或部分漏算；计算模型不合理；结构受力假设与实际受力不符；荷载少算或漏算；内力与配筋计算错误；结构安全系数不够。结构设计时不考虑施工的可能性；设计断面不足；钢筋设置偏少或布置错误；结构刚度不足；构造处理不当；设计图纸交代不清等。 2、施工阶段，不加限制地堆放施工机具、材料；不了解预制结构结构受力特点，随意翻身、起吊、运输、安装；不按设计图纸施工，擅自更改结构施工顺序，改变结构受力模式；不对结构做机器振动下的疲劳强度验算等。 3、使用阶段，超出设计载荷的重型车辆过桥；受车辆、船舶的接触、撞击；发生大风、大雪、地震、爆炸等。次应力裂缝是指由外荷载引起的次生应力产生裂缝。裂缝产生的原因有： 1、在设计外荷载作用下，由于结构物的实际工作状态同常规计算有出入或计算不考虑，从而在某些部位引起次应力导致结构开裂。例如两铰拱桥拱脚设计时常采用布置“X”形钢筋、同时削减该处断面尺寸的办法设计铰，理论计算该处不会存在弯矩，但实际该铰仍然能够抗弯，以至出现裂缝而导致钢筋锈蚀。 2、桥
梁结构中经常需要凿槽、开洞、设置牛腿等，在常规计算中难以用准确的图式进行模拟计算，一般根据经验设置受力钢筋。研究表明，受力构件挖孔后，力流将产生绕射现象，在孔洞附近密集，产生巨大的应力集中。在长跨预应力连续梁中，经常在跨内根据截面内力需要截断钢束，设置锚头，而在锚固断面附近经常可以看到裂缝。因此，若处理不当，在这些结构的转角处或构件形状突变处、受力钢筋截断处容易出现裂缝。实际工程中，次应力裂缝是产生荷载裂缝的最常见原因。次应力裂缝多属张拉、劈裂、剪切性质。次应力裂缝也是由荷载引起，仅是按常规一般不计算，但随着现代计算手段的不断完善，次应力裂缝也是可以做到合理验算的。例如现在对预应力、徐变等产生的二次应力，不少平面杆系有限元程序均可正确计算，但在40年前却比较困难。在设计上，应注意避免结构突变（或断面突变），当不能回避时，应做局部处理，如转角处做圆角，突变处做成渐变过渡，同时加强构造配筋，转角处增配斜向钢筋，对于较大孔洞有条件时可在周边设置护边角钢。荷载裂缝特征依荷载不同而异呈现不同的特点。这类裂缝多出现在受拉区、受剪区或振动严重部位。但必须指出，如果受压区出现起皮或有沿受压方向的短裂缝，往往是结构达到承载力极限的标志，是结构破坏的前兆，其原因往往是截面尺寸偏小。根据结构不同受力方式，产生的裂缝特征如下： 1、中心受拉。裂缝贯穿构件横截面，间距大体相等，且垂直于受力方向。采用螺纹钢筋时，裂缝之间出现位于钢筋附近的次裂缝。 2、中心受压。沿构件出现平行于受力方向的短而密的平行裂缝。 3、受弯。弯矩最大截面附近从受拉区边沿开始出现与受拉方向垂直的裂缝，并逐渐向中和轴方向发展。采用螺纹钢筋时，裂缝间可见较短的次裂缝。当结构配筋较少时，裂缝少而宽，结构可能发生脆性破坏。 4、大偏心受压。大偏心受压和受拉区配筋较少的小偏心受压构件，类似于受弯构件。 5、小偏心受压。小偏心受压和受拉区配筋较多的大偏心受压构件，类似于中心受压构件。 6、受剪。当箍筋太密时发生斜压破坏，沿梁端腹部出现大于45°方向的斜裂缝；当箍筋适当时发生剪压破坏，沿梁端中下部出现约45°方向相互平行的斜裂缝。 7、受扭。构件一侧腹部先出现多条约45°方向斜裂缝，并向相邻面以螺旋方向展开。 8、受冲切。沿柱头板内四侧发生约45°方向斜面拉裂，形成冲切面。 9、局部受压。在局部受压区出现与压力方向大致平行的多条短裂缝。
二、温度变化引起的裂缝
混凝土具有热胀冷缩性质，当外部环境或结构内部温度发生变化，混凝土将发生变形，若变形遭到约束，则在结构内将产生应力，当应力超过混凝土抗拉强度时即产生温度裂缝。在某些大跨径桥梁中，温度应力可以达到甚至超出活载应力。温度裂缝区别其它裂缝最主要特征是将随温度变化而扩张或合拢。引起温度变化主要因素有： 1、年温差。一年中四季温度不断变化，但变化相对缓慢，对桥梁结构的影响主要是导致桥梁的纵向位移，一般可通过桥面伸缩缝、支座位移或设置柔性墩等构造措施相协调，只有结构的位移受到限制时才会引起温度裂缝，例如拱桥、刚架桥等。我国年温差一般以一月和七月月平均温度的作为变化幅度。考虑到混凝土的蠕变特性，年温差内力计算时混凝土弹性模量应考虑折减。 2、日照。桥面板、主梁或桥墩侧面受太阳曝晒后，温度明显高于其它部位，温度梯度呈非线形分布。由于受到自身约束作用，导致局部拉应力较大，出现裂缝。日照和下述骤然降温是导致结构温度裂缝的最常见原因。 3、骤然降温。突降大雨、冷空气侵袭、日落等可导致结构外表面温度突然下降，但因内部温度变化相对较慢而产生温度梯度。日照和骤然降温内力计算时可采用设计规范或参考实桥资料进行，混凝土弹性模量不考虑折减。 4、水化热。出现在施工过程中，大体积混凝土（厚度超过2.0米）浇筑之后由于水泥水化放热，致使内部温度很高，内外温差太大，致使表面出现裂缝。施工中应根据实际情况，尽量选择水化热低的水泥品种，限制水泥单位用量，减少骨料入模温度，降低内外温差，并缓慢降温，必要时可采用循环冷却系统进行内部散热，或采用薄层连续浇筑以加快散热。 5、蒸汽养护或冬季施工时施工措施不当，混凝土骤冷骤热，内外温度不均，易出现裂缝。 6、预制T梁之间横隔板安装时，支座预埋钢板与调平钢板焊接时，若焊接措施不当，铁件附近混凝土容易烧伤开裂。采用电热张拉法张拉预应力构件时，预应力钢材温度可升高至350℃，混凝土构件也容易开裂。试验研究表明，由火灾等原因引起高温烧伤的混凝土强度随温度的升高而明显降低，钢筋与混凝土的粘结力随之下降，混凝土温度达到300℃后抗拉强度下降50%，抗压强度下降60%，光圆钢筋与混凝土的粘结力下降80%；由于受热，混凝土体内游离水大量蒸发也可产生急剧收缩。
三、收缩引起的裂缝
在实际工程中，混凝土因收缩所引起的裂缝是最常见的。在混凝土收缩种类中，塑性收缩和缩水收缩（干缩）是发生混凝土体积变形的主要原因，另外还有自生收缩和炭化收缩。塑性收缩。发生在施工过程中、混凝土浇筑后4~5小时左右，此时水泥水化反应激烈，分子链逐渐形成，出现泌水和水分急剧蒸发，混凝土失水收缩，同时骨料因自重下沉，因此时混凝土尚未硬化，称为塑性收缩。塑性收缩所产生量级很大，可达1%左右。在骨料下沉过程中若受到钢筋阻挡，便形成沿钢筋方向的裂缝。在构件竖向变截面处如T梁、箱梁腹板与顶底板交接处，因硬化前沉实不均匀将发生表面的顺腹板方向裂缝。为减小混凝土塑性收缩，施工时应控制水灰比，避免过长时间的搅拌，下料不宜太快，振捣要密实，竖向变截面处宜分层浇筑。缩水收缩（干缩）。混凝土结硬以后，随着表层水分逐步蒸发，湿度逐步降低，混凝土体积减小，称为缩水收缩（干缩）。因混凝土表层水分损失快，内部损失慢，因此产生表面收缩大、内部收缩小的不均匀收缩，表面收缩变形受到内部混凝土的约束，致使表面混凝土承受拉力，当表面混凝土承受拉力超过其抗拉强度时，便产生收缩裂缝。混凝土硬化后收缩主要就是缩水收缩。如配筋率较大的构件（超过3%），钢筋对混凝土收缩的约束比较明显，混凝土表面容易出现龟裂裂纹。自生收缩。自生收缩是混凝土在硬化过程中，水泥与水发生水化反应，这种收缩与外界湿度无关，且可以是正的（即收缩，如普通硅酸盐水泥混凝土），也可以是负的（即膨胀，如矿渣水泥混凝土与粉煤灰水泥混凝土）。炭化收缩。大气中的二氧化碳与水泥的水化物发生化学反应引起的收缩变形。炭化收缩只有在湿度50%左右才能发生，且随二氧化碳的浓度的增加而加快。炭化收缩一般不做计算。混凝土收缩裂缝的特点是大部分属表面裂缝，裂缝宽度较细，且纵横交错，成龟裂状，形状没有任何规律。研究表明，影响混凝土收缩裂缝的主要因素有： 1、水泥品种、标号及用量。矿渣水泥、快硬水泥、低热水泥混凝土收缩性较高，普通水泥、火山灰水泥、矾土水泥混凝土收缩性较低。另外水泥标号越低、单位体积用量越大、磨细度越大，则混凝土收缩越大，且发生收缩时间越长。例如，为了提高混凝土的强度，施工时经常采用强行增加水泥用量的做法，结果收缩应力明显加大。 2、骨料品种。骨料中石英、石灰岩、白云岩、花岗岩、长石等吸水率较小、收缩性较低；而砂岩、板岩、
角闪岩等吸水率较大、收缩性较高。另外骨料粒径大收缩小，含水量大收缩越大。
3、水灰比。用水量越大，水灰比越高，混凝土收缩越大。
4、外掺剂。外掺剂保水性越好，则混凝土收缩越小。
5、养护方法。良好的养护可加速混凝土的水化反应，获得较高的混凝土强度。养护时保持湿度越高、气温越低、养护时间越长，则混凝土收缩越小。蒸汽养护方式比自然养护方式混凝土收缩要小。
6、外界环境。大气中湿度小、空气干燥、温度高、风速大，则混凝土水分蒸发快，混凝土收缩越快。
7、振捣方式及时间。机械振捣方式比手工捣固方式混凝土收缩性要小。振捣时间应根据机械性能决定，一般以5~15s/次为宜。时间太短，振捣不密实，形成混凝土强度不足或不均匀；时间太长，造成分层，粗骨料沉入底层，细骨料留在上层，强度不均匀，上层易发生收缩裂缝。对于温度和收缩引起的裂缝，增配构造钢筋可明显提高混凝土的抗裂性，尤其是薄壁结（壁厚20~60cm）。构造上配筋宜优先采用小直径钢筋(φ8~φ14)、小间距布置(@10~@15cm)，全截面构造配筋率不宜低于
0.3%，一般可采用0.3%~0.5%。
四、地基础变形引起的裂缝
由于基础竖向不均匀沉降或水平方向位移，使结构中产生附加应力，超出混凝土结构的抗拉能力，导致结构开裂。基础不均匀沉降的主要原因有： 1、地质勘察精度不够、试验资料不准。在没有充分掌握地质情况就设计、施工，这是造成地基不均匀沉降的主要原因。比如丘陵区或山岭区桥梁，勘察时钻孔间距太远，而地基岩面起伏又大，勘察报告不能充分反映实际地质情况。 2、地基地质差异太大。建造在山区沟谷的桥梁，河沟处的地质与山坡处变化较大，河沟中甚至存在软弱地基，地基土由于不同压缩性引起不均匀沉降。 3、结构荷载差异太大。在地质情况比较一致条件下，各部分基础荷载差异太大时，有可能引起不均匀沉降，例如高填土箱形涵洞中部比两边的荷载要大，中部的沉降就要比两边大，箱涵可能开裂。 4、结构基础类型差别大。同一联桥梁中，混合使用不同基础如扩大基础和桩基础，或同时采用桩基础但桩径或桩长差别大时，或同时采用扩大基础但基底标高差异大时，也可能引起地基不均匀沉降。 5、分期建造的基础。在原有桥梁基础附近新建桥梁时，如分期修建的高速公路左右半幅桥梁，新建桥梁荷载或基础处理时引起地基土
重新固结，均可能对原有桥梁基础造成较大沉降。 6、地基冻胀。在低于零度的条件下含水率较高的地基土因冰冻膨胀；一旦温度回升，冻土融化，地基下沉。因此地基的冰冻或融化均可造成不均匀沉降。 7、桥梁基础置于滑坡体、溶洞或活动断层等不良地质时，可能造成不均匀沉降。 8、桥梁建成以后，原有地基条件变化。大多数天然地基和人工地基浸水后，尤其是素填土、黄土、膨胀土等特殊地基土，土体强度遇水下降，压缩变形加大。在软土地基中，因人工抽水或干旱季节导致地下水位下降，地基土层重新固结下沉，同时对基础的上浮力减小，负摩阻力增加，基础受荷加大。有些桥梁基础埋置过浅，受洪水冲刷、淘挖，基础可能位移。地面荷载条件的变化，如桥梁附近因塌方、山体滑坡等原因堆置大量废方、砂石等，桥址范围土层可能受压缩再次变形。因此，使用期间原有地基条件变化均可能造成不均匀沉降。对于拱桥等产生水平推力的结构物，对地质情况掌握不够、设计不合理和施工时破坏了原有地质条件是产生水平位移裂缝的主要原因。
浅谈复合剪力墙裂缝成因及治理措施 提要：复合剪力墙中因钢筋密集、混凝土截面很小，不能采用普通混凝土进行浇注，也不准采用振捣器进行插入式振捣。因此，采用设计强度等级的自密实高性能混凝土，该自密实混凝土应达到以下工作性能： 一、复合剪力墙混凝土现场施工工法及混凝土要求 复合剪力墙中因钢筋密集、混凝土截面很小，不能采用普通混凝土进行浇注，也不准采用振捣器进行插入式振捣。因此，采用设计强度等级的自密实高性能混凝土，该自密实混凝土应达到以下工作性能：塌落度：260~280mm；扩展度：600~750mm；和易性良好，无目视泌水、离析现象。 1、自密性混凝土材料要求无论采用商品混凝土还是现场搅拌混凝土，其材料应满足以下要求：胶结材料：水泥采用42.5的硅酸盐水泥、普通硅酸盐水泥、矿渣硅酸盐水泥。水泥的质量应符合现行的水泥国家标准。粗骨料：石子宜采用粒径为5~10mm，连续级配的卵石或碎石，并符合《普通混凝土用卵石或碎石质量标准及检验方法》（JGJ53—79）的标准。细骨料：砂子由于砂浆中砂子体积较大，宜选用细度模数较大的中砂（细度模数≥2.6），且符合《混凝土用砂质量标准及检验方法》（JGJ52¬—79）。水：采用洁净的引用水掺合料：自密性混凝土中应掺加Ⅰ、Ⅱ粉煤灰或磨细矿渣及少量膨胀剂等掺合料。掺合料使用前应做好适配，尽量使用需水比小的粉煤灰。外加剂：通常的减水剂达不到高性能混凝土要求的减水
程度及提高的工作性，一般需要加超塑化剂（或叫高效减水剂）。现在各生产厂家的产品性能差异性较大，因此用量也各不相同，但有研究表明，将不同厂家的产品（萘系高效减水剂）按比例混合使用，掺合后的产品各组分间的作用相互调节，发挥其各自的优势，可取到“超叠加效应”。除减水剂外，尚应根据工程实际情况适量掺加引气剂，早强剂（或缓凝剂），泵送剂。 2、混凝土浇筑复合剪力墙中的自密性混凝土宜按顺序浇筑。自密性混凝土适合于泵送（如用吊斗浇筑时，应使用料口和模板入口距离尽量小，必要时可加串筒或溜槽），及采用大开口漏斗浇筑以免较薄一侧产生混凝土不饱满状况。浇筑时，应及时观测两侧混凝土浆面高差，混凝土较薄的一侧应高于后侧上升，应控制在300mm以，防止保温层外侧移位。 3、混凝土的辅助振捣浇筑自密性混凝土起作用是不需要振捣因其钢筋密且有拉筋，为了达到墙体混凝土密实与表面光洁的目的，可以实行模板外的辅助振动。一般采用皮锤、小型平板震动器或振捣棒随着混凝土的浇筑从下往上震动。在钢筋构造复杂的暗柱或复合剪力墙中部，可在浇筑时采用螺纹钢筋进行适量插捣，插捣时不得触及拉筋，不准采用振捣棒入模振捣混凝土。 4、混凝土的养护复合剪力墙中的混凝土截面较薄，通常室外侧只有50mm。为了防止产生干缩裂缝，应在模板拆除后立即涂刷养护剂或覆盖浇水进行养护，且养护时间应比普通混凝土延长24小时以上。
桥梁裂缝产生原因浅析刘春桥 近年来，我省交通基础建设得到迅猛发展，各地兴建了大量的混凝土桥梁。在桥梁建造和使 用过程中，有关因出现裂缝而影响工程质量甚至导桥梁垮塌的报道屡见不鲜。混凝土开裂可 以说是“常发病”和“多发病”，经常困扰着桥梁工程技术人员。其实，如果采取一定的设计和 施工措施，很多裂缝是可以克服和控制的。为了进一步加强对混凝土桥梁裂缝的认识，尽量 避免工程中出现危害较大的裂缝，本文尽可能对混凝土桥梁裂缝的种类和产生的原因作较全 面的分析、总结，以方便设计、施工找出控制裂缝的可行办法，达到防范于未然的作用。 l 混凝土桥梁裂缝种类、成因 实际上，混凝土结构裂缝的成因复杂而繁多，甚至多种因素相互影响，但每一条裂缝均有其 产生的一种或几种主要原因。混凝土桥梁裂缝的种类，就其产生的原因，大致可划分如下几种： 一、荷载引起的裂缝 混凝土桥梁在常规静、动荷载及次应力下产生的裂缝称荷载裂缝，归纳起来主要有直接应力 裂缝、次应力裂缝两种。 直接应力裂缝是指外荷载引起的直接应力产生的裂缝。裂缝产生的原因有： 1、设计计算阶段，结构计算时不计算或部分漏算；计算模型不合理；结构受力假设与实际 受力不符；荷载少算或漏算；内力与配筋计算错误；结构安全系数不够。结构设计时不考虑 施工的可能性；设计断面不足；钢筋设置偏少或布置错误；结构刚度不足；构造处理不当； 设计图纸交代不清等。 2、施工阶段，不加限制地堆放施工机具、材料；不了解预制结构结构受力特点，随意翻身、起吊、运输、安装；不按设计图纸施工，擅自更改结构施工顺序，改变结构受力模式；不对 结构做机器振动下的疲劳强度验算等。 3、使用阶段，超出设计载荷的重型车辆过桥；受车辆、船舶的接触、撞击；发生大风、大雪、地震、爆炸等。 次应力裂缝是指由外荷载引起的次生应力产生裂缝。裂缝产生的原因有： 1、在设计外荷载作用下，由于结构物的实际工作状态同常规计算有出入或计算不考虑，从 而在某些部位引起次应力导致结构开裂。例如两铰拱桥拱脚设计时常采用布置“X”形钢筋、同时削减该处断面尺寸的办法设计铰，理论计算该处不会存在弯矩，但实际该铰仍然能够抗弯，以至出现裂缝而导致钢筋锈蚀。 2、桥梁结构中经常需要凿槽、开洞、设置牛腿等，在常规计算中难以用准确的图式进行模 拟计算，一般根据经验设置受力钢筋。研究表明，受力构件挖孔后，力流将产生绕射现象， 在孔洞附近密集，产生巨大的应力集中。在长跨预应力连续梁中，经常在跨内根据截面内力 需要截断钢束，设置锚头，而在锚固断面附近经常可以看到裂缝。因此，若处理不当，在这 些结构的转角处或构件形状突变处、受力钢筋截断处容易出现裂缝。 实际工程中，次应力裂缝是产生荷载裂缝的最常见原因。次应力裂缝多属张拉、劈裂、剪切 性质。次应力裂缝也是由荷载引起，仅是按常规一般不计算，但随着现代计算手段的不断完善，次应力裂缝也是可以做到合理验算的。例如现在对预应力、徐变等产生的二次应力，不 少平面杆系有限元程序均可正确计算，但在40年前却比较困难。在设计上，应注意避免结 构突变（或断面突变），当不能回避时，应做局部处理，如转角处做圆角，突变处做成渐变
桥梁施工裂缝产生原因分析 量甚至导桥梁垮塌的报道屡见不鲜。混凝土开裂可以说是常发病和多发病，经常困扰着桥梁工程技术人员。其实，如果采取一定的设计和施工措施，很多裂缝是可以克服和控制的。为了进一步加强对混凝土桥梁裂缝的认识，尽量避免工程中出现危害较大的裂缝，本文尽可能对混凝土桥梁裂缝的种类和产生的原因作较全面的分析、总结，以方便设计、施工找出控制裂缝的可行办法，达到防范于未然的作用。 混凝土桥梁裂缝种类、成因实际上，混凝土结构裂缝的成因复杂而繁多，甚至多种因素相互影响，但每一条裂缝均有其产生的一种或几种主要原因。混凝土桥梁裂缝的种类，就其产生的原因，大致可划分如下几种： 一、荷载引起的裂缝 混凝土桥梁在常规静、动荷载及次应力下产生的裂缝称荷载裂缝，归纳起来主要有直接应力裂缝、次应力裂缝两种。直接应力裂缝是指外荷载引起的直接应力产生的裂缝。裂缝产生的原因有： 1、设计计算阶段，结构计算时不计算或部分漏算；计算模型不合理；结构受力假设与实际受力不符；荷载少算或漏算；内力与配筋计算错误；结构安全系数不够。结构设计时不考虑施工的可能性；设计断面不足；钢筋设置偏少或布置错误；结构刚度不足；构造处理不当；设计图纸交代不清等。 2、施工阶段，不加限制地堆放施工机具、材料；不了解预制结构
结构受力特点，随意翻身、起吊、运输、安装；不按设计图纸施工，擅自更改结构施工顺序，改变结构受力模式；不对结构做机器振动下的疲劳强度验算等。 3、使用阶段，超出设计载荷的重型车辆过桥；受车辆、船舶的接触、撞击；发生大风、大雪、地震、爆炸等。次应力裂缝是指由外荷载引起的次生应力产生裂缝。裂缝产生的原因有： 1、在设计外荷载作用下，由于结构物的实际工作状态同常规计算有出入或计算不考虑，从而在某些部位引起次应力导致结构开裂。例如两桥拱脚设计时常？用布置X形钢筋、同时削减该处断面尺寸的办法设计铰，理论计算该处不会存在弯矩，但实际该铰仍然能够抗弯，以至出现裂缝而导致钚馐础？ 2、桥梁结构中经常需要凿槽、开洞、设置牛腿等，在常规计算中难以用准确的图式进行模拟计算，一般根据经验设置受力钢筋。研究表明，受力构件挖孔后，力流将产生绕射现象，在孔洞附近密集，产生巨大的应力集中。在长跨预应力连续梁中，经常在跨内根据截面内力需要截断钢束，设置锚头，而在锚固断面附近经常可以看到裂缝。因此，若处理不当，在这些结构的转角处或构件形状突变处、受力钢筋截断处容易出现裂缝。实际工程中，次应力裂缝是产生荷载裂缝的最常见原因。次应力裂缝多属张拉、劈裂、剪切性质。次应力裂缝也是由荷载引起，仅是按常规一般不计算，但随着现代计算手段的不断完善，次应力裂缝也是可以做到合理验算的。例如现在对预应力、徐变等产生的二次应力，不少平面杆系有限元程序均可正确计算，但在40年前却比较困难。在
桥梁工程毕业设计外文翻译箱梁
西南交通大学本科毕业设计（论文） 外文资料翻译 年级: 学号: 姓名: 专业: 指导老师:
6 月
外文资料原文： 13 Box girders 13.1 General The box girder is the most ?exible bridge deck form. It can cover a range of spans from25 m up to the largest non-suspended concrete decks built, of the order of 300 m. Single box girders may also carry decks up to 30 m wide. For the longer span beams, beyond about 50 m, they are practically the only feasible deck section. For the shorter spans they are in competition with most of the other deck types discussed in this book. The advantages of the box form are principally its high structural ef?ciency (5.4), which minimises the prestress force required to resist a given bending moment, and its great torsional strength with the capacity this gives to re-centre eccentric live loads, minimising the prestress required to carry them.
外文出处： 《Exploiting Software How to Break Code》By Greg Hoglund, Gary McGraw Publisher : Addison Wesley Pub Date : February 17, 2004 ISBN : 0-201-78695-8 译文标题： JDBC接口技术 译文： JDBC是一种可用于执行SQL语句的JavaAPI（ApplicationProgrammingInterface应用程序设计接口）。它由一些Java语言编写的类和界面组成。JDBC为数据库应用开发人员、数据库前台工具开发人员提供了一种标准的应用程序设计接口，使开发人员可以用纯Java语言编写完整的数据库应用程序。 一、ODBC到JDBC的发展历程 说到JDBC，很容易让人联想到另一个十分熟悉的字眼“ODBC”。它们之间有没有联系呢？如果有，那么它们之间又是怎样的关系呢？ ODBC是OpenDatabaseConnectivity的英文简写。它是一种用来在相关或不相关的数据库管理系统（DBMS）中存取数据的，用C语言实现的，标准应用程序数据接口。通过ODBCAPI，应用程序可以存取保存在多种不同数据库管理系统（DBMS）中的数据，而不论每个DBMS使用了何种数据存储格式和编程接口。 1．ODBC的结构模型 ODBC的结构包括四个主要部分：应用程序接口、驱动器管理器、数据库驱动器和数据源。应用程序接口：屏蔽不同的ODBC数据库驱动器之间函数调用的差别，为用户提供统一的SQL编程接口。 驱动器管理器：为应用程序装载数据库驱动器。 数据库驱动器：实现ODBC的函数调用，提供对特定数据源的SQL请求。如果需要，数据库驱动器将修改应用程序的请求，使得请求符合相关的DBMS所支持的文法。 数据源：由用户想要存取的数据以及与它相关的操作系统、DBMS和用于访问DBMS的网络平台组成。 虽然ODBC驱动器管理器的主要目的是加载数据库驱动器，以便ODBC函数调用，但是数据库驱动器本身也执行ODBC函数调用，并与数据库相互配合。因此当应用系统发出调用与数据源进行连接时，数据库驱动器能管理通信协议。当建立起与数据源的连接时，数据库驱动器便能处理应用系统向DBMS发出的请求，对分析或发自数据源的设计进行必要的翻译，并将结果返回给应用系统。 2．JDBC的诞生 自从Java语言于1995年5月正式公布以来，Java风靡全球。出现大量的用java语言编写的程序，其中也包括数据库应用程序。由于没有一个Java语言的API，编程人员不得不在Java程序中加入C语言的ODBC函数调用。这就使很多Java的优秀特性无法充分发挥，比如平台无关性、面向对象特性等。随着越来越多的编程人员对Java语言的日益喜爱，越来越多的公司在Java程序开发上投入的精力日益增加，对java语言接口的访问数据库的API 的要求越来越强烈。也由于ODBC的有其不足之处，比如它并不容易使用，没有面向对象的特性等等，SUN公司决定开发一Java语言为接口的数据库应用程序开发接口。在JDK1．x 版本中，JDBC只是一个可选部件，到了JDK1．1公布时，SQL类包（也就是JDBCAPI）
一、外保温产生裂缝的原因及治理 1、现象：苯板面层出现可见的裂缝，形状不规则，互不连通，裂缝宽度在0.5mm以下，多出现在施工2个月以后，经过一年后裂缝宽度会超过1mm。 2、原因分析： 1）材料方面： ①材料密度低，易变形，抗拉性能差，使保温层开裂； ②材料陈化时间不够，在苯板粘贴完成后仍在变形； ③抹面砂浆与聚苯板的导热系数相差较大，面层变形出现的量差较大，引起开裂； ④底胶粘结性能不满足要求，苯板固定不牢，引起开裂； ⑤抗裂砂浆内聚合物柔韧性能低； ⑥使用了不合格的玻璃纤维网格布，易断裂，不能有效的分散应力； ⑦涂料饰面层使用了刚性腻子，柔韧性能不够，引起开裂。 2）施工措施方面： ①基层不平整、不清洁； ②胀丝深度不足，数量不够； ③粘结面积小； ④网格布搭接长度不足； ⑤门窗洞口四角处附加网格布未设置； ⑥高温气候下施工，面层失水过快，引起开裂。
3、防治措施： 1）材料方面：苯板密度控制在18-22kg，抗拉强度要大于0.1MPa，陈化时间在自然条件下陈化42天或在60℃蒸汽中陈化5天，玻璃纤维抗拉强度值不得小于750N/50mm，底胶拉伸强度不得小于0.6MPa，浸水48小时后不得小于0.4MPa。 2）施工工艺方面： ①基层处理应到位； ②苯板粘贴采用点粘或框粘时实际粘结面积不得小于40％，竖缝应逐行错开，门窗洞口四角处必须采用“刀把”形做法，墙角处应交错互锁； ③面胶施工前应检查苯板是否粘贴牢固，一般在贴后24h方可进行抹面，面胶应随拌随用，且必须在1.5h内用完，抹面层应二次抹成，一层，压网，二层，网格布在规定的部位必须进行翻包，网格布搭接长度均不得小于100mm，严禁出现网格布松弛不紧，褶皱。 二、混凝土产生裂缝的原因及治理 原因分析：工程实践应用表明，裂缝形成的主要原因来自3个方面，变形、荷载以及材料性质。一般由温度、收缩、不均匀沉降引起的变形而造成裂缝产生占总量的80％，荷载等原因造成的裂缝约占20％，根据这些主要因素，一般习惯把混凝土裂缝总结归纳为：收缩裂缝、温度裂缝、沉降裂缝、徐变裂缝、应力裂缝以及施工裂缝几类。裂缝一旦出现后将会随着时间的变化而变化，其宽度、深度、形状可能会
桥梁裂缝产生原因浅析及处理 摘要：本文论述了公路混凝土桥梁裂缝的情况，分析裂缝原因，建议处理方法。 关键词：公路混凝土桥梁裂缝原因 abstract: this paper discusses the situation of highway concrete bridge cracks, analyzes the causes, and proposes the processing methods. key words: highway concrete bridge; cause of crack 中图分类号：u445文献标识码：a 文章编号：2095-2104（2012）引言 近年来，我省交通基础建设得到迅猛发展，各地兴建了大量的混凝土桥梁。在桥梁建造和使用过程中，有关因出现裂缝而影响工程质量甚至导桥梁垮塌的报道屡见不鲜。混凝土开裂可以说是“常发病”和“多发病”，经常困扰着桥梁工程技术人员。其实，如果采取一定的设计和施工措施，很多裂缝是可以克服和控制的。为了进一步加强对混凝土桥梁裂缝的认识，尽量避免工程中出现危害较大的裂缝，本文尽可能对混凝土桥梁裂缝的种类和产生的原因作较全面的分析、总结，以方便设计、施工找出控制裂缝的可行办法，达到防范于未然的作用。一、裂缝原因分析 （一）混凝土结构结硬过程的裂缝 混凝土浇筑之后强度变化很大程度取决于周围气候环境和混凝土
结硬时出现的水化热。此时，混凝土抗拉强度较低，容易出现收缩和温度裂缝。 1、收缩裂缝 混凝土结硬时表面水蒸发干燥逐步由表面扩展到内部，在混凝土内呈现含水梯度，表面收缩大、而内部收缩小，出现内、外收缩差，混凝土表面受拉，内部受压，当表面混凝土拉力超过混凝土抗拉强度时，便产生收缩裂缝。 2、温度裂缝 混凝土结硬过程产生水热化、受阳光照射、大气及周围环境温度、电焊等因素影响而出现冷热变化。而引起温度应力，当温度应力超过混凝土抗拉强度时，即产生温度裂缝。 （二）使用阶段的裂缝 为了承受荷载作用而布置的预应力钢束和钢筋是合理的，那么裂缝是可以防止和控制在允许的范围。但以下裂缝与荷载作用有直接关系。弯曲裂缝；剪切裂缝；扭曲裂缝；断开裂缝；局部应力裂缝； 二、改进措施 （一）设计方面 1、结构尺寸要合理 2、要保证竖向预应力的有效性 3、要合理的布置构造钢筋 4、要注意温度的影响
附录A 英文文献 Drive Axle All vehicles have some type of drive axle/differential assembly incorporated into the driveline. Whether it is front, rear or four wheel drive, differentials are necessary for the smooth application of engine power to the road. Powerflow The drive axle must transmit power through a 90°angle. The flow of power in conventional front engine/rear wheel drive vehicles moves from the engine to the drive axle in approximately a straight line. However, at the drive axle, the power must be turned at right angles (from the line of the driveshaft) and directed to the drive wheels. This is accomplished by a pinion drive gear, which turns a circular ring gear. The ring gear is attached to a differential housing, containing a set of smaller gears that are splined to the inner end of each axle shaft. As the housing is rotated, the internal differential gears turn the axle shafts, which are also attached to the drive wheels. Rear-wheel drive Rear-wheel-drive vehicles are mostly trucks, very large sedans and many sports car and coupe models. The typical rear wheel drive vehicle uses a front mounted engine and transmission assemblies with a driveshaft coupling the transmission to the rear drive axle. Drive in through the layout of the bridge, the bridge drive shaft arranged vertically in the same vertical plane, and not the drive axle shaft, respectively, in their own sub-actuator with a direct connection, but the actuator is located at the front or the back of the adjacent shaft
外文翻译 专业机械设计制造及其自动化学生姓名刘链柱 班级机制111 学号1110101102 指导教师葛友华
外文资料名称： Design and performance evaluation of vacuum cleaners using cyclone technology 外文资料出处：Korean J. Chem. Eng., 23(6), (用外文写) 925-930 (2006) 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文 2.外文原文
应用旋风技术真空吸尘器的设计和性能介绍 吉尔泰金，洪城铱昌，宰瑾李， 刘链柱译 摘要：旋风型分离器技术用于真空吸尘器 - 轴向进流旋风和切向进气道流旋风有效地收集粉尘和降低压力降已被实验研究。优化设计等因素作为集尘效率，压降，并切成尺寸被粒度对应于分级收集的50％的效率进行了研究。颗粒切成大小降低入口面积，体直径，减小涡取景器直径的旋风。切向入口的双流量气旋具有良好的性能考虑的350毫米汞柱的低压降和为1.5μm的质量中位直径在1米3的流量的截止尺寸。一使用切向入口的双流量旋风吸尘器示出了势是一种有效的方法，用于收集在家庭中产生的粉尘。 摘要及关键词：吸尘器; 粉尘; 旋风分离器 引言 我们这个时代的很大一部分都花在了房子，工作场所，或其他建筑，因此，室内空间应该是既舒适情绪和卫生。但室内空气中含有超过室外空气因气密性的二次污染物，毒物，食品气味。这是通过使用产生在建筑中的新材料和设备。真空吸尘器为代表的家电去除有害物质从地板到地毯所用的商用真空吸尘器房子由纸过滤，预过滤器和排气过滤器通过洁净的空气排放到大气中。虽然真空吸尘器是方便在使用中，吸入压力下降说唱空转成比例地清洗的时间，以及纸过滤器也应定期更换，由于压力下降，气味和细菌通过纸过滤器内的残留粉尘。 图1示出了大气气溶胶的粒度分布通常是双峰形，在粗颗粒（>2.0微米）模式为主要的外部来源，如风吹尘，海盐喷雾，火山，从工厂直接排放和车辆废气排放，以及那些在细颗粒模式包括燃烧或光化学反应。表1显示模式，典型的大气航空的直径和质量浓度溶胶被许多研究者测量。精细模式在0.18?0.36 在5.7到25微米尺寸范围微米尺寸范围。质量浓度为2?205微克，可直接在大气气溶胶和 3.85至36.3μg/m3柴油气溶胶。
钢筋混凝土梁裂缝？ ？ 钢筋混凝土梁是目前多种形式的工业与民用建筑中最常用的构件，在实际施工及使用中出现裂缝的形式也最多最常见，现对实际工程中所涉及的裂缝及其原因进行简要分析。？ ？ 一、裂缝成因？ 钢筋砼梁出现裂缝的原因很复杂，主要有材料或气候因素、施工不当、设计和施工错误、改变使用功能或使用不合理等，通常可归纳为以下几种：？ 1．混凝土尚处于未完全硬化状态时，如干燥过快，则产生收缩裂缝，通常发生在表面上，裂缝不规则，宽度小。？ 2．温变裂缝。水泥在硬化期间，砼表面与内部温差较大，导致砼表面急剧的温度变化而产生较大的降温收缩，受到内部砼的约束，而出现裂缝。？ 3．设计欠周全。如钢筋砼梁的截面不够、梁的跨度过大、高度偏小，或者由于
计算错误，受力钢筋截面偏小、配筋位置不当、节点不合理等，都会导致砼梁出现结构裂缝。？ 4．施工质量造成的裂缝。由于砼标号偏低、受力钢筋截面偏小、截面尺寸不符合设计等而导致砼梁出现裂缝；由于施工不当、模板支撑下沉，或过早拆除底模和支撑等形成的裂缝；施工控制不严，在梁上超载堆荷，而导致出现裂缝。？ 5．预制钢砼梁在运输、吊装过程中，由于支撑不合理、吊点位置不符以及较大的振动或冲击荷载，也会导致钢砼梁出现裂缝。？ 6．在使用过程中，改变原来使用功能，将办公室改为仓库、屋面加层、使用不当、增大梁上荷载等均会出现裂缝。？ ？ 二、裂缝的处理？ 根据裂缝的成因情况，可将裂缝分为两种类型：一类是由于材料、气候等造成的一般塑性收缩裂缝、干缩裂缝等。这类裂缝一般对承载力影响较小，可作一般处理或不处理；另一类裂缝明显影响了梁的承载能力，随着裂缝的扩展和延伸，钢筋达到屈服强度，受压区砼应变量增大，梁刚度大大降低，构件趋向破坏。此类
毕业设计（论文） 外文翻译 题目西安市水源工程中的 水电站设计 专业水利水电工程 班级 学生 指导教师 2016年
研究钢弧形闸门的动态稳定性 牛志国 河海大学水利水电工程学院，中国南京，邮编210098 nzg_197901@https://www.doczj.com/doc/6c7243752.html,，niuzhiguo@https://www.doczj.com/doc/6c7243752.html, 李同春 河海大学水利水电工程学院，中国南京，邮编210098 ltchhu@https://www.doczj.com/doc/6c7243752.html, 摘要 由于钢弧形闸门的结构特征和弹力，调查对参数共振的弧形闸门的臂一直是研究领域的热点话题弧形弧形闸门的动力稳定性。在这个论文中，简化空间框架作为分析模型，根据弹性体薄壁结构的扰动方程和梁单元模型和薄壁结构的梁单元模型，动态不稳定区域的弧形闸门可以通过有限元的方法，应用有限元的方法计算动态不稳定性的主要区域的弧形弧形闸门工作。此外，结合物理和数值模型，对识别新方法的参数共振钢弧形闸门提出了调查，本文不仅是重要的改进弧形闸门的参数振动的计算方法，但也为进一步研究弧形弧形闸门结构的动态稳定性打下了坚实的基础。 简介 低举升力，没有门槽，好流型，和操作方便等优点，使钢弧形闸门已经广泛应用于水工建筑物。弧形闸门的结构特点是液压完全作用于弧形闸门，通过门叶和主大梁，所以弧形闸门臂是主要的组件确保弧形闸门安全操作。如果周期性轴向载荷作用于手臂，手臂的不稳定是在一定条件下可能发生。调查指出:在弧形闸门的20次事故中，除了极特殊的破坏情况下，弧形闸门的破坏的原因是弧形闸门臂的不稳定;此外，明显的动态作用下发生破坏。例如:张山闸，位于中国的江苏省，包括36个弧形闸门。当一个弧形闸门打开放水时，门被破坏了，而其他弧形闸门则关闭，受到静态静水压力仍然是一样的，很明显，一个动态的加载是造成的弧形闸门破坏一个主要因素。因此弧形闸门臂的动态不稳定是造成弧形闸门(特别是低水头的弧形闸门)破坏的主要原是毫无疑问。
主体结构裂缝产生的原因分析 一、原因分析： 1、原材料原因：①混凝土原材料砂石级配不合理，使用粉砂过多或含泥量大；②、使用过期水泥或水泥安定性不稳定，含有生石灰或氧化镁；③、混凝土和易性、粘聚性、保水性、流动性差，产生离析； 2、基层处理不到位：①基层太干燥，浇筑前未洒水湿润，砼失水过快；②、模板拼接处缝隙大、漏浆。 3、模板架体刚度不足：①、立杆间距过大，未验算架体刚度、强度、整体稳定性；②、立杆下端未设置垫板或垫板强度不足；③、扫地杆、拦腰杆、扫天杆、剪刀撑未严格按照审批过的方案布置；④、顶丝强度不足或滑丝；⑤、方木间距大、排布稀疏、悬挑端过长。 4、后浇带：①后浇带支撑体系未独立设置，随顶板同步拆除，而悬挑部位仍承受上部施工荷载；虽有回顶措施，但后浇带悬挑部位已受扰动，造成不可修复损伤。②后浇带接茬处理不到位，未剔凿松散混凝土及涂刷界面剂；③、后浇带混凝土未按设计施工，未使用微膨胀混凝土或提高一个标高。 5、楼板厚度不符合图纸设计要求：①、支模顶板标高比设计高，造成截面减小；②、顶板控制标高错误，比设计标高低；③、混凝土浇筑时线绳未绷紧，线绳中间段下躺。 6、线管排布密集或保护层不足：①、管线布局不合理，局部集中布置密集；②、板内预埋线管未居中放置，超出板中1/3范围，过与贴近模板或砼上表面；③、线管上部无负筋时未按要求布置钢筋网片。 7、钢筋移位、钢筋保护层过大或过小：①、钢筋垫块少或施工中垫块脱落；②、施工中钢筋受扰动未及时恢复到位。 8、砼塌落度过大或浇筑过程中加水：①、砼配制不合理，浆多料少，水灰比大、塌落度大；②、砼罐车等待时间过长或混凝土塌落度小，浇灌中私自加水稀释；③、收面不及时，表面已干硬，私自洒水。 9、振捣不到位：①、过度振捣使粗骨料下沉，表面形成砂浆层；②、振捣不密实或漏振。 10、收面工艺不规范：①、未原浆收面，私自洒水泥收面；②、表面过度抹压，面层浮浆大。 11、养护不到位：①、砼收面完成后未及时覆膜；②、养护不及时，表面失水过快。 12、模板架体拆除过早：①、未严格执行拆模报验手续，同样试块未达到规范要求强度，私自拆除架体； ②、墙柱侧模拆除时，私自拆除扫地杆或拦腰杆，使架体整体稳定性受扰动； 13、上荷载过早：①、新浇混凝土未达到终凝期就开始上人施工作业；②、重型材料未分散放置；③、材料吊运未避开客厅等大开间区域。 14、基础不均匀沉降：①、架体支撑底端回填土未夯实或受水浸泡下沉；②、架体支撑基础不均匀沉降。 15、温差因素：①、构件内外温差大，保温措施不到位；②、大体积混凝土温控措施及原材料控制不到位。
浅析桥梁裂缝产生原因 混凝土桥梁裂缝种类、成因复杂而繁多，各种因素相互影响作用。已经成为桥梁设计、施工中急待解决的问题。 标签：荷载温度变化基础变形施工工艺质量 一、概述 近年來，我省交通基础建设得到迅猛发展，各地兴建了大量的混凝土桥梁。在桥梁建造和使用过程中，有关因出现裂缝而影响工程质量屡见不鲜。混凝土开裂可以说是“常发病”和“多发病”，经常困扰着桥梁工程技术人员。其实，如果采取一定的设计和施工措施，很多裂缝是可以克服和控制的。 二、分析原因 实际上，混凝土结构裂缝的成因复杂而繁多，甚至多种因素相互影响，但每一条裂缝均有其产生的一种或几种主要原因。混凝土桥梁裂缝的种类，就其产生的原因，大致可划分如下几种： (一)荷载引起的裂缝 混凝土桥梁在常规静、动荷载及次应力下产生的裂缝称荷载裂缝，归纳起来主要有直接应力裂缝、次应力裂缝两种。 直接应力裂缝是指外荷载引起的直接应力产生的裂缝。产生的原因有： 1、设计计算阶段，结构计算时不计算或部分漏算；计算模型不合理，结构受力假设与实际受力不符；荷载少算或漏算；内力与配筋计算错误；结构安全系数不够。结构设计时不考虑施工的可能性；设计断面不足；钢筋设置偏少或布置错误；结构刚度不足；构造处理不当；设计图纸交代不清等。 2、施工阶段，不加限制地堆放施工机具、材料；不了解预制结构受力特点，随意翻身、起吊、运输、安装；不按设计图纸施工，擅自更改结构施工顺序，改变结构受力模式；不对结构做机器振动下的疲劳强度验算等。 3、使用阶段，超出设计载荷的重型车辆过桥；受车辆、船舶的接触、撞击；发生大风、大雪、地震、爆炸等。 次应力裂缝是指由外荷载引起的次生应力产生裂缝。产生的原因有： 1、在设计外荷载作用下，由于结构物的实际工作状态同常规计算有出入或计算不考虑，从而在某些部位引起次应力导致结构开裂。例如两铰拱桥拱脚设计
毕业设计/论文 外文文献翻译 院系城市建设学院 专业班级 姓名 原文出处 评分 指导教师 华中科技大学武昌分校 20 12 年3月1日
Study on nonlinear analysis of a redundant cable-stayed bridge 1．Abstract A comparison on nonlinear analysis of a highly redundant cable-stayed bridge is performed in the study. The initial shapes including geometry and prestress distribution of the bridge are determined by using a two-loop iteration method, it is an equilibrium iteration loop and a shape iteration loop. For the initial shape analysis a linear and a nonlinear computation procedure are set up. In the former all nonlinearities of cable-stayed bridges are disregarded, and the shape iteration is carried out without considering equilibrium. In the latter all nonlinearities of the bridges are taken into consideration and both the equilibrium and the shape iteration are carried out. Based on the convergent initial shapes determined by the different procedures, the natural frequencies and vibration modes are then examined in details. Numerical results show that a convergent initial shape can be found rapidly by the two-loop iteration method, a reasonable initial shape can be determined by using the linear computation procedure, and a lot of computation efforts can thus be saved. There are only small differences in geometry and prestress distribution between the results determined by linear and nonlinear computation procedures. However, for the analysis of natural frequency and vibration modes, significant differences in the fundamental frequencies and vibration modes will occur, and the nonlinearities of the cable-stayed bridge response appear only in the modes determined on basis of the initial shape found by the nonlinear computation. 2. Introduction Rapid progress in the analysis and construction of cable-stayed bridges has been made over the last three decades. The progress is mainly due to developments in the fields of computer technology, high strength steel cables, orthotropic steel decks and construction technology. Since the first modern cable-stayed bridge was built in Sweden in 1955, their popularity has rapidly been increasing all over the world. Because of its aesthetic appeal, economic grounds and ease of erection, the
毕业设计（论文） 外文文献翻译 题目：A new constructing auxiliary function method for global optimization 学院： 专业名称： 学号： 学生姓名： 指导教师： 2014年2月14日
一个新的辅助函数的构造方法的全局优化 Jiang-She Zhang，Yong-Jun Wang https://www.doczj.com/doc/6c7243752.html,/10.1016/j.mcm.2007.08.007 非线性函数优化问题中具有许多局部极小，在他们的搜索空间中的应用，如工程设计，分子生物学是广泛的，和神经网络训练．虽然现有的传统的方法，如最速下降方法，牛顿法，拟牛顿方法，信赖域方法，共轭梯度法，收敛迅速，可以找到解决方案，为高精度的连续可微函数，这在很大程度上依赖于初始点和最终的全局解的质量很难保证．在全局优化中存在的困难阻碍了许多学科的进一步发展．因此，全局优化通常成为一个具有挑战性的计算任务的研究． 一般来说，设计一个全局优化算法是由两个原因造成的困难：一是如何确定所得到的最小是全球性的（当时全球最小的是事先不知道），和其他的是，如何从中获得一个更好的最小跳．对第一个问题，一个停止规则称为贝叶斯终止条件已被报道．许多最近提出的算法的目标是在处理第二个问题．一般来说，这些方法可以被类?主要分两大类，即：（一）确定的方法，及（ii）的随机方法．随机的方法是基于生物或统计物理学，它跳到当地的最低使用基于概率的方法．这些方法包括遗传算法（GA），模拟退火法（SA）和粒子群优化算法（PSO）．虽然这些方法有其用途，它们往往收敛速度慢和寻找更高精度的解决方案是耗费时间．他们更容易实现和解决组合优化问题．然而，确定性方法如填充函数法，盾构法，等，收敛迅速，具有较高的精度，通常可以找到一个解决方案．这些方法往往依赖于修改目标函数的函数“少”或“低”局部极小，比原来的目标函数，并设计算法来减少该?ED功能逃离局部极小更好的发现． 引用确定性算法中，扩散方程法，有效能量的方法，和积分变换方法近似的原始目标函数的粗结构由一组平滑函数的极小的“少”．这些方法通过修改目标函数的原始目标函数的积分．这样的集成是实现太贵，和辅助功能的最终解决必须追溯到
热裂纹和冷裂纹产生的原因 一、热裂纹的特征 热裂纹常发生在焊缝区，在焊缝结晶过程中产生的叫结晶裂纹，也有发生在热影响区中，在加热到过热温度时，晶间低熔点杂质发生熔化，产生裂纹，叫液化裂纹。 特征：沿晶界开裂（故又称晶间裂纹），断口表面有氧化色。 （2）热裂纹产生原因： ①晶间存在液态间层 焊缝：存在低熔点杂质偏析} 形成液态间层 热影响区：过热区晶界存在低熔点杂质 ②存在焊接拉应力 （3）热裂纹的防止措施： ①限制钢材和焊材的低熔点杂质，如S、P含量。 ②控制焊接规范，适当提高焊缝成形系数（即焊道的宽度与计算厚度之比）枣焊缝成形系数太小，易形成中心线偏析，易产生热裂纹。 ③调整焊缝化学成分，避免低熔点共晶物；缩小结晶温度范围，改善焊缝组织，细化焊缝晶粒，提高塑性，减少偏析。 ④减少焊接拉应力 ⑤操作上填满弧坑
二、冷裂纹的形态和特征 焊缝区和热影响区都可能产生冷裂纹，常见冷裂纹形态有三种 冷裂纹形态{ 焊道下裂纹：在焊道下的热影响区内形成的焊接冷裂纹，常平行于熔合线发展 焊指裂纹：沿应力集中的焊址处形成的冷裂纹，在热影响内扩展 焊根裂纹：沿应力集中的焊缝根部所形成的冷裂纹，向焊缝或热影响发展 a-焊道下裂纹；b-焊趾裂纹；c-焊根裂纹 特征：无分支、穿晶开裂、断口表面无氧化色。 最主要、最常见的冷裂纹为延迟裂纹（即在焊后延迟一段时间才发生的裂纹------- 因为氢是最活跃的诱发因素，而氢在金属中扩散、聚集和诱发裂纹需要一定的时间）。（2）延迟裂纹的产生原因 ①焊接接头存在淬硬组织，性能脆化。 ②扩散氢含量较高，使接头性能脆化，并聚集在焊接缺陷处形成大量氢分子，造成非常大的局部压力。（氢是诱发延迟裂纹的最活跃因素，故有人将延迟裂纹又称氢致裂纹） ③存在较大的焊接拉应力 （3）防止延迟裂纹的措施 ①选用碱性焊条，减少焊缝金属中氢含量、提高焊缝金属塑性 ②减少氢来源枣焊材要烘干，接头要清洁（无油、无锈、无水） ③避免产生淬硬组织枣焊前预热、焊后缓冷（可以降低焊后冷却速度） ④降低焊接应力枣采用合理的工艺规范，焊后热处理等 ⑤焊后立即进行消氢处理（即加热到250℃，保温2～6左右，使焊缝金属中的扩散氢逸出金属表面）。
外文文献原文 The bridge crack produced the reason to simply analyse In recent years, the traffic capital construction of our province gets swift and violent development, all parts have built a large number of concrete bridges. In the course of building and using in the bridge, relevant to influence project quality lead of common occurrence report that bridge collapse even because the crack appears The concrete can be said to " often have illness coming on " while fracturing and " frequently-occurring disease ", often perplex bridge engineers and technicians. In fact , if take certain design and construction measure, a lot of cracks can be overcome and controlled. For strengthen understanding of concrete bridge crack further, is it prevent project from endanger larger crack to try one's best, this text make an more overall analysis , summary to concrete kind and reason of production , bridge of crack as much as possible, in order to design , construct and find out the feasible method which control the crack , get the result of taking precautions against Yu WeiRan. Concrete bridge crack kind, origin cause of formation In fact, the origin cause of formation of the concrete structure crack is complicated and various, even many kinds of factors influence each other , but every crack has its one or several kinds of main reasons produced . The kind of the concrete bridge crack, on its reason to produce, can roughly divide several kinds as follows : (1) load the crack caused Concrete in routine quiet . Is it load to move and crack that produce claim to load the crack under the times of stress bridge, summing up has direct stress cracks , two kinds stress crack onces mainly. Direct stress crack refer to outside load direct crack that stress produce that cause. The reason why the crack produces is as follows, 1, Design the stage of calculating , does not calculate or leaks and calculates partly while calculating in structure; Calculate the model is unreasonable; The structure is supposed and accorded with by strength actually by strength ; Load and calculate or leak and calculate few; Internal force and matching the mistake in computation of muscle; Safety coefficient of structure is not enough. Do not consider the possibility that construct at the time of the structural design; It is insufficient