Chapter 6 Pragmatics
?---- the study of language in use or language communication; the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning.
?---- the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
What are the differences between the two linguistic studies of meaning – semantics and pragmatics?
?Semantics studies literal, structural or lexical meaning, while pragmatics studies non-literal, implicit,
intended meaning, or speaker’s meaning.
?Semantics is context independent, decontextualized, while pragmatics is context dependent,
contextualized.
?Semantics deals with what is said, while pragmatics deals with what is implicated or inferred.
What essentially distinguish semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered
If it is not, it is semantics.
If it is, it is pragmatics.
?Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with the study of what is communicated by
a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader.
?Analysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through
language in a particular context.
?Intended meaning may or may not be explicitly expressed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how
listeners/readers make inferences about what is communicated.
Some basic notions in Pragmatics
?Context
?Pragmatics vs. semantics
?Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning
Context
?Context---- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc.….
Pragmatics vs. semantics
?Semantics---- is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).
?Pragmatics---- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g.
?“Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week; pragmatic ally, you can mean a lot by saying this, all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation…
Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning
---- Sentence meaning:
?Abstract and context-independent meaning;
?literal meaning of a sentence;
?having a dyadic relation as in: What does X mean?
----utterance meaning:
?concrete and context-dependent meaning;
?intended meaning of a speaker;
?having a triadic relation as in: What did you mean by X?
For example, “The bag is heavy” can mean
?a bag being heavy (sentence meaning);
?an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag;
?the speaker is declining someone’s request for help.
The dog is barking.
If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we treat it as a sentence.
If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.
?Note: The meaning of an utterance is based on the sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context; utterance meaning is richer than sentence meaning; it is identical with the purpose for which the speaker utters the sentence.
?Speech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communicat ion. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?”
?In linguistic communication, people do not merely exchange information. They actually do something through talking or writing in various circumstances. Actions performed via speaking are called speech acts.
Two types of utterances
?Constatives (叙述句) ---- statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable;
?Performatives (施为句) ---- sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
?Note: Sometimes they are easy to get confused, e.g.“It is raining outside”can be a constative, and also a performative, for by uttering such a sentence, we may not only state a fact, but involve in the act of informing someone about the rain.
Some Examples of Performatives
?“I do”
?“I name this ship Elizabeth.”
?“I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.”
?“I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.”
?“I declare the meeting open.”
Austin’s new model of speech acts
----According to Austin’s new model, a speaker migh t be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.
?The locutionary act----an act of saying something,uttering words, phrases,clauses, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance);
It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
?The illocutionary act----an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking).
?The perlocutionary act----an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.
It is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.
For example,“It is cold here.”
?Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod here;
?Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to shut the window;
?Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request.
----Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.”
Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.
?Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:
----(the telephone rings)
----H: That’ the phone. (1)
----W: I’m in the bathroom. (2)
----H: Okay. (3)
?This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts:
?(1) Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.
?(2) A refusal to comply with the request; issuing a request of her husband to answer the phone instead.
?(3) Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning“all right, I’ll answer it.”
Linguists are more concerned about or interested in illocutionary act.
The classification of illocutionary act made by American philosopher-linguist John Searle.
Searle’s classification of speech acts (1969)
?Assertives/representatives(陈述)
?Directives(指令)
?Commissives(承诺)
?Expressives(表达)
?Declarations(宣布)
Assertives/representatives
---- Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, e.g.
?I think the film is moving.
?I’m certain I have never seen the m an before.
?I solemnly swear that he had got it.
…
Directives
---- Trying to get the hearer to do something, e.g.
?I order you to leave right now.
?Open the window, please.
?Your money or your life!
…
Commissives
---- Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, e.g.
?I promise to come.
?I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.
…
Expressives
----Expressing the speaker’s psychological state about something, e.g.
?I’m sorry for being late.
?I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.
…
Declarations
----Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, e.g.
?I now appoint you chairman of the committee.
?You are fired.
?I now declare the meeting open.
…
?Note: (1) All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force,
e.g.
I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer.
?Note: (2) In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below:
Could you open the door, please!
Can you open the door!
Do you mind opening the door?
Open the door!
The door please!
Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)
?Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows:
?Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
Four maxims of CP
?The maxim of quality
----Do not say what you believe to be false.
----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
?The maxim of quantity
----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.
----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
?The maxim of relation
----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).
?The maxim of manner
----Avoid obscurity of expression.
----Avoid ambiguity.
----Be brief.
----Be orderly.
Significance: it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than is literary said.
CP is nearly always observed, while these maxims are not, which gives rise to “Conversational implicatures”, i.e. the language becomes indirect.
Conversational implicature
?In real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is blantantly violated, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises.
Violation of Maxim of quality
----A: Would you like to go movie with me tonight?
----B: The final exam is approaching. I’m afraid I have to prepare for it.
----A: would you like to come to our party tonight?
----B:I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well tonight.
----A: Who was that lady I saw you with last night?
----B: That was no lady, that was my wife.
Violation of maxim of quantity
?At a party a young man introduces himself by saying “I’m Robert Sampson from Leeds, 28, unmarried…”
?“War is war.”
?“Girls are girls.”
----A:When is Susan’s farewell party?
----B:Sometime next month.
Violation of maxim of relation
----A: How did the math exam go today, Jonnie?
----B: We had a basketball match with class 2 and we beat them.
----A: The hostess is an awful bore.
----B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?
----A: What time is it?
----B: The postman has just arrived.
Violation of maxim of manner
----A: Shall we get something for the kids?
----B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
?本章重点难点：Types of speech acts
◆Locutionary speech act – the action of making the sentence
◆Illocutionary speech act – the intentions
◆Perlocutionary speech act – the effects
◆Of these dimensions, the most important is the illocutionary act.
?In linguistic communication people respond to an illocutionary act of an utterance, because it is the
meaning intended by the speaker.
?If a teacher says, “I have run out of chalk” in the process of lectur ing, the act of saying is locutionary,
the act of demanding for chalk is illocutionary, and the effect the utterance brings about –one of the students will go and get some chalk – is perlocutionary.
?In English, illocutionary acts are also given specific labels, such as request, warning, promise, invitation,
compliment, complaint, apology, offer, refusal, etc. these specific labels name various speech functions.
Supplementary Exercises
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1. Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication
2. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.
3. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.
4. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.
5. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.
6. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.
7. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.
8. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences
9. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.
10. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.
11. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.
12. Perlocutionary ac t is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.
II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:
13. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
14. What essentially distinguishes s_______ and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.
15. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.
16. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an u___________.
17. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.
18. C________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.
19. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.
20. A l_________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
21. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.
22. A c_________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.
23. An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.
24. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
25. _________ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context.
A. Pragmatics
B. Semantics
C. Sense relation
D. Concept
26. The meaning of language was considered as something _______ in traditional semantics.
A. contextual
B. behaviouristic
C. intrinsic
D. logical
27. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.
A. reference
B. speech act
C. practical usage
D. context
28. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.
A. pragmatic
B. grammatical
C. mental
D. conceptual
29. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a(n) _________.
A. constative
B. directive
C. utterance
D. expressive
30. Which of the following is true?
A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.
B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.
C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.
D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.
31. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.
A. in the late 50’s of the 20the century
B. in the early 1950’s
C. in the late 1960’s
D. in the early 21st century.
32. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.
A. A locutionary act
B. An illocutionary act
C. A perlocutionary act
D. A performative act
33. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.
A. to get the hearer to do something
B. to commit the speaker to something’s being the case
C. to commit the speaker to some future course of action
D. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.
34. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.
A. in their illocutionary acts.
B. in their intentions expressed
C. in their strength or force
D. in their effect brought about
35. __________ is advanced by Paul Grice
A. Cooperative Principle
B. Politeness Principle
C. The General Principle of Universal Grammar
D. Adjacency Principle
36. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.
A. impoliteness
B. contradictions
C. mutual understanding
D. conversational implicatures
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
l. F 2. F 3.T 4.T 5.F 6.F 7.F 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.T 12.F
II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:
13. Pragmatics 14. semantics 15. context 16. utterance 17. abstract
18.Constatives 19. Performatives 20. locutionary 21. illocutionary
22. commissive 23. expressive 24. quantity
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 25. A 26.C 27.D 28.B 29.C 30.B
31.A 32.C 33.B 34.C 35. A 36.D
IV. Define the terms below:
37. pragmatics 38. context 39. utterance meaning
40. sentence meaning 41. constative 42. performative
43. locutionary act 44. illocutionary act 45. perlocutionary act 46.. Cooperative Principle
V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:
47. How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other?
48. How does a sentence differ from an utterance?
49. How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning?
50. Discuss in detail the locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.
51. Searle classified illocutionary act into five categories. Discuss each of them in detail with examples.
52. What are the four maxims under the cooperative principle?
53. How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicatures?
Suggested answers to supplementary exercises:
IV. Define the terms below:
37. pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
38. Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.
39. utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
40. sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.
41. Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable ;
42. Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.
43. locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
44. illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.
45. perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
46. Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviours. The content is : Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:
47. How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other?
Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.
48. How does a sentence differ from an utterance?
A sentence is a grammatical concept. It usually consists of a subject and predicate. An utterance is the unit of communication. It is the smallest linguistic unit that has a communicative value. If we regard a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance. Whether “Mary is beautiful.” is a sentence or an utterance depends on how we look at it. If we regard it as a grammatical unit or a self-contained unit in isolation, then it is a sentence. If we look at it as something uttered in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then it is an utterance. Most utterances take the form of complete sentences, but some utterances are not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.
49. How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning?
A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, the understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is a dog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.
50. Discuss in detail the locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.
A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. For example:
You have left the door wide open.
The locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words " you,' " have," " door," " left," " open," etc. and expressed what the word literally mean.
The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of asking the hearer to close the door.
The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer understands that the speaker intends him to close the door and closes the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutiohary act is successfully performed .
51. Searle classified illocutionary act into five categories. Discuss each of them in detail with examples.
1) representatives: representatives are used to state, to describe, to report, etc.. The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said. For example:
(I swear) I have never seen the man before.
(I state) the earth is a globe.
2) directives: Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, ordering are all specific instances of this class.
For example:
Open the window!
3) commissives: Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action. When the speaker is speaking, he puts himself under obligation. For example:
I promise to come.
I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.
4) expressives: The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating. For example:
I'm sorry for the mess I have made.
5) declarations: Declarations have the characteristic that the successful performance of such an act brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. For example:
I now declare the meeting open.
52. What are the four maxims under the cooperative principle?
The maxim of quantity
1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) .
2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
The maxim of quality
1. Do not say what you believe to be false.
2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
The maxim of relation
Be relevant.
The maxim of manner
1. Avoid obscurity of expression.
2. Avoid ambiguity.
3. Be brief ( avoid unnecessary prolixity) .
4. Be orderly.
53. How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicatures?
A: Do you know where Mr. Smith lives?
B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.
This is said when both A and B know that B does know Mr. Smith' s address. Thus B does not give enough information that is required, and he has flouted the maxim of quantity. Therefore, such conversational implicature as "I do not wish to tell you where Mr. Smith lives" is produced.
A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?
B: I'm afraid I' m not feeling so well today.
This is said when both A and B know that B is not having any health problem that will prevent him from going to a party. Thus B is saying something that he himself knows to be false and he is violating the maxim of quality. The conversational implicature " I do not want to go to your party tonight" is then produced.
A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don't you think?
B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren't they?
This is said when both A and B know that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess. Thus B is saying something irrelevant to what A has just said, and he has flouted the maxim of relation. The conversational implicature "I don't wish to talk about the hostess in such a rude manner" is produced.
A: Shall we get something for the kids?
B: Yes. But I veto I - C - E - C - R - E - A - M.
This is said when both A and B know that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word "ice-cream." Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The conversational implicature "I don’t want the kids to know we are talking about ice-cream" is then produced.
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 1.What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学？ Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used. 语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。 由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3.Context 语境 Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。 4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。 5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论 Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。 According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.
《普通语言学教程》索绪尔 绪论 第一章语言学史一瞥 语法（规范）-语文学（过于注重书面语）-比较语文学或比较语法（只比较）-新语法学派（语言集团集体精神的产物） 第二章语言学的材料和任务；与毗邻科学的关系 语言学的任务是：a 对一切能够得到的语言进行描写并整理他们的历史，尽可能重建每个语系的母语；b 寻求在一切语言中永恒地普遍地起作用的力量，整理出能概况一切历史特殊现象的一般规律；c 确定自己的界限和定义。它与社会心理学、生理学、语文学相关。语言学也有实际用途，特别是对于那些利用文献的人，另外对一般修养也很重要。 第三章语言学的对象 定义——在任何时候，语言都是现行制度和过去的产物。我们的研究方法是一开始就站在语言的阵地上，把它当做言语活动的其他一切表现的准则。语言和言语活动不能混为一谈，它只是言语活动的一个确定的部分，而且当然是一个主要部分，它既是言语机能的社会产物，又是社会集团为了使个人有可能行使这机能所采用的一整套必不可少的规约。语言本身是一个整体，一个分类的原则。它是一种约定俗成的东西，人们同意使用什么符号，这符号的性质是无关轻重的。对人类天赋的不是口头的言语活动，而是构成语言——即一套和不同的观念相当的不同的符号——的机能。人们说话的机能——不管是天赋的或非天赋的——只有借助于集体所创造和提供的工具才能运用，所以，说语言使言语活动成为统一体，绝不是空想。 语言在言语活动事实中的地位——言语循环重建：心理现象-生理过程-物理过程-生理过程-
心理现象 （c-i）这一主动过程称为执行部分，（i-c）这一被动过程称为接受部分，此外还有联合和配置的机能。语言是社会的、主要的，言语是个人的、偶然的、从属的。 语言的特征是：1 他是言语活动事实的混杂的总体中的一个十分确定的对象，是言语的社会部分。2 语言是人们能够分出来加以研究的对象。3 言语是异质的，而规定下来的语言是同质的，它是一种符号系统，在系统中，只有意义和音响形象的结合是主要的，符号的两个部分都是心理的。4 语言这个对象在具体性上比言语毫不逊色。即是音响形象的堆叠，又可转为文字。 语言在人文事实中的地位：符号学——语言是一种表达观念的符号系统。符号在本质上是社会的。 第四章语言的语言学和言语的语言学
第一章 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures https://www.doczj.com/doc/6c49750.html,nguage 1.1Why study language?为什么学习语言 A tool for communication交流的工具 An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知. 1.2What is language?什么是语言 1.2.1different senses of language 语言的不同意义 1. what a person says( concrete act of speech) a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language an abstract system 2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”: a. human speech 人类的言语 b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力 c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声 音及这些声音互相结合的系统 d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达 3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交 流的一种方式. Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言 是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文 化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类 区别于动物. 1.2.2definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. What is communication? A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener). A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary? Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is
语言学概论 第一章、绪论 1.语言学定义：专门以语言为研究对象的一门独立的科学。语言学的任务就是研究语言的性质、功能、结构及其运用等问题，揭示语言存在和发展的规律，使人们理解并掌握语言的理性知识。 第一节、语言研究与语言学 1.神话传说 2.语文学研究 ①语文学：是从文献角度研究语言文字学科的总称。它以文献评审为主，目的在于解释、 注疏和考订。 ②东方语言学：古印度、古中国 古印度语言学：公元前4、5世纪时，口语和《吠陀》时代的语言差别越来越大，甚至许多地方已经不能为一般人所读懂了。为了确保准确无误地理解《吠陀》的宗教内容，就必须对《吠陀》的语言作注释。著名的《巴尼尼经》（Pāninisūtra）正是当时从解说《吠陀》语言开始，进而研究梵语的整个结构的产物。《巴尼尼经》又名《八章书》，是巴尼尼在前人研究的基础上撰写的一部梵语语法。巴尼尼用3，983条经句极其概括地叙述了梵语的语音结构、语词的构成和变化规则。巴尼尼语法是一部汇集了许多世纪的语法学家研究成果的语法法典，对梵语的语音、语法现象分析和描写得十分细致，代表了古代印度语言研究的水平。印度语言研究的最初动力，是必须把梵语文化中最古老的吠陀时期由口头流传下来的一些宗教和礼仪文献保存下去,巴尼尼的工作在一定程度上帮助了后人学习和研究梵语。布龙菲尔德说：巴尼尼的著作是“人类智慧的丰碑之一”。 ③西方语言学：古希腊语言学、古罗马语言学、中世纪至18世纪末的西方语言学 谈谈语文学和语言学的关系： 语言学就是专门以语言为研究对象的一门独立的科学。语言学的任务就是研究语言的性质、功能、结构及其运用等问题，揭示语言存在和发展的规律，使人们理解并掌握语言的理性知识。语言学还没有成为一门独立的学科之前，人们对于语言的学习和研究只是为了给古代经典文献作注释，我们称那段时期的语言研究为语文学。语文学是从文献角度研究语言文字学科的总称。它以文献评审为主，目的在于解释、注疏和考订。 3.历史比较语言学：威廉琼斯的论文拉开19世纪历史比较语言学研究的序幕 4.现代语言学： ①瑞士语言学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》 索绪尔：现代语言学的历史，是从瑞士语言学家费尔迪南·德·索绪尔开始的。索绪尔的代表作是《普通语言学教程》。索绪尔被誉为“现代语言学之父”，《普通语言学教程》是现代语言学的奠基之作。索绪尔的语言学思想和19世纪以前的语文学最根本的区别在于：把语言看成是由各个符号之间的关系组成的有价值的结构系统。 《普通语言学课程》是一部什么样的书？ 《普通语言学教程》是由索绪尔的两位弟子兼同事根据学生们的听课笔记整理而成的。《普通语言学教程》是现代语言学的奠基之作。索绪尔区分了语言和言语，语言属于全社会，是抽象的；言语属于个人，是具体的。索绪尔认为语言是符号系统，“是一个纯粹的价值系统”。每个符号是由“能指”和“所指”构成的，所指和能指之间的关系是任意的。符号之间存在着线性的句段关系和联想的聚合关系。索绪尔把语言现象分为“共时”和“历时”两种，“共时”是指时间历程中的某一点上的语言状态，“历时”是指以时间历程中的某一点到以后的语言现象。索绪尔认为，语言学的对象是语言，由于语言有它的内部要素，也有它的外部要素，所以语言学也可以分为内部语言学和外部语言学。总之，《普通语言学教程》的语言学
《普通语言学教程》读书笔记 10级汉语3班徐星星100322 本书著者是本世纪最著名、影响最深远的语言学家之一费尔迪南·德·索绪尔，在本书中，他对欧美语言学界所接触到的各种有关原理和方法的问题都作了总结，并且提出了自己独到的见解。这本书的影响也遍及世界。 首先在绪论的第三章中，索绪尔向我们阐释了语言的定义： 语言是一种约定俗成的东西，人们同意使用什么符号，这符号的性质是无关轻重的。即一套和不同的观念相当的不同的符号。人们说话的机能只有借住集体创造和提供的工具才能运用，不管是天赋的或非天赋的。所以说，说语言使言语活动成为统一体，那绝不是什么空想。在索绪尔看来。语言是语言共同成员中的语法体系，言语则是人们平时说的那些话，是依赖于语法系统的说话行为。言语是语言的体现。语言学研究实际语言行为中所潜藏的形式系统，因此，在索绪尔看来，语言学的对象是语言而不是言语。 索绪尔认为，把语言和言语分开，我们就把什么是社会的，什么是个人的，什么是主要的，什么是从属的和偶然的区分开来了。照此看来，语言学家主要的研究对象应该是“语言”、确定构成“语言”的单位及其组合规则，而不是去描写言语活动。“语言”是一个符号的系统，在这个系统中，只有意义和音响的形象的结合是主要的。 索绪尔为了确立语言学的研究对象，区分出“语言”和“言语”，他的“语言”和“言语”理论不仅对本世纪的语言研究的方法产生了深刻的影响，而且还影响着文学和符号学研究。 在第一编中，索绪尔指出语言是一个符号系统。语言是符号学的一部分，他强调语言具有一般符号系统的主要特征。语言与其他一切同类的的符号系统有以下几点共同点。一是目的相同，各种符号系统虽然采用的手段不同，复杂程度不同，但目的都是一样的，都是为了传递信息。二是它们的内涵相同，一切符号系统之所以能传递信息是因为它们与意义相联系。意义是符号的内涵，是符号在使用该系统的人在头脑中激发的概念。三是构成元素相同，无论使用
语言学概论第一节课官方笔记目录 一、课件下载及重播方法 二、本章/教材结构图 三、本章知识点及考频总结 四、配套练习题 五、其余课程安排 一、课件下载及重播方法 二、教材节构图
三、本章知识点及考频总结 第一部分语言和语言学 ◆模块一认识人类的语言 知识点一语言的性质和类型 （一）语言的概念 语言是一种符号系统，是由语音和语义构成的符号系统，是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。 （二）人类语言与其他动物鸣叫系统的区别是： 1、内容更多： 表达无极限（时间、空间），想说、可说、能说。 2、用处更大： 交际、标志、记录、思维、认知等功能。 3、能够创造： 极强的生成能力和极高的运转效率。
注意：只有人类才有语言人类具有语言能力，是人跟其他动物区别的最重要的标志 （二）语言和民族、国家的关系 确定不同的语言，首先涉及的是语言跟民族和国家的关系 1.语言是识别民族和国家的标志——“相互能够听懂”（欧洲国家） 相同民族——相同语言；同一国家——同一语言 2.语言并非识别民族和国家的标志（欧洲以外的国家） 犹太人的语言与民族身份；海外华人的民族身份与语言；满族与满语 3.西方学界的双重标准——“相互能够听懂” 弱国——用语言识别民族；对“汉语”的看法。 强国——不用语言识别民族，美国、英国、澳大利亚和加拿大 （三）语言的特点和语言类型 1、语言的特点 不同的语言有自己的特点，各种语言在语音、词汇、语法方面差距显著。根据语言的特点，把语言进行分类，主要有“语言的谱系分类”和“语言的形态分类” 2、语言的类型 （1）语言的谱系分类
从语言的“历时”角度划分不同的语言，建立“语言的谱系分类”, 即语言的亲属关系分类。根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同的来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类。 谱系分类是一个层级系统：语系—语族—（语支）—语言—方言—次方言（土语） 语系：语系是谱系分类中最大的类，语系、语族、语支、语群这种谱系分类的层级体系，反映了原始基础语随着社会的分化而不断分化的历史过程和结果。 世界上的语言大致分为七、八个语系。印欧语系和汉藏语系（区别在于是否有区分意义的声调和词的形态变化）语族：语系的下一级叫语族，同一语族的语言不但有相同的来源，相似点也更多，如印欧语系下分印度语族、伊朗语族、日耳曼语族等。 （2）语言的形态分类 即语言的结构类型分类。主要分为两种： ①形态语（综合性语言） 通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语言，主要有屈折语（词的形态变化丰富，如德语、俄语）、黏着语（词的形态变化为前后词缀，如维吾尔语、日语） ②孤立语（分析性语言）——汉语 语法手段无需谓词词形变化表现“时、体、态”；无需
语言学纲要讲义笔记 导言 一、语言的定义 语言是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具、是由音义结合的词汇和语法构成的一种符号系统。 二、语言学的对象和任务 语言学是研究语言的科学。 要把语言学跟语文学区分开来 中国传统语文学——“小学” 小学是我国古代语文学的统称，由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。 在古印度，公元前4世纪，著名学者潘尼尼在整理、注释婆罗门教经典《吠陀》时，写了一本《梵语语法》，提出3996条规则，被人们称为最完备的语法书。在古希腊，伯拉图和亚里斯多德是从哲学的角度来研究语言的，他们讨论了词为什么具有意义等内容。 三、语言学在科学体系中的地位 语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学。 1、与社会科学、自然科学的联系 语言研究的成果是哲学、历史学、考古学、文学、政治学、经济学、逻辑学、社会学、民族学、计算机科学等学科所必须利用的，可见语言研究在这些社会科学中已占重要地位。 语言学与其他学科相交叉产生社会语言学、心理语言学、计算语言学、生物语言学、模糊语言学、实验语音学等。如：运用语言传递信息的过程，可分为五个阶段： 编码——发送——传递——接收——解码 对这一具体过程的解释需要结合物理学、生理学、心理学等其他学科的知识。三、语言学的基本类别 总体上，根据研究对象的不同，语言学可以分为理论语言学和应用语言学两大类。（一）理论语言学可分为： 1、一般/普通语言学
2、个别/具体语言学 具体语言学 （1）历时语言学 （2）共时语言学 （二）应用语言学 1、社会语言学：研究语言与社会集团的关系。如地域方言、社会方言、语言的接触、语言规划等。 2、心理语言学：研究儿童语言习得、语言的接收和发生过程，等。 3、神经语言学 最近二十年才从心理语言学中分离出来的一门新的学科，主要研究语言和大脑结构的关系，中心是大脑如何生成语言。 此外，还有数理语言学、统计语言学、实验语音学等。 第一章语言的功能 第一节语言的社会功能 一、语言的信息传递功能 信息传递功能是语言的最基本的社会功能。 人类还借助语言之外的其他形式传递信息，它们是文字，旗语，信号灯，电报代码，数学符号，化学公式等等。 身势等伴随动作等是非语言的信息传递形式。 身势等非语言的形式多半是辅助语言来传递信息； 文字是建立在语言基础之上的最重要的再编码形式； 旗语之类是建立在语言或文字基础之上的再编码形式； 语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段，是最重要的交际工具。二、语言的人际互动功能 语言的社会功能的另一个重要方面是建立或保持某种社会关联，这就是语言的人际互动功能。互动包括两个方面：一个是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图，另一方面这些又对受话者施加了影响，得到相应的语言或行动上的反馈，从而达到某种实际效果。
新编简明英语语言学教程笔记 Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 二、知识点 https://www.doczj.com/doc/6c49750.html,nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。 ⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家 Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols. Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. ⑷U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett美国语言学家Charles Hockett 提出了语言的识别特征design features
27.书面语：书面语是用文字记录的语言形式，它是文字产生或在口语的基础上产生的，书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。 26.口语：就是有声的口头语言，任何一种语言都有口头存在形式。它是书面产生的基础。 28．语言相关论：语言相关论是萨丕尔和沃尔夫提出的关于语言与思维关系的观点，主张语言决定思维，不同的语言就有不同的思维方式。 29．大脑语言功能临界期：大脑语言功能临界期是指大脑的单侧化，大脑左半球的分区以及语言的遗传机制，都只提供人具有语言能力的潜在可能性，这些潜能必须在一定期限内被一定的语言环境激活才可能起作用。26．语言符号的所指 :语言符号的所指是符号的形式所指的意义内容。 29．机器翻译：通过计算机把一种语言自动翻译成另一种或多种自然语言的信息处理技术。 26.语音：语音是人的发音器官发出的、用于人与人之间交际并表达一定意义的声音。 27.词：词是最小的、有意义的、能够独立运用的语言单位。 28.语用：语用指语言运用，即人们在一定的交际环境中对语言的实际运用。 29.文字：文字是记录语言的书写符号系统。 27．单纯词：单纯词是由一个构词语素构成的词。 29．屈折：屈折是通过词的内部发生语音的交替变换来改变词的语法意义的手段。 28．意译词：是用本族语言的构词材料和规则构成新词，把外语中某个词的意义翻译过来。 27.仿译词：是用本族语言的语素逐个对译外语原词的语素造成的词，它不仅把原词的词义翻译过来，而且保持了原词的内部构成方式。 29．主谓词组：两个成分之间具有被说明和说明关系的词组是主谓词组。 27．复辅音：一个音节内处于同一个肌肉紧张的渐强阶段或渐弱阶段上的两个或两个以上辅音的组合。 27.双语现象：某一言语社团使用两种或多种语言的社会现象，具体而言是社团内的全体成员或部分成员双语并用的现象。 28.亲属语言：从同一种语言中分化出来的各个语言叫亲属语言，亲属语言之间具有历史同源关系。 26．调位：利用音节内的音高差别来起辩义作用的语音单位叫做调位，调位是一种非音质音位，依附在音位的组合序列上。 29.词组：实词与实词之间具有直接联系的相对独立的词群。 28．语素：语素是语言中音义结合的最小单位。 28．词尾：附着在词干后的，能改变词的语法形式，但不能构成新词的语素。 29．语素：音义结合的最小语言单位。 26．词类：词类是词在语法上的分类。它指可以替换出现在语法结构某些共同组合位置上的词的类，即具有聚合关系的词的类。 27．词法：（1）词法主要描写词的形态特征和词形变化规则。例如，俄语的名词在形式上有单数和复数的区别，有阳性、阴性、中性等性的区别，有主格、宾格、属格等格的区别，这些都是典型的词法现象。（2）由于印欧语言中构词单位、构词方式和词类都与词的形态变化相关，因此构词和词类问题也成为词法的一部分。27．语法意义：语法意义是语法形式所体现的意义，是语言中通过一类形式或功能所获得的意义。二者相辅相成，不可分离。如“动词+名词”有动宾关系的意义，汉语所有的同类组合都是如此，这种意义就是一种语法意义。 27.语法形式：语法形式就是能体现表达某种语法意义的形式。表示某一类语法意义或者有共同作用的形式，如词类形式、组合形式、虚词形式，就是语法形式。语法形式不是个别的语音形式和词语形式，但能产生某一类意义或者有共同作用的语音表现形式或者词形变化形式也是语法形式。 27.语法手段：根据语法形式的共同特点所归并的语法形式的基本类别叫做语法手段。语法手段可分为词法手段和句法手段两大类。通过词形的变化来表现语法意义的形式是词法手段；通过结构的变化来表现语法意义的形式是句法手段；例如英语名词后加s表示复数，英语动词后面加ed表示过去时，就是词法手段中的词形变化。 28．自源文字：自源文字指独立发展起来的文字。如古埃及文字、苏美尔文字、汉字，这些文字的形体、体系都是由最早使用该文字的人们独创的。 29．语音合成（1）语音合成是语音信息处理研究中的主要工作。 （2）语音合成就是让计算机模拟人的发音器官的动作并发生类似的声音。如汉语的语音合成目前已初步实现自动生成声韵调结合的音节。 26．句子:句子是词或词组按一定规则组合成的、能表达相对完整的意义、前后有较大停顿并带有一定的语气和句调的语言单位。 27．异化：语流中两个相同或相近的音，其中一个因受另一个影响而变得不相同或不相近。
Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学 1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 研究语言变化的目的和意义 The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence. Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages. The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change. 研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。 历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系，为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。 历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素，如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。 2.The nature of language change 语言变化的本质 All living languages change with time. Unless a language is no longer spoken by the general public of a society, such as Latin, its change is inevitable. As a general rule, language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. Language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar. Although language change is universal, inevitable, and in some cases, vigorous, it is never an overnight occurrence. Language development may be regarded as linguistic evolution from one stage to another. 所有尚在使用的语言都随着时间的变化而变化。语言的变化是不可避免的。语言变化是普遍的、连续的，在一定程度上也是规则的和系统的。语言变化涉及语法系统的各大组成部分。在语言演变过程中，词汇和语法规则有的消亡了，有的诞生了，有的是外借的，有的则转化了其意义或功能。 尽管语言变化是普遍的，必然的，有时甚至是显著的，但语言的变化是一个缓慢的渐变过程，其变化是同代人所不易察觉的。 语言的发展可以看作是语言从一个阶段到另一个阶段的演化过程。 3.Major periods in the history of English 英语历史发展的主要阶段 a)Old English (450-1100) 古英语阶段 b)Middle English (1100-1500) 中古英语阶段 c)Modern English (1500-今) 现代英语阶段 Most Modern English speakers find Middle English only partially comprehensible, and Old English simply unintelligible, just like a foreign language hardly recognizable as the native language they speak. 大多数现代英语的使用者发现，对于他们来说，中古英语只能部分地被理解，古英语则如外语一般，简直不可理解。 Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxons invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England. Middle English had been deeply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar. Modern English is separated with Middle English with European renaissance movement.
费迪南德?德?索绪尔（Ferdinand de Saussure，1857-1913）是现代语言学的创始人。他是一位杰出的语言学家。作为一门新兴人文学科的开创者，他对语言哲学的影响也极为广泛深刻。 索绪尔出生于日内瓦，父亲是一位科学家。他从小受到自然科学的教育，同时也得到良好的语言教育和语言学教育，掌握法语、德语、英语和拉丁语，初通梵文。15岁时就写了一篇《语言论》。曾于日内瓦大学和莱比锡大学，研习物理、化学和希腊文。莱比锡大学当时是新语法学家的中心，在那的学习大致确定了索绪尔后来以语言学为业的道路。也就在这个时期，他发表了他的第一篇重要论文，《论印欧系语言中原因的原始系统》，引起学术界的重视，而那时他才年仅21岁。获得博士学位后，索绪尔移居巴黎，在高等研究学院讲授梵文、哥特语、古高地德语以及印欧语文学概况。1891年，他开始到日内瓦大学任教。日内瓦与巴黎的学术研究相比相对滞后。索绪尔穷究一生，不带任何传奇色彩。他在世时只是著名的语言学家，但他作为一个哲学家的地位，却是直到他死后才为人们所认可的。 索绪尔生前只发表过很少几篇相当专业的论文。1907-1911年期间，他在日内瓦大学担任普通语言学课程的教学。1913年他去世以后，他的学生和同事根据几本听课笔记才汇编成《普通语言学教程》一书，出版发行。索绪尔不仅吝于发表，他留下的笔记也很少，因此编辑这本书很不容易。因为，跟所有的老师一样，他讲课时也是有很多重复，甚至不一致的内容。难得的是编辑者们没有放弃，合并梳理成一本书，从而造就了一部惊世巨著。 《普通语言学教程》这部著作主要由绪论和附录两部分组成。绪论部分主要阐述了索绪尔对于语言系统的看法。索绪尔认为语言系统具有自主性和形式化这两个特点。他把语言现象划分为“内部要素”和“外部要素”两部分，并以此作为语言研究的前提。“内部要素”是指语言系统内符号与符号之间所形成的相互制约、相互对立的关系；“外部要素”则是指与语言有间接关系的政治、经济、文化、宗教、地理、历史等社会因素。因为索绪尔认为“内部要素”与“外部要素”之间无联系，且进行语言研究必须建立起一个界限清晰的“语言系统”。所以，他说：“我们关于语言的定义是要把一切跟语言的组织、语言的系统无关的东西，简言之，一切跟我们用‘外部语言学’这个术语所指的东西排除出去。”另外，索绪尔还阐发了“语言符号的价值决定于语言系统整体性质”的观点，并将此观点以及上面所提及的观点合在一起，共同支撑起关于语言系统具有自主性的说法。实际上，此举的真正目的是为语言学的研究对象下定义，且以此厘清语言和言语之间的关系。 语言是言语行为的社会部分，是个人被动地从社会接受而储存于头脑中的系统。它存在于个人意志之外，是社会每个成员共同具有的，是一种社会心理现象。言语是言语行为的个人部分，是个人对语言系统的运用。语言和言语紧密相连，互为前提。个人要说话使人理解，必须用语言，同时语言的存在又必须体现在言语当中，而且，使语言发生变化的也是言语。所以，语言既是言语的工具，又是言语的产物，但“这并不妨碍它们是两种绝对不同的东西” 在对语言学进行概述之后，《普通语言学教程》的附录部分进一步详细叙述了索绪尔的音位观、符号观以及结构主义研究方法论。他认为语言可为语音符号和文字符号，语音由心灵激活而被赋予意义，文字则只是语音的无生命的、随意的、可有可无的替代物。在符号观中，索绪尔对符号的“任意性”和“线条性”展开阐述，并且重点论述了符号的“不变性”与“可变性”特点。由此他不但揭
语义学 1.？什么是语义学？ . 语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。 2. 语义研究的几种主要理论 1)命名论 . , , , . . 命名论是最原始的语义理论，是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。 2)意念论 ; , . 意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。 3)语境论 . : . 语境论以这样的假设为基础：人们可以从显而易见的语境中推知或归纳出语义。语境有两种：情景语境和语言语境。 语境论认为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境，语义不是抽象的，它存在于语境之中，它来自语境，取决于语境。 4)行为主义论 “ .” , , . 语义的行为主义论和语义的语境论有相似之处，它也把语义放到语境中去研究，但它更注重人的心理活动，认为语言的意义存在于语言使用者在交际过程中对听到话语的反应。 3.意义和所指 . 它们是词汇意义的既相互联系又有所不同的两个方面。 1). ; . . 意义关心的是语言形式的内在意义。它是语言形式所有特征的总和，它是抽象且脱离语境的。它是词典编写者们所感兴趣的语义方面。 简单地说，意义是词汇内在的，抽象的，游离于语境之外的意义。 2), ; . 所指是语言形式在现实世界中所指称的东西；涉及语言成分和非语言的经验世界的关系。简单地说，所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。 4.主要意义关系
1）同义关系 . . 同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词义相近的词叫同义词。 , : a)–. . 方言同义词－用在不同地域方言中的同义词。 英国英语和美国英语是英语的两大地理变体。 示例： 英国英语美国英语 b)–. , . , , , . 文体同义词－在文体上有差异的同义词。 有同样意义的词可能在文体上，或者在正式程度上有所不同。也就是说，有些往往比较正式，有些比较随意，有些在问题上则是中性的。 示例： , , , , , , , , c) , . 情感意义或评价意义有所不同的同义词。 有着相同的意义却表达了使用者的不同情感的词语，这些词暗示使用者对他所谈论的事情的态度或倾向。 示例： 合作者同谋者，帮凶 , , , , , , , , , d)–. , ., . . 搭配同义词－同义词在其搭配上各不相同，即能和这些不同的同义词相配的词各不相同。示例： … … … e)–. 语义上不同的同义词－同义词的意义非常接近，但却有细微差别。 示例： 暗示困惑和迷惑暗示难以置信 意味逃离不愉快或者危险的事意味匆匆离开 2）多义关系 . , . , .