词汇学复习.doc 2012 04 25

英语词汇学总结复习资料⼤家请注意：笔记中⼤多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该⼀字不漏的背下来。

其实不少简答题也就是⼏个定义的汇总，再加上个例⼦就可以拿满分了。

区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各⾃的定义。

第⼀章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1. 词的定义Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2.声⾳与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional.E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3.读⾳与拼写不⼀致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by originthe English vocabulary consist of words of all kinds. they can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose . words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion , and into native words and borrowed words by origin.基本词汇的特点1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1.all national character （most important）– natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability– they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane ——now3.productivity– they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4.polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove5.collocability– quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others基本词汇在英语中的地位和重要性The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of thelanguage .though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary ,yet it is the most important part of it .e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——(例⼦)1. terminology –technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicinephotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon– specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid3. slang—— substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words– only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism– newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mailold meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation betweennotions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words –are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language .therefore , what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words.According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizen s– words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，pork cup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens– retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans– formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noir long time no see，surplus value，master piece 2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchup tea4. Semantic loans– their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky第⼆章The Development of the English1、Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）It can be grouped into an Eastern set :Balto –Slavic 、Indo-Iranian、Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic、Italic 、Hellenic、GermanicIn the Eastern set , Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively,the Balto –Slavic comprises such modern language such as Prussian、Lithuanian、Polish、Czech、Bulgarian、Slovenian、Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. In the Celtic,we find Scottish, Irish,Welsh, Breton. the five Romance language ,namely, Portuguese,Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called Latin. The Germanic family consist of the four Northern European language :Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.2、History （时间，历史事件，特征）1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 wordsThe 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary. The common practice was to create new words bycombining two native words. In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.特点：highly inflected language///complex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，FrenchUntil 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin pouered into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflections leveled ending3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance(the early period)，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the West ern world’s great literary heritage.From the 1500’s through the 1700’s ,many writers experimented with words. Over 10000 new words entered the English language .many of these were taken from Latin and Greek .The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements. More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements. more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.特点：ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words当代英语词汇发展的现状New words sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time .词汇发展的主要原因1).The rapid development of modern science and technology2).Social: economic and political changes3).The influence of other cultures and languages4. Three modes of vocabulary development（英语发展的三个主要⽅式：创造新词、旧词新意、借⽤外来语词）1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（played a vital role in the development of vocabulary , particularly in earlier times）4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%第三章Word Formation*1. Morpheme(词素) ——A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）*2.Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic words– morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph（词素变体）——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6.Bound Morphemes——The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion）collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7.Bound root ——A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of ―say or speak‖ as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning ―tell beforehand‖。

词汇学复习重点1.jargon------ J argon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.2.translation loans ---- Translation loans are words and expressions formed fromthe existi ng material in the En glish Ian guage but modeled on the patter ns take n from another Ianguage.3.Renaissance --- It is a European movement of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics.4.Allomorph------ one of the variants of the same morpheme5.inflectional affix ----- an affix that in dicates grammatical relation ships6.acronyms ---- the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters ofnames of social and poli廿cal organiza廿ons special noun phrases and technical terms7.back-formation ------ the method of crea廿ng words by removing the supposed suffixes8.polygsemy ----- Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses atthe same 廿me.9.morpheme ----- It is a minimal meaningful unit of a Ianguage, or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.10.grammaticalmeaning -------- that part of the meaning of the word indicatesgramma 廿cal con cept or re la 廿on ships such as part of speech of words, sin gular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their in flee 廿onal forms.11.homonym ---- Homonyms are words different in meaning but either identicalboth in sound and spelling or iden廿cal only in sound or spelling.12.reference ----- what a linguistic form refers to in the real word. It is therelaUonship between Ianguage and the world13.semanticfield ------- Semant:ic field is concerned with the vocabulary of a Ianguageas a system of interrelated lexical networks.14.motivation --- the cormection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.15.conceptualmeaning ------- t he mea ning give n in the die 廿on ary and forms the coreof word-mea ning.16.amelioration -------- or eleva廿on, a process by which words rise from humble begirrnings to posi廿ons of im porta nee.17.transfer----- a process whereby words which were used to designate one thinghave changed to mean something else.1・ Discuss the major characteristics of Basic word stock with examples・Basic word stock contains the following characteristics:All national character: Words of the basic word stock denote the most comm on things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the Ianguage.Stability: As they denote the commonest things necessary to life, they are likely to remain unchanged. Stability, however, is only relative.Productivity: Words of the basic word stock are most root words or mono syllabic words; They can form new words with other roots and affixesPolysemy: Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undergone semant:ic changes in the course of use and become polysemous.Collocability: Many words of the basic word stock have strong collocability.2. What are the major modes of modern vocabulary expansion and give your examples ・The major modes are crea廿on, semant:ic change and borrowing.Creation refers to the forma廿on of new words by using existing materials, namely roots, affixes, and other elements. Semantic change means an old form, which takes on a new meaning to meet the new ,such as mouse and web. Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. Borrowed words constitute merely six to seven percent of all new words.Creation:词根词缀构成新词semantic change: the word an gel is an example. The word is the n ame of a spiritual being, now, it has a new meaning used to refer to a radar echo caused by something not visually discernible.Borrowing: From French Ianguage, English has taken such words as: auteur, black humor, limoFrom German Ianguage, English has taken such words as: humoresqueFrom Chinese Ianguage, English has taken such words as: Kung fu, wok3・ What are the inflectional affixes frequently used in English? Discuss the meaning each ofthem indicates.-(e)s— plural number-(e)s— third- person singular present tense-(e)d— past tense -ing— progressive aspect-er— compara廿ve degree-est— superla廿ve degree-'s— possessive case4. How compounds differ from free phrases? Give examples to dwell on this point・phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress. In cases of two stresses, the compound has the primary stress on the first eleme nt and the sec on dary stress, if any, on the sec ond whereas the opposite is true of free phrases, e.g. “a ' gree n room” is a compo un d, while “agree n ' room” is a free phrase.semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Forexample, “agree n hand” is a n “in experie need pers on”.Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example verb, a noun or an adjec廿ve. “Bad-mouth” used as a verb can take the third person singular-s.5・Both back-formation and back-clipping are ways of making words by removing the endings of words ・ Explain their differences ・Back-forma廿on is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixed. It is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, "loafer" may be assumed to derive from the verb "loaf" on the an a logy of known derivatives, such as "swimmer" from "swim" or "driver" from "drive". By removing the supposed suffixes -er from "loafer： a verb "loaf" is coined. Back-clipping is different. The dele廿on occurs at the end of word. Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class.6・ What is the relationship between concept and meaning?Meaning and concept are closely cormected but not iden廿cal. They are both related directly to ref ere nts and are notions of the words but belong to differe nt categories. Concept, which is beyond Ianguage, is the result of human cognitJon, reflec廿ng the objective world in the human mind. It is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Ianguage and so on whereas meaning belongs to Ianguage, so is restricted to Ianguage use. A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are Ianguages in the world . Even in the same Ianguage, the same concept can be expressed in different words.7. What is the relationship between grammatical meaning and lexical meaning?Gramma廿cal meanings refer to that part of the meaning of the world which indicates gramma 廿cal con cept or rela 廿on ships such as part of speech of words, sin gular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their in flee 廿onal forms. Gramma 廿cal meaning of a word becomes im porta nt only when it is used in actual con text. Differe nt lexical items, which have differe nt lexical meanin gs, may have the same gramma廿cal meaning, on the other hand, the same word may have different gramma廿cal meanings. Lexical meaning and gramma廿cal meaning make up the word meaning. It is known that gramma廿cal meaning surfaces only in use .But lexical meaning is constant in all the content words withi n or without con text as it is related to the notion that a word conveys.8・What is the difference between homonyms and polysemants? How to differentiate them?The differenee between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that homonyms refer to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distJn guishable meanin gs. One im porta nt criterion is to see their etymology. Homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development. The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and cormected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree. On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another. In die廿onaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headwork while homonyms are listed as separate en tries.9・ Discuss some of the characteristics of antonyms・1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition2) a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semant:ic inclusion. Pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked terms respec廿vely.4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.10. What are the causes of semantic changes? Illustrate your point.・There are many causes of sema ntic cha nge. The main causes in elude extra-li nguis tic factors and linguis廿c factors. In extra-linguis廿c factors. There are historical reasons, class reasons, and psychological reasons. In linguis廿c factors, there are shortening of phrases, in flux of borrowi ngs and an a logy.。

1.词的概念。

（领会）2.词的分类。

（熟记）3.基本词汇的特点。

（熟记）4.本族语的重要性。

（熟记）Chapter21.印欧语系中的西部语系。

（熟记）2.古英语（熟记）3.中古英语（熟记）4.现代英语的发展模式。

（领会）Chapter31.词素的变体。

（熟记）2.总的词素的分类。

（领会）3.词缀法。

（熟记）4.指出例词的词素数量和类型。

（领会）1.前缀的分类。

（熟记）2.转类法的类型。

（领会）3.部分转类法和完全转类法区别.(熟记)4.拼缀法类型。

（领会）5.截断法的概念。

（熟记）6.指出给的例词属于合成词，派生词，转类法的词，拼缀法，截断法，首字母缩略词，首字母拼音词，逆生法，来自于专有名词的词中的哪一个。

Chapter51.所指的概念。

（熟记）2.词的理据。

（熟记）3.理据的分类。

（领会）4.概念意义。

（熟记）5.褒义和贬义。

（领会）Chpter61.同义词的分类。

（熟记）2.反义词的分类。

（领会）3.上下义关系概念。

（熟记）4.语义场的作用。

（熟记）Chapter71.语义的扩大和缩小。

（领会）2.语义的降格。

（熟记）3.语境的作用。

（熟记）Chapter91.习语的特点。

（领会）2.习语的变异形式。

（领会）Chapter101. 单语词典和双语词典。

（熟记）。

词汇学复习资料词汇学复习资料词汇学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究词汇的构成、分类和使用规律。

对于学习一门语言来说，掌握丰富的词汇是非常重要的。

在这篇文章中，我们将提供一些词汇学的复习资料，帮助读者巩固和扩展词汇量。

一、词汇的构成词汇是语言的基本单位，是由一个或多个音素组成的。

在不同的语言中，词汇的构成方式也有所不同。

例如，英语中的词汇主要由字母组成，而汉语中的词汇则由汉字组成。

1. 字母构词法英语中的词汇通常由字母组成，可以通过添加前缀、后缀和词根来构成新的词汇。

例如，单词“unhappiness”由前缀“un-”（表示否定）和词根“happy”组成。

2. 字形构词法汉语中的词汇由汉字组成，可以通过添加偏旁部首、衍生字和合成字来构成新的词汇。

例如，汉字“学”可以通过添加偏旁部首“子”来构成“字”，表示学习。

二、词汇的分类词汇可以按照不同的分类标准进行分类，例如按照词性、语义和用途等。

下面是一些常见的词汇分类。

1. 词性分类词汇可以分为名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、介词、连词和感叹词等不同的词性。

名词用来表示人、事物或概念，动词用来表示动作或状态，形容词用来描述人或事物的特征，副词用来修饰动词、形容词或其他副词，代词用来代替名词，介词用来表示位置、时间或方式，连词用来连接词语或句子，感叹词用来表示强烈的情感。

2. 语义分类词汇可以按照词义的相似性进行分类。

例如，可以将名词按照人、动物、植物、物体、抽象概念等进行分类；将动词按照行为、状态、感觉、思维等进行分类；将形容词按照颜色、大小、形状、性质等进行分类。

3. 用途分类词汇可以按照在句子中的作用进行分类。

例如，可以将词汇分为实词和虚词。

实词包括名词、动词、形容词和副词，它们在句子中起到实际的意义；虚词包括代词、介词、连词和感叹词，它们在句子中起到连接或修饰的作用。

三、词汇的使用规律词汇的使用规律是指在特定语境中使用词汇的约束条件。

不同的语言和不同的语境中，词汇的使用规律也有所不同。

论述题一、一般词汇与基本词汇的关系基本词汇和一般词汇都有各自特点，因此，它们是语言词汇中两个完全不同的部分。

但是，基本词汇和一般词汇又有非常密切的联系，它们相互依存，共同发展，都是语言词汇中不可缺少的部分。

第一，基本词汇是语言的基础，它也是一般词汇形成的基础，一般词汇中的大多数词都是在基本词汇基础上形成的。

第二，一般词汇反映社会的发展是非常敏感的，它几乎经常存在不吨的变动之中，因此，语言词汇中的新成分往往首先出现在一般词汇中，然后个别成分再进入基本词汇中，促成基本词汇的发展。

从这一角度讲，一般词汇又可以充当基本词汇发展的源泉。

第三，基本词汇和一般词汇中的个别成分又是可以互相转换，在词汇发展的过程中，随着社会交际需要的改变，某些基本词转化成一般词，而某些一般词也能转化为基本词汇，如过去的基本词“鬼、窝窝头”等，现在已成了一般词，又如过去的一般词“党”，现在已经由一般词转化成基本词，成为“共产党”的简称。

总之，基本词汇和一般词汇就是在这样相互依存不断转化的关系中间共同发展和丰富起来。

它们的发展又形成整个词汇的形成。

二、词义发展的概况1、新词的增加。

语言是随着社会的发展而发展的，在这发展过程当中，词汇又是最敏感的部分，因此，社会上的一切都会在词汇中有所反映，这就促成了语言中新词的不断增加。

2、双音词的增多。

随着汉语的发展，词汇中的双音词逐渐增多起来，由单音向双音发展，是汉语词汇发展的一种必然现象。

因为随着社会的发展，交际的需求越来越纷繁复杂，需要表示的事物越来越多，有限的单音节形式就必然造成语言中同音词的大量出现。

因而给人们的交际带来许多不便，汉语词的双音化就此发展起来。

3、实词虚化现象的发展。

主要表现在两个方面：一方面是由实词类变为虚词类，如“因”原为“原因”，而后发展为“因为”，充当连词使用；另一方面，是由可以充当词根词素的实词虚化成了附加词素，如“了”原为“了结”虚化成了“好了”。

“了结”是实词，后来虚化成了词尾词素，读为“le”附在动词后面，表示完成体的语法意义，如“看了”、“做了”。

第一单元英语词汇概说1.词是语音、形态和意义的统一体，音和形是词的物质外壳，意义是词的物质内容。

Word is the combination of pronunciation, morphology and meaning.2.词是在口语和书面语中能独立、自由使用的并具备完整意义的语言最小单位。

Word is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that can be used on its own in oral and written language.3.词汇（vocabulary, lexicon）: collection of words4.词汇是语言（language）的基本要素（语音、语法、词汇）之一。

Pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary5.Active vocabulary（积极性词汇）: speaking/writing vocabularyPassive vocabulary（消极性词汇）: reading/guessing vocabulary6.词汇学（lexicology）: the science of wordsLexicology is the branch of linguistics that investigates, describes and theorizes about vocabulary. 作为语言学的一个分支，词汇学对词汇进行调查研究、描述并予以理论化。

第二、三单元英语基本构词法1.词素（morpheme）是语言中语音和语义的最小结合体。

Morpheme is the minimum unit of meaning.2.构词法（1）词缀法（affixation/derivation派生法）Prefixation 前缀法；Suffixation 后缀法Prefix do not generally change the world-class(词性) of the stem but only modify its meaning.(except “en-”, ”be-”, ”a-”) 三个可以决定词性的前缀Suffix mainly change the word-class ( except “less”)（2）复合法（compounding或composition）→复合词compound（3）转化法（conversion）也叫功能转换法（functional shift）或转移法（transmutation）（4）缩略法（abbreviation或shortening）·截短词clipped wordsapocope截除词尾，aphaeresis 截除词首front and back clipping截除首尾，syncope截除词腰·首字母缩略词initialisms·首字母拼音词acronyms·拼缀词blending e.g. stagflation = stagnation + inflation注：Acronym differ from initialism in that they are pronouncedas words rather than as sequences of letter.（5）逆生法（back formation）e.g. laser为首字母拼音词，因词尾形似后缀-er，则逆生出动词lase。

词汇学复习提纲Lecture One Introduction to English LexicologyRelation to other DisciplinesMorphology (how a word is formed through the morpheme structure),Semantics (the study of meanings),Etymology (the study of the origins and history of the meaning and form of words),Stylistics (the study of style),Lexicography (description of the origins, form, meaning and usage of words)Lecture Two Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1.1What is a word(1) a minimal free form of a language(2) a sound unity(3) a unit of meaning(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence1.2Sound and meaningArbitrary (conventional) relationship between linguistic unit and its reference1.3Sound and formTheoretically sound and form should agree with each other, but actually there are many differences between the two.Reasons: 1 alphabet was from the Romans, letters do not correspond to each sound.2 pronunciation changed more rapidly than spelling over the years.3 early casualness in spelling4 Borrowing words are not all assimilated.1.4What is V ocabulary?1.5Classification of words1.5.1Basic word stock and non-basic vocabulary (classification via use frequency)1.5.2Content words/notional words and functional words/empty/form words (via notion)1.5.3Native words and borrowed words (via origin)Lecture Three Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary2.1 Indo-European language familyBalto-Slavic: Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Bulgarian, Slovenian, RussianAlbanianIndo-Iranian: Persian, HindiArmenianItalic: Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, FrenchCeltic: Irish, Breton, ScottishGermanic: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, English, GermanHellenic: Greek2.2 A historical overview of the English vocabularyThe first inhabitant of the British Isles is the Celts. Their languages were Celtic. The second major language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. When the Roman empire began to crumble, the Germanic tribes ( Angles, Saxons, and Jutes )came in.2.2.1 Old English (450-1150)Anglo-SaxonAt the end of the 6TH century, Christianity was introduced into Britain.In the 9TH century, there was the invasion by Norwegian and Danish Vikings.2.2.2 Middle English (1150-1500)1066, the Norman conquest. Chaucer (1340-1400)Trade with Holland.2.2.3 Modern English (1500-now)Shakespeare (1564-1616)Printing.Early Modern English (1500-1700). RenaissanceThe industrial revolution and the colonization.Borrowing, word formation.( P32, ) table of English development2.3 growth of present-day English vocabulary (pp32-33)2.4 Modes of V ocabulary Developmentcreation, semantic change, borrowingLecture Four Chapter Three Word Formation I.3.1 morphemes3.2 allomorphs, mono-morphemic words3.3 types of morphemesfree morpheme: free rootbound rootmorphemebound morpheme prefixderivationalaffix suffixinflectional3.4 root and stemA root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. It is the part of a word that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. (cf. Base/root/stem)Lecture Five Chapter Four Word Formation IIThe most productive means of word formation are affixation, compounding and conversion.PrefixationAffixation (derivation)SuffixationCompoundingWord formationConversionClippingShorteningAcronymyBlendingBack formationProper Names4.1 Affixationderivation, derivativesWhat is affixation? (p50)4.1.1 PrefixationWhat is prefixation? (p50)Classification of prefixes4.1.2 SuffixationWhat is suffixation?(p53)Suffixes mainly change the grammatical function of the stems.ConcreteDenominal nounsAbstract1) Noun suffixesDeverbal nounsDe-adjective nounsNoun and adjective suffixesDenominal suffices2) Adjective suffixesDeverbal suffixes3) Adverb suffixes4) Verb suffixesLecture Six Chapter Four Word Formation III4.2 CompoundingWhat is compounding? (56)Composition, compounds, solid / hyphenated / open4.2.1 Characteristics of Compoundsphonetic featuressemantic featuresgrammatical features4.2.2 Formation of Compounds1)Noun compounds2)Adjective compounds3)Verb compounds.3 ConversionAlso known as functional shift or zero derivation.1)Conversion to nounsa.Verb to nounb.Adjective to noun full conversion & partial conversionc.Miscellaneous conversion2)Conversion to verbsa.Noun to verbb.Adjective to verbc.Miscellaneous conversion4.4 Blendingblends / pormanteau words1)head + tail2)head + head3)head + word4)word + tail4.5 Clipping1)front clipping2)back clipping3)front and back clipping4)phrase clipping4.6 Acronymy: Initialisms / Acronyms4.7 Back formation4.8 Words from Proper NamesLecture Seven Chapter Five Word Meaning5.1 The Meaning of 'Meaning'Reference, Concept and Sense5.2 Motivationonomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation & etymological motivation 5.3 types of meaning5.3.1 grammatical meaning and lexical meaning5.3.2 conceptual meaning and associative meaningLecture Eight Chapter Six Sense Relation and Semantic Field6.1.Polysemy6.1.1.Two approaches to polysemy1.Diachronic approach2. Synchronic approach6.1.2.Two process of development1.Radiation2. Concatenation6.2.Homonymy:1.Perfect homonyms2. Homographs3. Homophones6.2.2. Origins of Homonyms1.Change in sound and spelling2. Borrowing3. Shortening6.2.3. Differentiation of Homonyms from PolysemantsHomonyms refers to different words which happen to share the same formPolysemants refers to the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.Etymology:Semantic relatedness:Lecture Nine Chapter Six Sense Relation and Semantic Field6.3.Synonymy6.3.1.Definition of synonyms6.3.2.Types of synonyms6.3.3.Sources of synonyms6.3.4.Discrimination of synonyms6.4.Antonymy6.4.1.Types of Antonyms1.Contradictory terms.2.Contrary terms.3.Relative terms.6.4.2.Some of the characteristics of Antonyms.6.4.3.The use of Antonyms6.5.Hyponymy.6.6.Semantic Field.Lecture Ten Chapter 7 Changes in word meaning7.1 Types of changesExtension; narrowing; degradation; elevation; transfer7.1.1 Extension is also known as generalization. It is a process by which a word which originally had aspecialized meaning has now become generalized.7.1.2 Narrowing of meaning, also called specialization, is the opposite of widening in meaning.7.1.3 elevation / amelioration7.1.4 degradation / pejoration7.2 Causes of Changes7.2.1. extra-linguistic factors1.historical reason2. class reason3. psychological reason4. linguistic factorLecture Eleven Association and Collocation11.1 AssociationWords association can be handled in terms of paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations.If a group of words can be substituted by one another in certain linguistic structures, they are said to have paradigmatic relation.If a group of words can be joined together to form a linguistic structure, they are said to have syntagmatic relation. Syntagma: a sentence or a piece of language in use.Paradigm: all the inflectional forms of a word taken as a pattern or example.A new houseThe old carThis beautiful pictureHis small bagYou r … ……11.2 CollocationThe collocation of words refers to syntagmatic relation of words. That is to say, what words can be used together with what other words.We shall look into collocation from co-occurrence and selection restrictions.11.2.1 Co-occurrenc eCo-occurrence refers to the permitted syntagmatic combination of words. Or in Firth’s words, ―the mutual expectancy or words.‖―You shall know a word by the company it keeps.‖11.2.2 Selectional restrictionsThe collocation of words is decided by two points: grammatical rules and the semantic features of the words. The following sentences are grammatically unacceptable:He elapsed the man.He frightened that he was coming.The following sentences, though grammatically correct, is unacceptable from the perspective of semantic features: He elapsed a week ago.The man frightened the idea.Association and Collocation in English Study:Words and expressions should not be memorized in isolation from the linguistic contexts. The safest approach is to make sentences in which individual words and expressions may occur.Lecture 12 Chapter 8 Meaning and Context8.1. Types of ContextNarrow sense --- the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears.(Linguistic context) a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.Broad sense ---physical situation included as well( Non-linguistic, or extra-linguistic context)8.1.1. Extra-linguistic context (pp.161-163)8.1.2. Linguistic context: a. lexical context b. grammatical context8.2. The role of context: 1. Elimination of ambiguity 2. Indication of referents 3. Provision of clues for inferring word-meaningLecture 13 Chapter 9 English Idioms9.1. Characteristics of Idiomsa.semantic unityb. structural stability9.2. Classification of Idioms1. Idioms Nominal in Nature2. Idioms Adjective in Nature3. Idioms Verbal in Nature4. Idioms Adverbial in Nature5. Sentence Idioms / proverbs9.3. Use of Idioms9.3.1. Stylistic featuresColloquialisms / Slang / Literary expressions9.3.2. Rhetorical FeaturesPhonetic manipulation: Alliteration / Rhyme / ReiterationLexical manipulation: Repetition / Juxtaposition ( of antonyms)Figures of speecha.Simileb. Metaphorc. Metonymyd.Synecdochee. Personificationf. Euphemism9.3.3. variations of idiomsReplacement / Addition or deletion / Position-shifting / Shortening / DismemberingLecture 14 Culture and VocabularyCultural Connotations of English WordsEnglish words have very rich cultural connotations, which inflect the various aspects of English and American social life.ColorRed: red is a symbol for happiness, goodness, positiveness in China, but it is a color that can often arouse feeling of blood, killing in the western culture.Pink slip: a notice of firing an employee.White and black: in English, white has a positive meaning while black means something derogative. But in the black means a company has made profit, for the profit is written in black ink. While inthe red means the business is suffering a loss, for that is written in red ink as a rule. AnimalBlack sheep: a member which brings shame to the group.To bell the cat: riskCold fish: a person who is not friendly, lacking affection, often isolated from others.A fish out of water: a person who is in a very embarrassed situationTo teach a fish how to swim:Dog: to work like a dog→ work hard.Lucky dog→ a lucky personMonkey business: unlawful or illegal business, involving cheating or fraud.Straight from the h orse’s mouth: dependable or reliable.Goose bumps: 鸡皮疙瘩。

Episode 1: A General Survey of Word1.Word …A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2.Vocabulary 一- Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words ofa language・ It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history ・The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 2 million words.3.Con tent word (notional word) denote clear notions and thus are known as no tional words ・They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.4.BoiTOwed words (loan words, borrowing) ™ words taken over from foreign language are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan words under 4 classes: Denizens, Aliens, translation loans, Semantic loans5.Semantic loans —are not borrowed with reference to the form, but their meaning are borrowed from another language・ In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in language・ e.g. stupid old dump6.Reference- the relationship between language and the world・ By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are being talked ab out. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. This connection is the result of generalization and abstraction.Although reference is abstract, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.7.Concept- which beyond language is the result of human cognition reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It isn't affected by language・ Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. Meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use.A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world.& Sense-一denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language・1.What is the importance of basic word stock?The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language, which has five characteristics: all national character, stability, productivity, polysemy, collocability.2.What are the characteristics of associative meaning?Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.It is open-ended and indetenninate. It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc.3.Tell briefly about Martin Joos’ the Five Clocks?It suggests five degrees of formality: frozen, formal, consultative, casual and intimate.4・ What is the difference between lexical meaning and grammatical meaning?Unlike lexical meaning, different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning. On the other hand, the same word may have different grammatical meanings. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning whereas content words have both meanings, and lexical meaning in partial. Lexical and grammatical meanings make up the word-meaning. It is known that grammatical meaning surfaces only in use. But lexical meaning is constant in all the content words within or without context as it is related to the notion that the word conveys.Episode 2: Main Characteristics of English Vocabulary1.The Indo-European Language Family■一it is assumed that the world has approximately3,000(some put it 5,000)languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar. It is made up of most of the language of Europe, the Nera East, and India Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and AlbanianWestern set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic.2.Old English (450-1150)■一The 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts, the language was Celtic. The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions・ After the Romans, the Germanic tribes called angles, Saxons and Jutes and their language, Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.3.Norman Conquest■一the Normans invaded England from France in 1066・ the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English・ Norman French became the polite speech・ 75% of them are still in use today. The situation of 3 languages (French, English, Latin) existing simultaneously continued for over a century..4.Renaissance■一In the early period of modem English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. This is known in history as the Renaissance・ Latin and Greek were recognized as the language of the Western world's great literary heritage and of great scholarship ・5.Reviving archaic words-一words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. They are found mainly in older poems, legal document and religious writing or speech.6.Modern English (1150-1500) ™Modern English began with the establishment of printing in English・ Word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. Modern English is considered to be an analytic language・1.Why do we say n English is a heavy borrower?u Please justify it.English is a heavy bonower and has adopted words from all other major languages of the world. It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80% of the modern English vocabulary・ As is stated in Encyclopedia Americana /The English language has vast debts・ In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed M.eg. kowtou from Chinese, long time no see from haojiubujian (Chinese), the word H dream n originally meant "joy" and ”music蔦its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse.2.In the Middle English Period, what made French a dominant language in England?In 1066, in the history of England, there was Norman Conquest. The French-speaking Normans were the ruling class. French was used for all state affairs and for most social and cultural matters. Therefore, those who in power spoke French, those who were literate read and wrote in French; and any young man who sought to earn his living as a scribe learned Latin or French because there was no market for such services in English・ The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English・3・ What happened in the mid-seventeenth century in England?England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power.Episode 3: Morphological Structure of English Words1.Morpheme—A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language・(The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.)2.Morph■一A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs・3.Monomorphenic words■一morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph-一Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. e.g. the morpheme of plurality (-s) has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context, e.g. in cats/s/, in bags/z/, in matches/iz/.5・ Free morphemes or free root—The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences, e.g. cat, walk. They are identical with root words・morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6.Bound Morphemes一-The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words, e.g. recollection (re+collect+ion) collect - free morpheme re-and -ion are bound morphemes, (including bound root and affix) Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7.Bound root—A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just likea free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -diet- for example: it conveys the meaning of n say or speak” as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand”. Contradict “speak against^. Bound roots are either Latin or Greek.Although they are limited in number, their productive power is amazing・& Affixes™Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. Almost affixes are bound morphemes.9.Prefixes—Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war, sub+sea10.Suffixes・・・suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y.l 1・Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes™Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable.12.Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes—Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words・13.Root-一A root is the basic form of a word, which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. (What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.) .e.g. "internationalists^ removing inter-, -al-, -ist, -s, leaves the root nation.14.Stem—A form to which affixes of any kind can be added・ E・g・u internationalists,\ nation is a root and a stem as well.A stem may consist of a single root or two roots and a root plus an affix・1・ What are the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes?Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes・ Modem English is an analytic language・ Most endings are lost, leaving only a few inflectional affixes, such as plural forms of nouns-s(-es), and the comparative and superlative degree forms of adjectives: -er, -est. Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes ・2.What are the differences between root and stem? Explain with examples・A root is the basic form of a word, which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.(What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.) .e.g. "internationalists" removing inter-, -al-, -ist,leaves the root nation.A stem is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added・ e.g. "internationalists^, nation is a root and a stem as well.A stem may consist of a single root or two roots and a root plus an affix・A stem can be a root or a form bigger than a root.Episode 4: Major Processes of Word-formation1.Affixation (Derivation)■一the formation of words by adding word forming or derivational affixes to stems. According to their position, affixation falls into: prefixalion and suffixation.2.Pre fixationthe formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. It does not change the word-class of the stem but change its meaning3.Suffixation■一Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Change the grammatical function of stems (the word class). Suffixes can be grouped on a grammatical basis ・4.Adjective suffix™the suffix combines with noun or verb to create denominal or deverbal suffixes.一-adj suffixpounding (Composition—Compounding is a process of word・formation by joining two or more stems.6.Conversion (zero-derivation, functional shift)—Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. These words are new only in a grammatical sense・The most productive is between nouns and verbs.1.How do you distinguish compounds from free phrases?Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects.1)Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stess.2)Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3)Grammatical features・ A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence・Episode 5: The Minor Processes of Word-FormationDefine the following terms1 ・ Blending一-is the word formation by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word・2.Clipping-一shorten a Ion ger word by cutti ng a part of the origi n and using what remains instead ・ People tend to be economical in writing and speech to keep up the tempo of new life style.3.Acronymy■一is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special phrases and technical terms4.Initialisms-一are words fonned from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. It?s one of the word formations of acronymy.5.Acronyms■一are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words・・IFs one of the word formations of acronymy.6.Back-formation-一is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion ofa supposed affix. It is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.1.What are neologisms? Give one example to illustrate them.Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. The examples go as follows:"They misunderestimated me.n M We don't want to get dixie-chicked, or anything like that, out of the gate. We’ve inves ted tens of millions of dollars in the movie.n dixie-chicked, to become the subject of ridicule and economic loss by alienating a constituency.sniglet: a term invented by comedian Rich Hall to characterize a "word that should be in the dictionary, but isn,t.,t A few examples:doork, a person who always pushes on a door marked H puH n or vice versa.lotshock, the act of parking your car, walking away, and then watching it roll past you. pupkus, the moist residue left on a window after a dog presses its nose to it.daffynition: a pun coined by reinterpreting an existing word on the basis that it sounds like another word. Under the name Uxbridge English Dictionary, making up daffynitions is a game on the BBC Radio 4 comedy quiz show Fm Sorry I Haven^t a Clue. A few examples: antelope, to run off with your mother's sister.testicle, an exploratory tickle.boomerang, what you say to frighten a meringue.pasteurize, too far to see.For more than 20 years, columnist Bob Levey of The Washington Post has been inviting readers to submit new definitions for pre-existing words. Some memorable contributions: circumvent (nJ, the opening in the front of boxer shorts.coffee (n.), a person who is coughed upon.flabbergasted (adj.), appalled over how much weight you have gained・Frisbeetarianism (nJ, the belief that, when you die, your soul flies up onto the roof and gets stuck there ・population (n.), that nice sensation you get when drinking soda.spatula (n.), a fight among vampires.testicle (n.), a humorous question on an exam.2.What are the three main sources of new English words?Three main sources of new words are:the rapid development of modem science and tech no logy;social, economic and political changes;the influence of other cultures and languages3.How do you explain the difference between backformation and suffixation? Give example to illustrate your point.Back-formation is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. It is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. As we know, Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems, and back-formation is therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes・ For example,is a noun suffix, it is added to noun base engine to produce a new word-engineer, however, people make can make verbs by dropping the endings such as -or in editor, and -er in butler・ This is how we derive edit and butle. The removed suffixes are not true suffixes but inseparable pars of the words.Episode 6 Motivation1.Motivation—accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning・2.Onomatopoeic Motivation™the words whose sounds suggest their meaning・(Indicate the relationship between sound and meaning). Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning・ These words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, ping-pang, crow by cocks, etc.3.Morphological Motivation―Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many words are the sum total of the morphemes combined. (Indicate the relationship between word meaning and each morpheme meaning)・ For instance, airmail means4.Semantic Motivation一-refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explained the conn ection between literal sense and figurative sense of a word).5.Etymological Motivation-一The history of the word explains the meaning of the word. (Indicate the relationship between word meaning and its origin).Episode 7 Semantic Features & Componential Analysis1 ・ Grammatical meaning—refer to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships, such as part of speech of words, singular and plural meanings of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms. Grammatical meaning becomes important only used in actual context.2・ Lexical meaning—-is constant in all the words within or without context related to the notion that the word conveys. It has two components, conceptual meaning and associative meaning.3.Conceptual meaning (denotative meaning)-一the meaning given in the dictionary and forms thecore of wordeaning. It is constant and relative stable. Conceptual meaning forms the basis for communicatio n.Episode 8 Semantic Changes1 • Three mode s of vocabulary development(1)Creation-一the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. (This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.)(2)Semantic change■一an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need・(3)Borrowing-一to take in words from other languages.(particularly in earlier time)2.Extension (generalization)■一is a term referring to the widening of meaning・ It is a process by which a word, which originally had a specialized meaning, has now become generalized・3.Narrowing (specialization)—is a term referring to the shrinking of meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.4.Elevation or amelioration—refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance・5.Degradation or pejoration of meaning-一It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense6.Transfer…words which were used to designate on thing but later changed to mean something else.1 ・ What are the linguistic factors that cause changes in meaning?Internal factors within the language system, and the influx of borrowing, analogy.Episode 9 Polysemy and Homonymy1・ Polysemy一-polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages that one word may have two or more senses or different meanings.Two approaches: Diachronic approach ,Synchronic approach・2.Radiation一-is a semantic change in which the primary meaning stands at the center and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays.3.Concatenationmeaning "linking together二is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the tern had at the beginning.4.Homonyms一-are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identi cal only in sound or spelling•5・ Perfect Homonyms-一are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, e.g. bank (financial institution) and bank (edge of a river)6.Homographs—are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning. e.g・sow/sow7.Homophones (most common)一-are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning・ e.g. dear/dear right/rite son/sun8.Hyponymy一-deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is，the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word・ These specific words are known as hyponyms (下义i司).For instance, tulip and rose are hyponyms of flower. The general word flower is the superordinate term (上义i诃)and the specific ones tulip and rose are the subordinate terms (下义词).1 ・ What is the difference between the process of radiation and concatenation?In radiation, the meanings are independent of one other, but can all be traced back to the central meaning・ If we give a graphic description of the meanings of face, it would look very much like a wheel of the bicycle.In concatenation, the meaning reached by the first shift may be shifted a second time, and so on until in the end the original meaning is totally lost.2. How to differentiate homonyms from polysemies?The fundamental difference lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and the same word which has several distinguishable meanings・ One important criterion is to see its etymology, the second is semantic relatedness.Episode 10 Sense Relations1・Antonyms™words which are opposite in meaning.2. Synonyms■一are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning・ Synonyms share a likeness in denotation and in part of speech・3・ Absolute (Complete) Synonyms-一are words, which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings・ Absolute (Complete) Synonyms are restricted to high-specialized vocabulary. For instance, composition / compounding. They have the perfect same meaning in Lexicology・4.Relative (Approximate) synonyms—are similar or nearly the same in denotation but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.1. What are the 3 types of antonyms? Illustrate with examples.Antonyms—are words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms (according to the semantic opposition)1)Contradictory terms 一these antonyms are truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. They assertion of one is the denial of the other.e.g. alive一dead, present—absent, male—female, boy—girl, true—false, same— ifferent,i mperfect—perfect2)Contrary terms■一a scale running between two poles or extremes・ The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.E.g. rich一(well-to・do)—poor; old一(middle-aged)一young, open一(ajar)—lose, beautiful—(good-looking)—(plain)—ugly,3)Relative terms 一consist of relational oppositeness. The pairs of words indicate such a social relationship that one of them can not be used without suggesting the other, the type is also reverse terms. The two words of each pair are interdependent.e.g. parent—hild; husband一wife; predecessor一successor, employer一employee。

1、多音节语素，判断什么是词、语素p11多音节语素，两个或两个以上音节的语素，以双音节为主，一般都能独立成词。

词由语素构成，理论上比词大。

关键区别在于，词能自由运用，语素则不一定，比如“电、水”可以自由运用，“脑、视、稻”就不能。

能自由运用的，可以直接上升为词，不能自由运用的，就要跟别的语素合起来组成词。

2、叠音词？重叠词？p233、造词法：音合法造词有哪些？p36约合法、形合法、音合法、契合法、转合法、移合法、类推法。

4、造词与构词的关系？p395、词汇的构成与概念（判断）p416、固定词组中惯用语与成语的区别（判断词的类型）p477、基本词汇的特点（多选）p56看书全民常用性、历史稳固性、构造新词语的基础性8、基本词汇与一般词汇的关系p59二者之间没有鸿沟，它们相互依存、相互转化、共同发展的关系。

9、口语词汇与书面词汇的关系（举例判断）p6410、判断词汇的单位p7411、构词特点（判断）p7912、词义的民族性表现在哪些方面？（问答）p91①不同民族语言的词义指称的客观对象的范围不同②不同民族语言中都有一部分词表示该民族特有的事物现象③表现在词义的引申发展上④表现在联想内容和情感内容上13、哪些种类词有明确性？模糊性？p9414、词义的内容？p96理性意义、联想意义、社会文化意义、色彩意义、语法意义。

15、形象色彩包括？p103表示视觉形象、听觉形象、触觉形象、嗅觉形象、味觉形象。

一般情况下，一个词只有一种形象感？否，需要看例子（判断）16、义位和义素分析法（PPT和书上的例子）p10517、什么词往往是单义词？p11518、多义词和多义语素的分辨？p11619、多义词产生的原因和途径（看书）p12220、多义词和同音词的根本区别，实例分辨p13821、什么是同义词及其类型？p14522、确定同义词应该注意的几个问题（判断是否是同义词，看书）p15723、反义词的类型？p165绝对反义词、相对反义词24、确定反义词应该注意的几个问题？（例子判断）p16925、上下义词是什么？写出某词的上下义词（看书）178-18026、词与词组合形成的关系p181语法关系和语义关系27、语义限制p18328、找出动词和名词的关系p18529、新词语的三个来源（简答、问答）p209新造、吸收和转化。

词汇学期末考试复习资料第一章A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic functionWord ，Vocabulary的关系All the words in a language make up what is generally known as its vocabulary.The relationship between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary and conventional, and there is no logical relationship between sound and meaning.Word-form and meaning: arbitrary and conventional.What is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is ‘no logical relationship between the sound and act ual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds.What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stageOld English3)With the development of the language, more and more diff erences occur between the two.What is the classification of words? How to classify words i n linguistics?Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words byorigin.According to Stuart Robertson the nine functional words , namely ,and , be , have , it , of , the , to , will ,youWhat are the characteristics of basic word stock?1) All national character 2) Stability 3) Productivity 4) Polyse my 5) CollocabilityNone basic vocabulary1) Terminology e.g. sonata, algebra 专业术语2) Jargon e.g. Bottom line ( Jargon ) 行话3) Slang e.g. smoky, bear ( Slang ) 俚语4) Argot e.g. persuader 黑话，隐语5) Dialectal words e.g. station ( AusE = ranch ) bluid ( ScotE = blood)方言6) Archaisms e.g. wilt (will) 古语词7) Neologisms e.g. email ( Neologisms ) 新语词第二章语系Three Phases of the Historical DevelopmentThe first peoples who inhabited the land were Celts.The second language known in English was Latin of the Roman Legions.Celtic对英语的影响小，主要是place，river name。