Chapter 5 Meaning
1、Semantics(语义学)
Semantics is the study of meaning of the linguistic units, words and sentences in particular、(语义学就是对语言单位，尤其就是词与句子得意义得研究。)
2、Meanings of “meaning”
1)、 Meaning:
Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world、
（意义就是指语言所表达得关于现实世界或者想象中得世界得想法。）
2)、 Connotation: （内涵）
Connotation means the properties of the entity a word denotes、
(内涵指得就是一个词所指称得实体得特征。)
3)、 Denotation: （外延）
Denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entity to which it refers、Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning、(外延涉及语言单位与非语言实体之间得关系。在这个意义上，它跟指称意义就是一样得。)
3、The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotation
Meaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world、There are many types of meaning according to different approaches、
Concept is the impression of objects in people’s mind、
Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication、
Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption of
the real world、
4、The referential theory
1)、 Definition
The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory、(把词语意义跟它所指称或代表得事物联系起来得理论，叫做指称理论)
2)、 The semantic triangle （语义三角）
Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle”as manifested in the following diagram。The connection (represented with a dotted line) between symbol and referent is made possible only through “concept、”
Concept / notion（概念）
Thought / reference
----------------------
Symbol object
Word stands for reality
Signifier referent
Code（词语）signified（事物）
5、Sense relations （涵义关系）
5、1 Synonymy
Synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation、
Antonymy is the name for oppositeness relation、There are three subtypes: gradable, complementary and converse antonymy、（反义关系就是对立关系得专业术语，它包括三个此类：等级反义关系，互补反义关系与反向反义关系。）
①、Gradable antonymy（等级反义关系）
Gradable antonymy is the commonest type of antonymy、They are mainly adjectives, e、g、good / bad, long / short, big / small, etc、
②、Complementary antonymy（互补反义关系）
The members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each other、That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic filed completely、Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, but the denial of one also means the assertion of the other, e、g、alive / dead, hit / miss, male / female, boy / girl, etc、
(跟第一种反义关系相反，这种反义词得成员彼此互补。也就就是说它们吧一个语义领域完全切分成两半。不但对一方得肯定意味着对另一方得否定，而且对一方得否定也意味着对另一方得肯定。)
③、Converse antonymy（反向反义关系）
Converse antonyms are also called relational opposites、This is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition、They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities, e、g、buy / sell, parent / child, above / below, etc、
（这就是反义关系得一种特殊类型，因为其中得成员并不构成肯定或者否定得对立，而只表现两实体间得一种反向关系。这种反义关系典型地表现在两两相对得角色、亲属关系、时间与空间关系等方面；在这种意义上，它叫关系对立。）
Hyponymy is meaning inclusiveness or a matter of class membership、That is to say, when x is a kind of y, the lower term x is the hyponym, and the upper term y is the superordinate、（上下义关系就是指意义内包关系或者说一种类与成员间得关系。位于这种意义关系上位得词语叫上坐标词；位于下位得就是成员，叫下义词。）
Two or more hyponyms of the same one superordinate are called co-hyponyms, e、g、under flower, there are peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc、, flower is the superordinate of peony, jasmine, etc、, peony is the hyponym of flower, and peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc、are co-hyponyms、（同下义词）
5、4 Homonymy (同音/同形异义关系)
Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i、e、different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both、(同音/同形异义关系就是指不同意义得词具有相同得形式这一种现象，即不同得词发音或者拼写相同，或者发音与拼写都相同。)
When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones、(同音异义词)When two words are identical in spelling, they are called homographs、(同形异义词) When two words are identical both in sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms、(完全同音同形词) 5、5、Entailment (蕴含)
If that one sentence is true gives us certain knowledge of the truth of the second sentence, then the first sentence entails the second one、
(如果知道一个句子得真假能够判断另一个句子得真假，那么第一个句子就蕴含了第二个句子。)
In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between the two sentences if a entails b: When a is true, b is necessarily true; (a真b真)
When b is false, a is false; (b假a假)
When a is false, b may be true or false; (a假b或真或假)
When b is true, a may be true、(b真a或真或假)
5、6、Presupposition (预设)
The speaker or writer always assumes that the hearer or reader already knows something of what he is going to say or write、This “something”often becomes the presupposition of a sentence、In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between two sentences:
When a is true, b is necessarily true; (a真b一定真)
When a is false, b is still true; (a假b仍为真)
When b is true, a can either be true or false; (b真a或真或假)
When b is false, no truth value can be said about、(b假，无真值可言)
6、Componential analysis (成分分析法)
Componential analysis defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components、That is, the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features、(成分分析法用语义成分来定义词汇，也就就是说，一个词可以被分成语义特征。)
Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of word、There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word、E、g、
Boy: [+human][-adult][+male]
Girl: [+human][-adult][-male]
Son: child (x, y) & male (x)
Daughter: child (x, y) & -male (x)
Take: cause (x, (have (x, y)))
Give: cause (x, (-have (x, y)))
Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind
1、Psycholinguistics (心理语言学)
1、1、cognition(认知)
①It refers to the mental process of an individual, with particular relationship to a concept which argues that the mind has internal mental states(such as beliefs, desires and intentions(认知就是指个人得心理过程，即心智具有内部心理状态（如信念、意志与意愿）)
②It is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning and judgment、(认知就是指心理过程或知识得能力，包括意识、知觉、推理与判断等。)
1、2、Psycholinguistics (心理语言学)
Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it mainly studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language、An important focus of psycholinguistics is the largely unconscious use of grammatical rules that enable people to produce and comprehend intelligible sentences、Psycholinguistics investigate the relationship between language and thought, and they are also concerned with how languages are learned, and the roles they play in our thinking、
①心理语言学就是对语言心理方面得研究，通常研究得就是与语言行为相关得心理状态与
思维活动。②心理语言学得一个重点就是研究能够使人理解与产生可理解句子得语法规则得无意识运用。③心理语言学家研究语言与思维得关系，心理语言学同时也还关注语言就是如何习得得以及语言在思维运用中所发挥得作用。
Psycholinguistics is a branch of linguistics which is the study of psychological aspects of language、As an interdisciplinary academic field, it investigates the following subjects: acquisition, comprehension and production、
2、Categorization(范畴化)
Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences、There are three levels in categories: the basic level, the superordinate level and the subordinate level、
范畴化就是人类基于经验得异同对经验进行分类得过程；范畴划分为三个层次：基本层次范畴、上位层次范畴、下属层次范畴
Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题 第一章：语言学导论 I. Choose the best answer. (20%) 1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human A. contact C. relation B. communication D. community 2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary? A. tree C. crash B. typewriter D. bang 3. The function of the sentence “ Waterboils at 100 degrees Centigrade. i”s A. interrogative C. informative B. directive D. performative 4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say “碎碎(岁岁)平安”asa means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform? A. Interpersonal C. Performative B. Emotive D. Recreational 5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation? A. Transferability C. Displacement B. Duality D. Arbitrariness 6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language? —A nice day, isn 't it? Right! I really enjoy the sunlight. A. Emotive C. Performative B. Phatic D. Interpersonal 7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language usesr knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances. A. Performance C. Langue B. Competence D. Parole 8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now.
语言学教程chapter1-3 1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc. 本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。 2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,https://www.doczj.com/doc/6b14134195.html,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。 4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的，是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的。5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 共时：以一个固定的时间（通常，但非必须，是现在）为它的观察角度的描写。大多数的语法书属于此类型。 6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 历时：在语言的历史过程中研究语言。 7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,https://www.doczj.com/doc/6b14134195.html,ying down rules for language use. 规定式：规定事情应该是怎样的。如制定语言运用规则。 8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 描写式：描述事情是怎样的。 9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 任意性：人类语言的本质特征之一。它指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系。 10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二重性：人类语言的本质特征之一。拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。 11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space),at the moment of communication.
第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点： 语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。
本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process
胡壮麟语言学重难点 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源 2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。 1. 语言的定义特征 1.1. 任意性 1.2. 二重性 1.3. 创造性 1.4. 移位性 1.5. 文化传递性 1.6. 互换性 2. 语言的功能 1.1. 信息功能 1.2. 人际功能 1.3. 施为功能 1.4. 感情功能 1.5. 寒暄功能 1.6. 娱乐功能 1.7. 元语言功能
3. 微观语言学 3.1. 语音学 3.2. 音系学 3.3. 形态学 3.4. 句法学 3.5. 语义学 3.6. 语用学 4. 宏观语言学 4.1. 心理语言学 4.2. 社会语言学 4.3. 应用语言学 4.4. 计算语言学 4.5. 神经语言学 5. 重要概念及其区分 5.1. 描写式&规定式 5.2. 共时&历时 5.3. 语言&言语 5.4. 语言能力&语言应用 5.5. 唯素的&唯位的 5.6. 传统语法&现代语法 5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为 Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法 2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。 1. 语音学及其三大领域 1.1. 语音学定义 1.2. 语音学三大领域 ①发音语音学 ②声学语音学 ③听觉语音学 2. 辅音 2.1. 辅音定义 发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞，由此产生的音叫做辅音。 2.2. 发音方式 发音方式是指发音器官之间的关系，以及气流经过声道的某些部位的方式 2.3. 发音部位 发音部位是指声道的哪些部位发生气流摩擦、狭窄化或阻碍。 3. 元音
Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase 第一部分The formation of word——Morpheme词的构成 1. Morpheme 词素的定义 Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, such as boy and –s in boys, check and –ing in checking. And the systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology 2. Types of morphemes 词素的种类 ①Free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由词素和黏着词素 Free morphemes: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as Dog, nation. Bound morphemes: Those that cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least one different morpheme, are called bound morphemes, for example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and –ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and –ed are two bound morphemes. ②Root, affix and stem 词根、词缀和词干 A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that remains when all the affixes are removed. For example, in the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. Therefore, all words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive and conceive: -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit: -tain in retain, contain and maintain, among many others A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tense form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. They are classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, infix, and suffix. Prefix such as para-, mini- in paragraph and miniskirt; Infix such as –ize, -tion in colonize and revolution; Suffix such as –ee- in feet (vs. foot). A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added, so both friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix. ③Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派生词缀 Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways: 1)First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. They often add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem, such as toys, walks, John’s. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexical item. However, derivational affixes are very productive in making new words. For example, cite, citation, cital. So derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. 2)Second, inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter. 3)Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake. For example, the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the Internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence. However, derivational affixes are more often based on
Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind 6.1 Introduction 1. Language is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. 2. Language is a product of human intelligence, created a new in each individual by operation that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. 3. Psycholinguistics “proper” can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). 4. Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. 5. The differences between psycholinguistics and psychology of language. Psycholinguistics can be defined as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). It is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. On the other hand, the psychology of language deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought, and from the psychology of communication, includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions. 6. Cognitive psycholinguistics: Cognitive psycholinguistics is concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mind. 7. Experimental psycholinguistics: Experimental psycholinguistics is mainly concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word. 6.1.1 Evidence 1. Linguists tend to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their main source of evidence, whereas psychologists mostly prefer experimental studies. 2. The subjects of psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults and children on the one hand, and aphasics----people with speech disorders-----on the other. The primary assumption with regard to aphasic patient that a breakdown in some part of language could lead to an understanding of which components might be independent of others. 6.1.2 Current issues 1. Modular theory: Modular theory assumes that the mind is structured into separate modules or components, each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others. 2. Cohort theory: The cohort theory hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived. This theory can be expanded to deal with written materials as well. Several experiments have supported this view of word
胡壮麟的语言学术语英汉对照翻译表 1. 语言的普遍特征： 任意性arbitrariness 双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构 多产性productivity 移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西 文化传播性cultural transmission 2。语言的功能： 传达信息功能informative 人济功能：interpersonal 行事功能：Performative 表情功能：Emotive 寒暄功能：Phatic 娱乐功能recreatinal 元语言功能metalingual 3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支 语音学Phonetics 音位学phonology 形态学Morphology 句法学syntax 语义学semantics 语用学pragmatics 4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure 提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语 5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky 提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance 1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language: a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain language b. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing. c. we can u se language to refer to something not present d. we can produce sentences that have never been heard befor e. 2.What is the most important function of language? a. interpersonal b. phatic c. informative d.metallingual 3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __ a informative b. phatic c. directive d. performative 4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __
胡壮麟语言学复习及答案 Chapter I In troducti on I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1.Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage. 2.L in guistics studies particular Ian guage, not Ian guages in gen eral. 3.A scie ntific study of Ian guage is based on what the lin guist thi nks. 4.In the study of lin guistics, hypotheses formed should be based on Ian guage facts and checked aga inst the observed facts. 5.Gen eral li nguistics is gen erally the study of Ian guage as a whole. 6.General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic con cepts, theories, descripti ons, models and methods applicable in any lin guistic study. 7.Phon etics is differe nt from phono logy in that the latter studies the comb in ati ons of the sounds to con vey meaning in com muni cati on. 8.Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meanin gful senten ces. 9.The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 10.Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the comb in ati on of morphemes into words and words into senten ces. 11.The study of meaning in Ian guage is known as sema ntics. 12.Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. 13.Pragmatics is differe nt from sema ntics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolati on, but in con text. 14.Social cha nges can ofte n bring about Ian guage cha nges. 15.Sociolinguistics is the study of Ianguage in relation to society. 16.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17.Moder n lin guistics is differe nt from traditi onal grammar. 18. A diachronic study of Ianguage is the description of Ianguage at some point in time. 19 Modern linguistics regards the written Ianguage as primary, not the written Ian guage. 20.The disti ncti on betwee n compete nee and performa nee was proposed by F. de Saussure. II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the