土木工程专业英语
New Words
1. achieve achievement
2. eccentricity center, 中心; ec centric 偏心的；ec centricity 偏心，偏心距
3. inevitable evitable 可避免的avoidable; in evitable 不可避免的unavoidable
4. truss 桁架triangular truss, roof truss, truss bridge
5. bracing brace 支柱，支撑；bracing, 支撑，撑杆
6. slender 细长，苗条；stout; slenderness
7. buckle 压曲，屈曲；buckling load
8. stocky stout
9. convincingly convince, convincing, convincingly
10. stub 树桩，短而粗的东西；stub column 短柱
11. curvature 曲率；curve, curvature
12. detractor detract draw or take away; divert; belittle，贬低，诽谤；
13. convince
14. argument dispute, debate, quarrel, reason, 论据（理由）
15. crookedness crook 钩状物，v弯曲，crooked 弯曲的
16. provision 规定，条款
Phrases and Expressions
1. compression member
2. bending moment shear force, axial force
3. call upon (on) 要求，请求，需要
4. critical buckling load 临界屈曲荷载critical 关键的，临界的
5. cross-sectional area
6. radius of gyration 回转半径gyration
7. slenderness ratio 长细比
8. tangent modulus 切线模量
9. stub column 短柱
10. trial-and-error approach 试算法
11. empirical formula 经验公式empirical 经验的
12. residual stress 残余应力residual
13. hot-rolled shape 热轧型钢hot-rolled bar
14. lower bound 下限upper bound 上限
16. effective length 计算长度
Definition （定义）
Compression members are those structural elements that are subjected only to axial compressive forces: that is, the loads are applied along a longitudinal axis through the centroid of the member cross section, and the stress can be taken as f a=P/A, where f a is considered to be uniform over the entire cross section. 受压构件是仅受轴向压力作用的构件，即：荷载是沿纵轴加在其截面形心上的，其应力可表示为…，式中，假定f a在整个截面上均匀分布。This ideal state is never achieved in reality, however, and some eccentricity of the load is inevitable. 然而，现实中从来都不可能达到这种理想状态，因为荷载的一些偏心是不可避免的。This will result in bending, but it can usually be regarded as secondary and can be neglected if the theoretical loading condition is closely approximated. 这将导致弯曲，但通常
a computed bending moment, and situation of this type will be considered in Beam-Columns. 但这并非总是可行的，如有计算出的弯矩存在时，这种情形将在梁柱理论中加以考虑。
The most common type of compression member occurring in buildings and bridges is the column , a vertical member whose primary function is to support vertical loads. 在建筑物和桥梁中最常见的受压构件就是柱，其主要功能就是支承竖向荷载。In many instances these members are also called upon to resist bending, and in these cases the member is a beam-column . Compression members can also be found in trusses and as components of bracing systems. 在许多情况下，它们也需要抵抗弯曲，在此情况下，将它们称为梁柱。受压构件也存在于桁架和支撑系统中。
Column Theory （柱理论）
Consider the long, slender compression member shown in Fig.1.1a. 考虑如图1.1.a 所示的长柱If the axial load P is slowly applied, it will ultimately reach a value large enough to cause the member to become unstable and assume the shape indicated by the dashed line. 如果慢慢增加轴向荷载P ，它最终将达到一个足够大的值使该柱变得不稳定(失稳)，如图中虚线所示。 The member is said to have buckled, and the corresponding load is called th e critical buckling load . 这时认为构件已经屈曲，相应的荷载称为临界屈曲荷载。If the member is more stocky , as the one in Fig.1.1b, a larger load will be required to bring the member to the point of instability. 如果该构件更粗短些，如图1.1b 所示，则需要更大的荷载才能使其屈曲。For extremely stocky members, failure may be by compressive yielding rather than buckling. 对特别粗短的构件，破坏可能是由受压屈服引起而非由屈曲引起。For these stocky members and for more slender columns before they buckle, the compressive stress P/A is uniform over the cross section at any point along the length. 对这些短柱以及更细长的柱，在其屈曲前，在其长度方向上任意点处横截面上的压应力P/A 都是均匀的。As we shall see, the load at which buckling occurs is a function of slenderness , and for very slender members this load could be quite small. 我们将会看到，屈曲发生时的荷载是长细程度的函数，非常细长的构件的屈曲荷载将会很低。
If the member is so slender (a precise definition of slenderness will be given shortly) that the stress just before buckling is below the proportional limit —that is, the member is still elastic —the critical buckling load is given by 如果构件如此细长（随后将会给出细长程度的精确定义）以致即将屈曲时的应力低于比例极限—即，构件仍是弹性的，临界屈曲荷载如下式给出：
22L EI
P cr π= (1.1)
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material, I is the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area with respect to the minor principal axis, and L is the length of the member between points of support. 式中E 为材料弹性模量，I 为关于截面副主轴的惯性矩，L 为支座间的距离。For Eq1.1 to be valid, the member must be elastic, and its ends must be free to rotate but not translate laterally. This end condition is satisfied by hinges or pins. 要使方程1.1成立，构件必须是弹性的，且其两端必须能自由转动，但不能侧向移动。
This remarkable relationship was first formulated by Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler and published in 1975. 此著名公式是瑞士数学家欧拉于1975年提出的。The critical load is sometimes referred to as the Euler load or the Euler buckling load. The validity of Eq.1.1 has been demonstrated convincingly by numerous tests. 因此有时将临界荷载称为欧拉荷载或欧拉临界荷载。欧拉公式的有效性（正确性）已由许多试验充分证实。
It will be convenient to rewrite Eq.1.1 as follows: 方程1.1可方便地写为
2222222)/(r L EA L EAr L EI P cr πππ=== (1.1a)
where A is the cross-sectional area and r is the radius of gyration with respect to the axis of buckling. The ratio L/r is the slenderness ratio and is the measure of a compression member ?s slenderness, with large values corresponding to slender members. 式中A 为截面面积，r 为关于屈曲轴的回转半径，L/r 为长细比，它是对受压构件细长程度的一种度量，该值越大，构件越细长。
If the critical load is divided by the cross-sectional area, the critical buckling stress is obtained: 如果将屈曲荷载除以截面面积，便可得到以下屈曲应力： 22)/(r L E A P F cr cr π== (1.2)
This is the compressive stress at which buckling occur about the axis corresponding to r. 这便是绕相应于r 的轴发生屈曲时的压应力。Since buckling will take place as soon as the load reaches the value by Eq.1.1, the column will become unstable about the principle axis corresponding to the largest slenderness ratio. This usually means the axis with the smaller moment of inertia. 由于一旦荷载达到式1.1之值，柱将在与最大长细比对应的主轴方向变得不稳定（失稳），通常该轴是惯性矩较小的轴。Thus, the minimum moment of inertia and radius of gyration of the cross section should be used in Eq.1.1 and 1.2. 因此，应在方程1.1和1.2中采用截面的最小惯性矩和最小回转半径。
Early researchers soon found that Euler ?s equation did not give reliable results for stocky , or less slender, compression members. 早期的研究者很快发现对短柱或不太细长的受压构件，欧拉公式并不能给出可靠的结果，This is because of the small slenderness ratio for members of this type, which results in a large buckling stress (from Eq.1.2). 这是因为这种构件的长细比较小，从而产生较高的屈曲应力。If the stress at which buckling occurs is greater than the proportional limit of the material, the relation between stress and strain is not linear, and the modulus of elasticity E can no longer be used. 如果屈曲发生时的应力大于材料的比例极限，应力应变关系就不再是线性的，也不能再用弹性模量E 。 This difficulty was initially resolved by Friedrich Engesser, who proposed in 1889 the use of a variable tangent modulus E t in Eq.1.1. 这一困难最初由Friedrich Engesser 所克服，他在1889年将可变的切线模量用于方程1.1. For a material with a stress-strain curve like the one in Fig.1.2, E is not a constant for stress greater than the proportional limit F pl . The tangent modulus E t is defined as the slope of the tangent to the stress-strain curve for values of f between F pl and F y . 对于如图1.2所示的应力应变曲线(的材料)，当应力超过比例极限时，E 并非常数，当应力处于F pl 和F y 之间时，将切线模量定义为应力应变曲线的切线的斜率，If the compressive stress at buckling, P cr /A, is in this region, it can be shown that 如果屈曲时的压应力在此范围时，可以证明
22L I
E P t cr π= (1.3)
This is identical to the Euler equation, except that E t is substituted for E. 除公式中将E 代之以E t 外，上式与欧拉公式完全相同。
Effective Length （计算长度）
Both the Euler and tangent modulus equations are based on the following assumptions: 欧拉和切线模量方程都是基于如下假定：
1. The column is perfectly straight, with no initial crooked ness. 柱完全竖直，无初始弯曲。
2. The load is axial, with no eccentricity . 荷载是轴向加载，无偏心。
3. The column is pinned at both ends. 柱在两端铰结。
The first two conditions mean that there is no bending moment in the member before buckling. 前两(假定)条件意味着在屈曲前无弯矩存在。As mentioned previously , some accidental moment will be present, but in most cases it can be neglected. 如前所述，可能偶然会存在一些弯矩，但在大多数情况
下都可被忽略。The requirement for pinned ends, however, is a serious limitation, and provisions must be made for other support conditions. 然而，铰结要求是一个严重的局限，必须对其它支撑条件作出规定。The pinned-end condition is one that requires that the member be restrained from lateral translation, but not rotation, at the ends. 铰结条件要求约束构件两端不发生侧移，但并不约束转动。Since it is virtually impossible to construct a frictionless pin connection, even this support condition can only be closely approximated at best. 由于实际上不可能构造无摩擦铰连接，即使这种支撑条件最多也只能是非常近似。Obviously, all columns must be free to deform axially . 显然，所有柱必须在轴向自由变形。 In order to account for other end conditions, the equations for critical buckling load will be written as 为了考虑其它边界条件，将临界荷载写为如下形式
22)/(r KL EA
P cr π= or 22)/(r KL A
E P t cr π= (1.4)
where KL is the effective length, and K is called the effective length factor. V alues of K for different cases can be determined with the aid of the Commentary to the AISC Specification. 式中KL 为计算长度，K 称为计算长度系数，各种情况下的K 值可借助于AISC （美国钢结构学会American Institute of Steel Construction ）规范的条文说明加以确定。
Lesson 2
New words
1. framework frame+work=frame 构架，框架; frame structure, 框架结构
2. constraint vt. constrain 约束，强迫；n. constraint 约束
3. collaborate vt. 合作，通敌；collaboration, collaborative
4. evaluation vt. evaluate, value; assess, assessment
5. fixture vt. fix, fixture 固定设备，固定物，夹具
6. partition vt. n 分割，划分， make apart; partition wall
7. overlook
8. crane n. 超重机，鹤
9. fatigue vt.vi.n 疲劳 fatigue strength, fatigue failure
10. drift v .n 漂流，漂移，雪堆
11. enumerate v . list 列举
12. plumbing n. (卫生，自来水)管道，plumber 管道工
13. ventilation n. 通风， ventilate, ventilate a room, a well-ventilated room, vent 通风口
14. accessibility n . 可达性， access, n. vt. 通道，接近；accessible 易接近的，可达到的
15. code n. vt 代码，编码，规范
16. administer v . 管理，执行；administrate, 管理
17. metropolitan a. 大城市，of metropolis
18. consolidate v . 巩固，strengthen ，reinforce; consolidation
19. prescription n. 规定，命令，药方；prescribe
20. municipality n. 市政当局，直辖市， municipal government
21. specification n. 详述，规格, 规范；specify
22. mandate n. 书面命令，委托，
Phrases and expressions
1. functional design 功能设计
2. bending moment 弯矩
3. dead load
4. live load
5. nonstructural components 非结构构件
6. force due to gravity
7. gravity load
8. building code
9. design specifications 设计规程
10. nonprofit organization 非赢利组织，弄non-government organization
11. the National Building Code
12. the Uniform Building Code
13. the Standard Building Code
14. Building Officials and Code Administrators International (BOCA) 国际建筑公务员与法规管理人
员联合会
15. AISC 美国钢结构学会American Institute of Steel Construction
16. AASHTO 美国公路和运输工作者协会
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
17. AREA 美国铁道工程协会the American Railway Engineering Association
18. AISI 美国钢铁学会American Iron and Steel Institute
Introduction to Structural Design
Structural design
The structural design of building, whether of structural steel or reinforced concrete, requires the determination of the overall proportions and dimensions of the supporting framework and the selection of the cross sections of individual members. 建筑结构设计，不论是钢结构还是钢筋混凝土结构，都需要确定其支承结构的整体比例和尺寸以及各构件的截面尺寸。In most cases the functional design, including the establishment of the number of stories and the floor plan, will have been done by an architect, and the structural engineer must work within the constraints imposed by this design. 在大多数情况下，功能设计，包括楼层层数和楼层平面的确定，将要由建筑师来完成，因而结构工程师必须在此约束条件下工作。Ideally, the engineer and architect will collaborate throughout the design process so that the project is completed in an efficient manner. 在理想状态下，工程师和建筑师将在整个设计过程中协同工作从而高效地完成设计工作。In effect, however, the design can be summed up as follows:然而，事实上，设计过程可概括如下：The architect decides how the building should look; the engineer must make sure that it doesn?t fall down. 建筑师确定建筑物的外观，工程师必须确保其不会倒塌。Although this is an oversimplification, it affirms the first priority of the structural engineer: safety. Other important considerations include serviceability (how well the structure performs in terms of appearance and deflection) and economy. 尽管这样说过分简单，但它明确了工程师的第一个主要任务，即，确保安全。其它要考虑的因素包括适用性（就外观和挠曲而言其工作性能如何）。An economical structure requires an efficient use of materials and construction labor. Although this can usually be accomplished by a design that requires a minimum amount of material, savings can often be realized by
using slightly more material if it results in a simpler, more easily constructed projects. 经济的结构要求对材料和人工的有效使用，尽管这通常都能通过要求最少材料来取得，但通过采用稍多的材料，但能使建筑物更简单和更容易建造常常会实现节约的目的。
Loads
The forces the act on a structure are called loads. They belong to one of two broad categories, dead load and live load. 作用在结构物上的各种力称为荷载，它们属于一两种广义类型，恒载和活载。Dead loads are those that are permanent, including the weight of the structure itself, which is sometimes called the self-weight. 恒载是那些永久荷载，包括结构自身的重量，有时也称为自重。Other dead loads in a building include the weight of nonstructural components such as floor coverings, suspended ceilings with light fixtures, and partitions. 其它建筑物恒载包括非结构构件的重量，如楼面面层、带有灯具的吊顶以及隔墙。All of the loads mentioned thus far are forces due to gravity and are referred to as gravity loads. 至此所提的各种荷载都是由重力所引起，因而称为重力荷载。Live loads, which can also be gravity loads, are those that are not as permanent as dead loads. 活载也可以是重力荷载，它们是那些不如恒载那样永久的荷载。This type may or may not be acting on the structure as any given time, and the location may not be fixed. 这类荷载可能也可能不总是作用在结构物上，且作用位置也可能不是固定的。Examples of live load include furniture, equipment, and occupants of buildings. 活荷载包括家具、设置和建筑物的居住者。In general, the magnitude of a live load is not as well defined as that of a dead load, and it usually must be estimated. In many cases, a given structural member must be investigated for various positions of the live load so that a potential failure situation is not overlooked. 通常，活荷载的大小不如恒载那样确定，常常必须估计。在许多情况下，必须研究活荷载作用在一给定的结构构件的各个位置以便不会漏掉每个可能的破坏情形。
Building codes
Building must be designed and constructed according to the provisions of a building codes, which is a legal document containing requirements related to such things as structural safety, fire safety, plumbing, ventilation, and accessibility to the physically disabled. 建筑物必须根据各种建筑规范的条款设计和建造，规范是一种法律文件，包含各种要求，如建筑安全、防火安全、上下水、通风和体残人的可达性等。A building code has the force of law and is administered by a governmental entity such as a city, a county, or, for some large metropolitan areas, a consolidated government. 建筑规范具有法律效力，由政府部位发布，如城市、县、对于大的城区，如联合政府。Building codes do not give design provisions, but they do specify the design requirements and constraints that must be satisfied. 建筑规范并不给出设计规定，但却规定设计必须满足的各种要求和约束条款。Of particular importance to the structural engineer is the prescription of minimum live loads for buildings. 对结构工程师特别重要的是建筑物的最小活荷载规定。Although the engineer is encouraged to investigate the actual loading conditions and attempt to determine realistic values, the structure must be able to support these specified minimum loads. 尽管鼓励工程师研究实际荷载工况以确定真实的荷载值，结构必须能支承这些规定的最小荷载。
Design specifications
In contrast to building codes, design specifications give more specific guidance for the design of structural members and their connections. 与建筑规范不同，设计规程给出结构构件及其连接的更具体的指南。They present the guidelines and criteria that enable a structural engineer to achieve the
objectives mandated by a building code. 它们给出各种方针和标准，使结构工程师能建筑规范所规定的目标。Design specifications represent what is considered to be good engineering practice based on their latest research. 根据其最新研究，设计规程结出认为是好的工程作法。They are periodically revised and updated by supplements or by completely new editions. 它们通过补充或通过发布新版本得到定期修订和更新。As with model building codes, design specifications are written in a legal format by nonprofit organizations. 如同一般建筑规范，设计规程由非赢利组织编写。They have no legal standing on their own, but by presenting design criteria and limits in the form of legal mandates and prohibitions, they can easily be adopted, by reference, as part of a building code. 尽管它们本身并无法律地位，但却以法令和禁令的形式给出设计准则和限制，以参考文献的形式，它们可容易地被录入，并作为建筑规范的一部分。
Lesson 3
New words
1. col`loidal 胶状的，胶体的，`colloid 胶体
2. sieve n,v. 筛，过筛，过滤
3. sample n.vt. 样品，取样specimen
4. mesh n.v 网孔，网格，分网格
5. `cumulative a. 积累的；cumulate, cumulation
6. grading n. 级配，等级；grade
7. sedimentation n. 沉淀; sediment
8. suspension n. 悬浮；suspend ~bridge cable-stayed bridge
9. agitate v. 搅动，混合；disturb
10. hydro meter n. （液体）比重计
11. viscosity n. 黏性；viscoidal
12. flaky n. 薄片状的，of flake
13. pipette n. 吸液管
14. ir recoverable a.
不可恢复的ir retrievable
15. con cave a. 凹的；con vex凸的
16. permeability n. 渗透性; permeate, permeable seep seepage
Phrases and expressions
1. frost susceptibility 霜冻敏感性
2. sieving method 筛分法
3. semi-logarithmic curve 半对数曲线
4. grading curve 级配曲线
5. wet sieving 湿法筛分
6. dispersing agent 分散剂
7. Stoke?s law 斯托克定律
8. unit weight 重度
9. coefficient of grading 级配系数
10. sedimentation method 沉降法
11. particle-size distribution 粒径分布
Text Particle Size Analysis 粒径分析
The range of particle sizes encountered in soils is very wide: from around 200mm down to the colloidal size of some clays of less than 0.001mm. 在各种土中所遇到的粒径范围很大，大到200mm小到小于0.001mm的一些粘土胶粒。Although natural soils are mixtures of various-sized particles, it is common to find a predominance occurring within a relatively narrow band of sizes. 尽管天然土都是由各种粒径的颗粒组成，但通常可发现其主要组成颗粒出
现在一个比较小的粒径范围内。When the width of this size band is very narrow the soil will be termed poorly-graded, if it is wide the soil is said to be well-graded. 当这一粒径范围非常小时，称这种土级配较差，而当其较大时，称这种土级配良好。A number of engineering properties, e.g. permeability, frost susceptibility, compressibility, are related directly or indirectly to particle-size characteristics. 土的许多工程特性，如渗透性、霜冻敏感性、可压缩性等都直接或间接的与土的级配特性有关。
Fig.3.1 shows the British Standard range of percentage of particle sizes. 图3.1为粒径百分数的英国标准范围。The particle-size analysis of a soil is carried out by determining the weight percentage falling within bands of size represented by these divisions and sub-divisions. 通过确定落入由这些粒径分组和子组所代表的粒径范围的重量百分比，对土进行粒径分析。In the case of a coarse soil, from which fine-grained particles have been removed or were absent, the usual process is a sieve analysis. 对于粗粒土，它里面的细粒土被除去或本身就无细颗粒，常用的方法就是筛分法。A representative sample of the soil is split systematically down to a convenient sub-sample size and then oven-dried. 此法是将要分析土的一代表样本系统地分为方便的子样本，然后烘干。This sample is then passed through a nest of standard test sieves arranged in descending order of mesh size. 再使烘干的土样通过一组筛孔尺寸由大至小放置的标准试验筛。The weight of soil retained on each sieve is determined and the cumulative percentage of the sub-sample weight passing each sieve calculated. 称量每个筛中剩下的土样的重量，并计算出通过每个筛的累计百分数。From these figures the particle-size distribution for the soil is plotted as a semi-logarithmic curve (Fig.3.2) known as grading curve. 根据这些数据，以半对数曲线的形式描出该土的粒径分布图，即所谓的级配曲线。
Where the soil sample contains fine-grained particles, a wet sieving procedure is first carried out to remove these and to determine the combined clay/silt fraction percentage. 在土样中含有细土粒的场合，首先用湿筛分法将其除去，并确定粘粒/粉粒总共所占的分数。A suitable-sized sub-sample is first oven-dried and then sieved to separate the coarsest particles (>20mm). 将一适量的分土样烘干，并过筛分开最粗的颗粒（>20mm的颗粒）The sub-sample is then immersed in water containing a dispersing agent and allowed to stand before being washed through a 63μm(micron) mesh sieve. 然后将土样浸入含有分散剂的水中，并在将其用63微米筛过筛前搁置起来（并将其搁置一会，再用63micron的筛子过筛）。The retained fraction is again oven-dried and passed through a nest of sieves. 将筛中保留的部分烘干，并用一组筛子过筛。After weighing the fractions retained on each sieve and calculating the cumulative percentage passing each sieve, the grading curve is drawn. 称量落在每个筛中土重，并计算出通过每个的累计百分数后，就可描出级配曲线。The combined clay/silt fraction is determined from the weight difference and expressed as a percentage of the total sub-sample weight. The coarsest fraction (>20mm) can also be sieved and the results used to complete the grading curve. 由重量差确定粘粒/粉粒的总重，并将其表示为子土样总重的百分数。最粗的部分（即粒径>20mm的部分）也可被过筛，并用其结果完成级配曲线的绘制。
A further sub-division of particle-size distribution in the fine-grained fraction is not possible by the sieving method. 不能用筛分法对细粒部分的粒径分布作进一步分组。A process of sedimentation is normally carried out for this purpose. 通常必须用沉降法实现此目的。A small sub-sample of soil is first treated with a dispersing agent and then washed through a 63μm sieve. 首先将一小子土样用分散剂进行处理，然后洗过63的筛子。The soil/water suspension is then made up to 500 ml, agitated vigorously for a short while and then allowed to settle. 再从中取出500ml的土/水悬浮液，充分搅拌一会后让其沉降。The procedure is based on Stoke?s law, which states that the velocity at which a spherical particle will sink due to gravity in a suspension is given by: 此方法是基于斯托克思定律，即在重力作用下球形颗粒在某一悬浮液中下降的速度为
Where d=diameter of particle 颗粒直径
γs =unit weight of the grain of particle 颗粒重度
γw =unit weight of the suspension fluid (usually water) 悬浮液的重度（通过为水的重度）
=vescosity of the suspension fluid （悬浮液的黏度）
The diameter of those particles that will have settled a given distance in a given time (t) may be obtained by rearranging Eq.3.1: 将式3.1变形得在给定时间t内，沉降一给定距离的那些颗粒的直径为
Usually h=100mm, 通常h=100mm, giving 由此给出
Samples taken at a depth of 100mm, at an elapsed time of t, will not, therefore, include particles of greater size than the diameter d given by Eq.3.2; 因此在，在深度100mm处，t 时间后所取的悬浮液中将不会有粒径大于式3.2所给出的土粒; but the proportions of particles smaller than d in the suspension will remain unchanged. 但悬浮液中小于d的颗粒所占的比例仍保持不变。The procedure using a hydrometer consists of measuring the suspension density at a depth of 100mm at a series of elapsed-time intervals. 用液体比重计的方法包括以一系列时间间隔在深度100mm处测定悬浮液的比重。The percentage-finer values corresponding to particular diameter (i.e. particle sizes) are obtained from the density readings, and thus a grading curve for the fine-grained fraction may be drawn. 通过比重读数得到小于某一特定粒径的颗粒的百分数，从而可画出细粒部分的级配曲线。
Grading Characteristics
The grading curve is a graphical representation of the particle-size distribution and is therefore useful in itself as a means of describing the soil. 级配曲线是粒径分布的一种图形表达，因而可用来作为描述土的手段。For this reason it is always a good idea to include copies of grading curves in laboratory and other similar reports. 因此，人们总是认为在实验室报告或其它报告里附上几份级配曲线是一种好做法。It should also be remembered that the primary object is to provide a descriptive term for the type of soil. 还应牢记的是我们的主要目的是提供对土的类型的描述性术语。This is easily done using the type of chart by estimating the range of sizes included in the most representative fraction of the soil. 这可容易地通过采用这种级配曲线做到，因为用它能估计出土中最有代表性的成分的粒径范围。For example, the steep curve may be taken to represent a poorly-graded medium sand, indicating a narrow range of sizes. 例如，陡峭的曲线可用来表示级配差的中砂，并表示其粒径范围比较小。
A further quantitative analysis of grading curves may be carried out using certain geometric values known as grading characteristics. 通过采用某些称为级配特征的几何值，可进一步对级配曲线进行定量的分析。First of all, three points are located on the grading curve to give the following characteristic sizes: 首先，定出级配曲线上的三个点以给出以下特征粒径：
D10=maximum size of the smallest 10 percent of the sample; 只有10%土样通过的最大粒径；
D30= maximum size of the smallest 30 percent of the sample; 只有30%土样通过的最大粒径；
D60= maximum size of the smallest 60 percent of the sample；只有60%土样通过的最大粒径；
From these characteristic sizes, the following grading characteristics are defined: 根据这些特征粒径，定义出如下级配特征：
Effective size 有效粒径
Uniformity coefficient 均匀系数
Coefficient of gradation 级配系数
Lesson 4
Phrases and Expressions
1.moisture content 含水量，含湿度; water
content
2.cement paste 水泥浆mortar
3.capillary tension 毛细管张力，微张力
4.gradation of aggregate 骨料级配coarse
fine (crushed stone, gravel)
5.The British Code PC100英国混凝土规范
PC100; nowaday BS8110
6.coefficient of thermal expansion of
concrete 混凝土热膨胀系数
7. The B.S Code 英国标准规范8.sustained load 永久荷载，长期荷载
9.permanent plastic strain 永久的塑性应变
stress
10.crystal lattice晶格, 晶格
11.cement gel 水泥凝胶体
12.water-cement ratio 水灰比
13.expansion joint 伸缩缝
14.stability of the structure 结构的稳定性
structural stability
15. fatigue strength of concrete 混凝土的疲劳
强度
Text Volume Changes of Concrete
Concrete undergoes volume changes during hardening. 混凝土在硬结过程中会经历体积变化。If it loses moisture by evaporation, it shrinks, but if the concrete hardens in water, it expands. 如果蒸发失去水分，混凝土会收缩；但如果在水中硬结，它便膨胀。The causes of the volume changes in concrete can be attributed to changes in moisture content, chemical reaction of the cement with water, variation in temperature, and applied loads. 混凝土体积变化的原因可归结为含水量的变化、水泥与水的水化反应、温度变化和所施加的荷载。
Shrinkage
The change in the volume of drying concrete is not equal to the volume of water removed. The evaporation of free water causes little or no shrinkage. 混凝土干燥时的体积变化量不等于它所失去的水的体积。自由水的蒸发基本不产生收缩。As concrete continues to dry, water evaporates and the volume of the restrained cement paste changes, causing concrete to shrink, probably due to the capillary tension that develops in the water remaining in conc rete. 随着混凝土的不断变干，水分蒸发，受约束水泥浆的体积也变化，导致了混凝土的收缩，这多半是由于残留在混凝土中的水的毛细张力所致。Emptying of the capillaries causes a loss of water without shrinkage. But once the absorbed water is removed, shrinkage occurs. 毛细管变空导致无收缩的水分丢失，但一旦失去吸收的水分，收缩便发生。
Many factors influence the shrinkage of concrete caused by the variations in moisture conditions. 许多因素都会影响因水分环境发生变化而产生的混凝土收缩。
1.Cement and water content. The more cement or water content in the concrete mix, the greater the shrinkage.水灰比：水灰比越大，收缩越大；
https://www.doczj.com/doc/6a12326840.html,position and fineness of cement. High-early-strength and low-heat cements show more shrinkage than normal portland cement. The finer the cement, the greater is the expansion under moist conditions. 水泥的成分和细度：早强和低热水泥的收缩大于普通水泥，水泥越细，其在潮湿环境中的膨胀越大。
3.Type, amount, and gradation of aggregate. The smaller the size of aggregate particles, the greater is the shrinkage. The greater the aggregate content, the smaller is the shrinkage. 骨料的类型、含量及其级配：骨料的粒径越小，收缩越大；骨料含量越大，收缩则越小。
4.Ambient conditions, moisture, and temperature. Concrete specimens subjected to moist conditions undergo an
expansion of 200 to 300×10-6, but if they are left to dry in air, they shrink. High temperature speeds the evaporation of water and, consequently, increases shrinkage. 外部条件，水分与温度：潮湿环境下的混凝土试件的膨胀量为200 to 300×10-6，但如果让其在空气中干燥，它们将收缩。高温加速了水分的蒸发，因此也加快了收缩。
5.Admixtures. Admixtures that increase the water requirement of concrete increase the shrinkage value. 添加剂：使用水量增加的外加剂也增加了收缩值。
6.Size and shape of specimen. As shrinkage takes place in a reinforced concrete member, tension stresses develop in the concrete, and equal compressive develop in the steel. These stresses are added to those developed by the loading action. Therefore, cracks may develop in concrete when a high percentage of steel is used. Proper distribution of reinforcement, by producing better distribution of tensile stresses in concrete, can reduce differential internal stresses. 试件的尺寸和形状：当收缩在钢筋混凝土构件中发生时，混凝土中产生拉应力，同样大小的压力产生于钢筋中，这些力与荷载引起的力相迭加。因此，当钢筋的配筋率高时，可能会使混凝土开裂。钢筋的合理分布、会使混凝土中的拉应力分布更有利，可减小内部应力差。
The values of final shrinkage for ordinary concrete vary between 200 and 700×10-6. 普通混凝土的收缩应变终值在200 and 700×10-6之间。For normal-weight concrete, a value of 300×10-6 may be used. 对常重混凝土，收缩应变终值可取为300×10-6The British Code CP100 gives a value of 500×10-6, which represents an unrestrained shrinkage of 1.5 mm in 3 m length in thin, plain concrete sections. 英国CP100规范不出的收缩应变终值为500×10-6，这表示3m 长素混凝土薄截面构件的非约束收缩为1.5mm. If the member is restrained, a tensile stress of about 10N/mm2 (1400 psi) arises. 如果此构件受到约束，便产生了大约10N/mm2 (1400 psi) 的拉应力。If concrete is kept moist for a certain period after setting, shrinkage is reduced; 如果凝结后将混凝土保持在潮湿环境中，可减小其收缩。therefore, it is important to cure the concrete for a period of no fewer than 7days. 因此，将混凝土至少在潮湿环境中养护7天非常重要。
Exposure of concrete to wind increases the shrinkage rate on the upwind side. 将混凝土置于风中将增加其在迎风一侧的收缩速率。Shrinkage causes an increase in the deflection of structural members, which in turn increases with time. 收缩引起结构构件的挠度增大，而挠度也随时间而增长。Symmetrical reinforcement in the concrete section may prevent curvature and deflection due to shrinkage. 混凝土截面的对称配筋可防止因收缩而产生的曲率和挠度。
Generally, concrete shrinks at a high rate during the initial period of hardening, but at later stages the rate diminishes gradually. 通常，在硬结初期，混凝土收缩较快，但在后期，收缩速度会慢慢变小。It can be said that 15% to 30% of the shrinkage value occurs in 2 weeks, 40% to 80% occurs in 1 month, and 70% to 85% occurs in 1 year. 可以说15% to 30%收缩量的发生在前两周，40% to 80%发生在前一个月，70% to 85%发生在第一年。
Expansion Due to Rise in T emperature 升温膨胀
Concrete expands with increasing temperature and contracts with decreasing temperature. The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete varies between 4 and 7×10-6 per degree Fahrenheit. 混凝土受温膨胀，变冷时收缩。An average value of 5.5×10-6 per degree Fahrenheit (12×10-6 per degree Celsius) can be used for ordinary concrete. 一般混凝土的平均收缩值为每华氏度5.5×10-6（或每摄氏度12×10-6）。The B.S.Code suggests a value of 10-5 per degree Celsius. 英国标准规范的建议值为每摄氏10-5 This value represents a change of length of 10 mm in a 30-m member subjected to a change in temperature of 33℃. If the member is restrained and unreinforced, a stress of about 7N/mm2 (1000 psi) may develop. 这一值表示如果30m长的构件温度变化33度，其长度变化为10mm. 如果该构件受到约束但并未配筋，由此产生的应力可能约为7N/mm2 (1000 psi)。
In long reinforced concrete structures, expansion joints must be provided at lengths of 100 to 200 ft (30 to 60m). 在较长的钢筋混凝土结构中，每隔100英尺到200英尺（30m至30m）必须留伸缩缝。The width of the expansion joint is about 1 in. (25 mm). 伸缩缝宽度约为1英寸（25mm）Concrete is not a good conductor of heat, whereas steel is a good one. The ability of concrete to carry load is not much affected by temperature. 混凝土并非好的热导体，但钢材却是。因此混凝土的承载能力并不太受温度的影响。
Greep 徐变
Concrete is an elastoplastic material, and beginning with small stresses, plastic strains develop in addition to elastic ones. 混凝土是一种弹塑性材料，即使受低应力作用，它就产生伴有弹性应变的塑性应变。Under sustained load, plastic deformation continues to develop over a period that may last for years. 在持续荷载作用下，在很长时间内其塑性变形连续增长，甚至可达数年。Such deformation increases at a high rate during the first 4months after application of the load. This slow plastic deformation under constant stress is called creep. 此变形在加载后的前4个月最快。这种在持续应力作用下的缓慢变形称为徐变。
Figure 2.5 shows a concrete cylinder that is loaded. 图2.5表示受荷载作用的一混凝土圆柱体。The instantaneous deformation isε1, which is equal to the stress divided by the modulus of elasticity. 其瞬时变形为ε1，它等于应力除以弹性模量。If the same stress is kept for a period of time, an additional strainε2, due to creep effect, can be recorded. 如果将此应力保持一段时间，便可测出另一由徐变所产生的应变增量ε2，If load is then released, the elastic strain,ε1, will be recovered, in addition to some creep strain. 如果卸去荷载，弹性应变便得到恢复，同时还产生一些徐变应变。The final permanent plastic strain,ε3, will be left, as shown in Figure 2.5. 最终会剩下永久塑性应变ε3，如图2.5所示。In this caseε3=(1－α)ε2, whereαis the ratio of the recovered creep strain to the total creep strain. 在此情况下，ε3=(1－α)ε2, α是恢复徐变应变与总徐变的比值。The ratioαranges between 0.1 and 0.2. 其值在0.1至0.2之间。The magnitude of creep recovery varies with the previous creep and depends appreciably upon the period of the sustained load. 徐变后效的大小随先前徐变的大小而变化，且在很大程度上取决于荷载的持续时间。Creep recovery rate will be less if the loading period is increased, probably due to the hardening of concrete while in a deformed condition. 如果持荷时间增加，徐变恢复率将变小，这大概是由于混凝土在变形硬化所致。
Figure 2.5
Deformation in a loaded
concrete cylinder: (a)
specimen unloaded, (b)
elastic deformation,
(c) elastic plus
creep deformation, (d)
permanent deformation after release of load.
The ultimate magnitude of creep varies between 0.2×10-6 and 2×10-6 per unit stress (1b/in.2) per unit length. A value of 1×10-6can be used in practice. The ratio of creep strain to elastic strain may be as high as 4.
Creep takes place in the hardened cement matrix around the strong aggregate. It may be attributed to slippage along planes within the crystal lattice, internal stresses caused by changes in the crystal lattice, and gradual loss of water from the cement gel in the concrete. 徐变在强度更高的骨料周围的硬结的水泥基中产生，这可能是由于沿晶格中一些平面发生滑移、晶格变化所产生的内部应力、及混凝土凝胶体中水分不断丢失的结果。
The different factors that affect the creep of concrete can be summarized as follows. 影响徐变的各种不同因素可概括如下：
1. The level of stress. Creep increases with an increase of stress in specimens made from concrete of the same strength and with the same duration of load. 应力大小：
2. Duration of loading. Creep increases with the loading period. About 80% of the creep occurs within the first 4 months; 90% occurs after about 2 years. 持荷时间：
3. Strength and age of concrete. Creep tends to be smaller if concrete is loaded at a late age. Also, creep of 2000 psi- (14N/mm2-) strength concrete is about 1.41×10-6whereas that of 4000 psi- (28N/ mm2-) strength concrete is about 0.8×10-6 per unit stress and length of time. 混凝土强度和龄期：
4.Ambient conditions. Creep is reduced with an increase in the humidity of the ambient air. 周围环境条件：
5.Rate of loading. Creep increases with an increase in the rate of loading when followed by prolonged loading. 加
载速率：
6.Percentage and distribution of steel reinforcement in a reinforced concrete member. Creep tends to be smaller for higher proportion or better distribution of steel. 钢筋混凝土结构中钢筋的配筋率及其分布：
7.Size of the concrete mass. Creep decreases with an increase in the size of the tested specimen. 混凝土尺寸：
8.Type, fineness, and content of cement. The amount of cement greatly affects the final creep of concrete, as cement creeps about 15 times as much as concrete. 水泥的类型、细度和含量：
9.Water-cement ratio. Creep increases with an increase in the water-cement ratio. 水灰比：
10.Type and grading of aggregate. Well-graded aggregate will produce dense concrete and consequently a reduction in creep. 骨料的类型和级配：
11.Type of curing. High-temperature steam curing of concrete as well as the proper use of a plasticizer will reduce the amount of creep. 养护方式：
Creep develops not only in compression, but also in tension, bending, and torsion. 徐变不仅产生于受压，它也产生于受拉，受弯和受扭。
The ratio of the rate of creep in tension to that in compression will be greater than 1 in the first 2 weeks, but this ratio decreases over longer periods. 受拉徐变的速率与受压徐变的速率之比在前两周将大于1，但会在长时间内减小。
Creep in concrete under compression has been tested by many investigators. Troxell, Davis, and Raphael measured creep strains periodically for up to 20 years and estimated that of the total creep after 20 years , 18% to 35% occurred in 2 weeks , 30% to 70% occurred in 3 months , and 64% to 83% occurred in 1 year . 许多研究者都对混凝土的受压徐变进行了试验研究。
For normal concrete loaded after 28 days , 313.0t C r =, where r C = creep strain per unit stress per unit length. 对28天龄期加载的普通混凝土，313.0t C r =，r C =单位应力下单位时间内的徐变。
Creep augments the deflection of reinforced concrete beams appreciably with time. In the design of reinforced concrete members, long-term deflection may be critical and has to be considered in proper design. 随时间的增加，徐变会大大增加钢筋混凝土梁的挠度。Extensive deformation may influence the stability of the structure. 过大的变形会影响结构的稳定性。
Sustained loads affect the strength as well as the deformation of concrete. 持续加载会影响混凝土的强度和变形。A reduction of up to 30% of the strength of unreinforced concrete may be expected when concrete is subjected to a concentric sustained load for 1 year . 当混凝土在持续集中荷载作用下长达一年时，其钢筋混凝土的强度可能要降低30%.
The fatigue strength of concrete is much smaller than its static strength. 混凝土的疲劳强度大大低于其静力强度。Repeated loading and unloading cycles in compression lead to a gradual accumulation of plastic deformations. 受压的重复加载和卸载会导致混凝土塑性变形的逐渐积累。If concrete in compression is subjected to about 2 million cycles, its fatigue limit is about 50% to 60% of the static compression strength. In beams, the fatigue limit of concrete is about 55% of its static strength. 如果混凝土不断受压加载2百万次，其疲劳强度容许值会降为其静态抗压强度的50%至60%. 在梁中，混凝土的疲劳强度约为其静态强度的55%.
Lesson 5 Loads
New words
1. prescribe
v. 指示，规定; specify 2. criterion
n. 标准，规范，准则；standard 3. dictate
v. 规定，指示，命令；dominate
4. survey n.v. 调查，测量；investigation
5. variation n. 变更，变化，差异；vary, variable, various
6. deterministic a. 确定性的，nondeterministic, probabilistic
7. rational a. 合理的，理性的；reasonable, logical
8. stochastic a. 随机的；stochastic process, but random variable
9. pertain v. 适合，属于; pertaining
10. cumbersome a. 讨厌的，麻烦的；troublesome
11. landscape n. 地形，风景，景观
12. endeavor v.n. 尽力，努力；strive，put effort to
13. deviation n. 背离；deviate,
14. constancy n. 恒定性，不变性，constant
15. occupant n. 居住者
16. fluctuation n. 波动，起伏；fluctuate
17. `tenant n. 房客，承租人；
18. transient a. 瞬时的；instantaneous
19. sustain vt. 维持，支撑，持续；sustainable
20. premise n. 前提；vt. 假定；
Phrases and Expressions
1. nominal value 标准值，名义值
2. in practice 实际上，在实践上
3. at best 充其量，最好也只不过
4. building code
5. seismic action 地震作用，earthquake load
6. reference (return) period 重现期
7. semiempirical equation 半经验公式empirical
8. wind tunnel testing 风洞试验
9. mean value 均值；平均
10. code-prescribed data 规范规定数值
11. transient live load 瞬时活荷载
12. sustained live load 持续活荷载
Text Loads(1)
Introduction
Normally, a design specification does not prescribe the magnitudes of the loads that are to be used as the basic input to the structural analysis, with the exception of special cases such as crane design specifications. 除特殊情况设计规程外（如起重机设计规程），一般设计规程并不规定荷载的大小，尽管它是作为结构分析所输入的基本变量。It is the role of the specification to detail the methods and criteria to be used in arriving at satisfactory member and connection sizes for the structural material in question, given the magnitudes of the loads and their effects. 设计规程的作用就是对于给定的荷载值及其效应，详细说明用设计材料能得到满意构件及其连接尺寸的方法和准则。The specification therefore reflects the requirements that must be satisfied by the structure in order that it will have a response that allows it to achieve the performance that is needed. 因此，规程反映了结构必须满足的各种要求，从而使其具有这样一种
结构反应，它能使其达到所要求的性能。Loads, on the other hand, are governed by the type of occupancy of the building, which in turn is dictated by the applicable local, regional, and national laws that are more commonly known at building codes. 另一方面，荷载取决于建筑物的使用类型，这反过来取决于相应的地区，地方和国家法规，即常说的建筑规范。
The building code loads have traditionally been given as nominal values, determined on the basis of material properties (e.g., dead load) or load surveys (e.g., live load and snow load). 建筑规范的荷载传统上都是作为标准值给出，它们是根据材料特性确定（如恒载）或荷载调查所确定（如活荷载及雪荷载）To be reasonably certain that the loads are not exceeded in a given structure, the code values have tended to be higher than the loads on a random structure at an arbitrary point in time. 为了适当地确保作用在任一结构上的荷载不超过规范值，后者往往都要比任一时刻作用任一结构上的荷载值大些。This may, if fact, be one of the reasons why excessive gravity loads are rarely the obvious cause of structural failures. 事实上，这可能就是过大的重力荷载大都不会导致结构破坏的原因所在。Be that at it may, the fact of the matter is that all of the various types of structural loads exhibit random variations that are functions of time, and the manner of variation also depends on the type of load. 尽管可能如此，实际上结构上的各种荷载都具有随时间而变化的随机变化特性，且这种变化也取决于荷载类型。Rather than dealing with nominal loads that appear to be deterministic a nature, a realistic design procedure should take load variability into account along with that of the strength, in order that adequate structural safety can be achieved through rational means. 不是去处理看上去具有定值特征的标准荷载，现实的设计方法应同时考虑荷载和强度的变异性，以便以合理的手段得到足够的结构安全度。
Since the random variation of the loads is a function of time as well as a number of other factors, the modeling, strictly speaking, should take this into account by using stochastic analyses to reflect the time and space interdependence. 由于荷载的随机变化是时间以及许多因素的函数，严格地讲，通过采用随机分析方法以反映时间与空间的相互影响，应使建模对此加以考虑。Many studies have dealt with this highly complex phenomenon, especially as it pertains to live load in buildings. 许多研究工作都涉及了这一高度复杂的现象，特别是当其属于活荷载时。In practice, however, the use of time-dependent loads is cumbersome at best, although the relationship must be accounted for in certain cases (i.e., seismic action). 然而，实践中采用时间相关荷载至少半是麻烦的，尽管在一些情况下必须考虑其相关性（即在有地震作用时）。For most design situations the code will specify the magnitude of the loads as if they were static. 对于大多数设计，规范将规定荷载的大小，就象它们是静载似的。Their time and space variation are covered through the use of the maximum load occurring over a certain reference (return) period, and its statistics. 通过采用出现在某一参照期（重现周期）内的最大荷载及其统计特性，将它们的时间和空间的变异加以考虑。For example, American live load criteria are based on a reference period of 50 years, while Canadian criteria use a 30-year interval. 例如，美国活荷载准则基于50年重现周期，而加拿大准则是30年。
The geographical location of the structure plays an important role for certain loads. 结构的地理位置对某些荷载起很重要的作用。It is particularly applicable to snow, wind and seismic action, the first being of special importance in north-central and north-eastern areas of the United States, the second in high wind coastal and mountain areas, and the last in areas having earthquake fault lines. 特别是对于雪、风和地震作用更是如此。第一种荷载对美国中北部和东北部地区非常重要，第二种对具有大风的沿海地区和山岭地区特别重要，第三种对具有地震断裂带的地区则特别重要。
Deign for wind effects is complicated by a number of phenomena. 由于数个现象使风作用效果的设计复杂化。Like snow loads and earthquake action, wind loads are given more attention in certain parts of the country. 类似于雪荷载和地震作用，在本国的一些地区，对风荷载更加重视。At the same time wind loads are neither static nor uniformly varying, and are heavily influenced by the geometry of the structure as well s the surrounding structures and landscape. 同时，风载不但非静态，而且也非均匀变化，同时还受结构几何形式和周围结构物及地形的影响。To a certain degree this also applies to the magnitude of the snow load. 在一定程度上，这也适用于雪荷载。Building codes treat these effects as static phenomena and relate them to the actual conditions through semiempirical equations. 建筑规范将这些作用作为静力荷载并用半经验公式将其与实际情况相联系。This gives the designer a better handle on a difficult problem, but can lead to difficulties when the real structure departs significantly from the bases of the code. 这使设计者能更好地处理复杂问题，但当实际结构与设计规范出入太大时，便导致了一些困难。For that reason wind loads, and sometimes earthquake and snow loads, are determined on the basis of model test. 为此，风荷载、有时地震荷载和雪荷载都要用模型试验来确定。In particular, wind tunnel testing has become a useful and practical tool in these endeavors.
特别是风洞试验，它已经成为这些努力中一个有用且实用工具。
The loads on the structure are normally assumed to be independent of the type of structure and structural material, with the exception of dead loads. 除恒载外，通常都假定结构上的荷载与结构类型及其材料无关。The response of a building, however, will be different for different materials, depending on the type of load. 然而，一建筑物的反应将随其建材的不同而不同，这取决于荷载的类型。For example, the behavior of a moment-resistant steel frame will be quite unlike that of a braced frame, when subjected to lateral loads, especially those due to an earthquake. 例如，在侧向荷载作用下，特别是当其由地震所引起时，抗弯钢框架的工作性能将全然不同于有支撑框架的性能。On the other hand, the response of these two frames to gravity loads will not be all that different. 另一方面，这两种框架对重力荷载反应的差别却并没有那么大。
The size of a structure (height, floor area) has a significant impact on the magnitudes of most loads. 一个结构物的大小（如其高度，楼层面积）对大多数荷载的量值影响很大。All loads are influenced by the increasing height of a multistory building, for example. 例如，所有的荷载都受多层建筑高度增加的影响。Similarly, the greater the floor area that is to be supported by a single member, the smaller will be the probability that the code live load will appear with its full intensity over the entire area. 与这类似，单个构件所支承的楼层面积越大，整个楼层上满载规范规定的活荷载的可能性将越小。In such cases a live load reduction method is used to arrive at more realistic design data. 在此情况下，将采用活荷载折减法以得到更真实的设计值。
Lesson 6
New Words
1.prompt vt. 促使，鼓动，spur; incite:
2.serviceable a. 适用的；service, serviceable, serviceability
3.aesthetically ad. 审美的，美学上的；aesthetics, aesthetical
4.truss
5.suspension
6.sag v. 下垂，松驰；sagging moment, hogging moment
7.viscoelastic a. 粘弹性的；visco-elastic
8.rebound v. 回弹，跳回；rebound test
9.homogenous a. 均质的，同质的；homo-genous
10.isotropic a. 各向同性的
11.orthotropic a. 正交各向异性的；orthogonal
12.anisotropic a. 各向异性的；an-isotropic
13.flammability n. 可燃性；flame, flammable
14.machinability n. 可加工性；machine, machinable
15.quasi-static a. 拟静力的；quasi-表示类似，拟，准
16.texture n. 结构组织，质地；textile
17.distortion n. 变形，扭曲；畸变
18.geotechnics n. 岩土工程学，土工学
19.hydraulics n. 水力学
Phrases and Expressions
1. suspension structure such as suspension bridge
2. elastic material
3. plastic material
4. quasi-static loadings
5. thermal loading 热负荷
7.analytical model
8.planar structure as against linear structure
9.planar load 面荷载
Text Concepts of Structural Analysis
Structures can be classified in a variety of ways. 能用各种方法对结构进行分类。The casual observer might first consider classifying structures according to their respective functions: buildings, bridges, ships, aircraft, towers, and so on. 不认真的观察者首先考虑的是根据其相应功能进行分类，如建筑物、桥梁、飞机、塔楼等等。This basis for
structural classification is in fact fundamental; 事实上这种结构分类的根据是基本的。all structures have some functional reasons for existence. 所有结构物都因其某些功能而存在。It is the need to fulfill some function that prompts the designer to give life to a structure. 正是由于要使它们完成某些功能要求才促使设计者终生致力于结构设计。Furthermore, it is the need for a safe, serviceable, feasible, and aesthetically pleasing fulfillment of a function that dictates the form, material, and manner of loading of a structure. 此外，也正是对某一功能的安全的、适用的、可行的、和美学上满意的实现决定了一个结构的形式、所用材料和加载方式。
Once the form and material have been determined, a structure may be further classified according to either its form (e.g., an arch, truss, or suspension structure) or the material out of which it is constructed (e.g., steel concrete, or timber). 一旦结构的形状和建筑材料确定之后，可将结构再按其形式分类（如拱、桁架或悬挂结构）或按其所用材料分类（如钢结构、混凝土结构或木结构）。The form and material of a structure in turn dictate its behavior, which in turn dictates the character of the analytical model. 结构的形式和建材反过来决定了结构的性能，其性能进而又分析模型的特点。Fig. 6.1 illustrates schematically the relationships among the function a structure is to fulfill, the form and material and loading on the structure, the behavior of the structure, and the analytical model of the structure. 图6.1形象地说明了结构的功能、形式、建筑材料、荷载、结构性能、分析模型储因素之间的关系。At this point, we need to discuss some of the aspects of structural behavior indicated in Fig.6.1 and to explain their respective relationships to the form and material of the structure. 至此，我们有必要来讨论一下图6.1所示结构性能的一些方面，并我解释一下它们各自与结构的形式和建筑材料的关系。A structure is linear if its response to loading, say displacement at a point, is directly proportional to the magnitude of the applied load. 如果一结构对其加载的响应，譬如某点的位移与所施加的荷载大小成正比，则此结构就是线性的。If this proportionality does not exist, the structure is said to be nonlinear. 如果此比例不存在，则该结构就是非线性的。Structural nonlinearities are of two types: 结构非线笥分为两类(1) material nonlinearities that arise when stress is not proportional to strain, 材料非线性，此时材料的应力与应变不呈比例；and (2) geometric nonlinearitis that arise when the configuration of the structure under load is markedly changed from the unloaded configuration. 2）几何非线性，此时在荷载作用下其形状与未加载前发生了很大变化。(the presence of cables in a structure often leads to geometric nonlinearity because displacements can occur owing to a change in cable sag, which can be shown to be nonlinearly related to the force in the cable.)(例如结构中索的存在往往会引起几何非线性，因为索的下垂会产生位移，可以证明，这种位移与索中的内力并不成线性关系) materials, and therefore structures built from them, may be classified as elastic, plastic, or viscoelastic. 因此，结构所采用的建筑材料可能被分类为弹性、塑性或粘弹性。Elastic materials rebound to their initial configuration when the load is removed, whereas plastic materials retain a permanent set(位置，状态). 当卸除荷载后，弹性材料能回弹以其初始外形，但塑性材料会有一永久变形The deformations of viscoelastic materials depend on time and therefore load history, whereas the deformations of elastic and plastic materials do not. 粘弹性材料的变形与时间有关，因而与加载历史有关，但弹性和塑性材料的变形却与时间无关。A structural system is unconservative or conservative depending on whether or not energy is lost from the system during a cycle of loading and unloading. 一个结构体系是非保守的或保守的，取决于经过一次加载和卸载该体系中有无能量损失。Energy is generally lost if a system does not recover its initial shape after unloading owing either to plastic behavior of the material or to friction forces within or between parts of the structure.如果卸载后体系并未回到其初始形状，通常都有能量损失，这是要么是由材料非线性引起，要么是由结构内部或其构件之间存在摩擦力。
All these behavioral aspects of the structure will have a significant influence on the nature of the analysis used in studying the structure. 结构的所有这些性能都将对研究结构时的分析方法起到很大的影响。In addition, in developing the analytical model it will be necessary to consider whether the structural material is homogeneous or nonhomogeneous and whether it is irotropic, orthortropic, or anisotropic. 而且，在建立分析模型时，必须考虑结构材料是否均质、是否各向同性，还是正交各向异性。(the physical properties of homogeneous materials are the same at each point; those of nonhomogeneous material are not. 均质材料的物理性能在各点都相同的，但非均质材料并非如此。The physical properties of isotropic materials are the same in all directions at a point; 各向同性材料的物理性能在各个方向都是相同的those of anisotropic materials are not. 但各向异性材料却并非如此。An orthotropic material is a special anisotropic material whose properties are different in three principal directions but whose properties in all other direction are dependent on those in the principal directions.正交各向异性材料是一种特殊的各向异性材料，它在其三个主轴方向的特性不同，但在所有其它方向上的特性则取决于其三个主轴方向的特性。) Other aspects of the
structure, although important design considerations, will not usually have a significant impact on the analysis technique. 结构的其它方面，尽管也是设计中要考虑的主要因素，通常将对分析方法影响不大。These include brittleness, ductility, flammability, texture, color, hardness, and machinability. 这些因素包括脆性、延性、可燃性、质地、颜色、硬度和可加工性。
Finally, the nature of the loading, which is dependent on the function of the structure, will also influence the analysis. 最后讨论一下加载特点，它取决于结构的功能，也会影响结构的分析。The only truly static loading on a structure is the dead, or gravity, loading. 结构上真正的静力荷载是恒载，即重力荷载。However, if other loadings are applied gradually enough, they are called quasi-static loadings and may be considered static for analysis purposes. 然而，如果其它荷载施加的足够缓慢，就将其称为伪静力加载，从而分析时可认为是静力的。Whether or not the rate of loading is gradual enough depends on whether or not the time it takes to apply the load is longer than the fundamental period of vibration of the structure being analyzed. 加载是否足够缓慢取决于加载持续时间是否大于所分析结构的基本周期。Loads usually need to be treated as dynamic only if they are periodic in nature or if they are applied very suddenly. 通常只有当荷载是周期性的或当共是突然施加的，才将其作为动力荷载处理。Even then, sometimes an “impact factor” is applied to an analysis with a static-loading result to account for the effect of a suddenly applied load. 即使在此情况下，有时在分析中采用一个所谓的“动力系数”来考虑突然施加荷载的效应，分析结果仍以静态加载形式结出。Loads can also be categorized as either external applied forces or internal initial distortions. 荷载还可分为外力或内部初始变形。Thermal loading is an example of an internal initial distortion (or initial strain) loading. 热负荷就是内部初始变形（如初始应变）加载的典型例子。
Unfortunately, the picture of structural behavior is generally not so clear as that just painted. 不幸的是，通常对结构性能的描述并不象上述如此清楚。That is, materials are not either “linear” or “nonlinear” and “elastic” or “plastic”; instead, their behavior depends on circumstances such as environment and rate of loading. 也就是说，材料并不是“线性”或“非线性”；也不是“弹性”或“塑性”，其性能取决于环境因素，如外界情况和加载速率。The picture is further clouded in that the type of behavior that must be considered in an analysis may depend on the type of response being investigated. 由于分析中所必须考虑的结构性能类型可能取决于要研究的结构响应的类型，这就使这种描述变得更加含糊不清。For example, a simpler analytical model may suffice to obtain static displacement and stress results than that which would be required for vibration or buckling results. 例如，比较简单的分析模型可能足以得到静态的位移和应力结果，但需要更复杂的模型以得到振动或曲屈分析结果。
To clarify this picture for purposes of a rational presentation of matrix analysis of structures, we will make simplifying assumptions as to the nature of the behavior structures. 为了阐明这一问题以讲解清楚结构矩阵分析方法，我们将对结构特性作一些简化假定。Thus we will consider only the displacement and stress response due to static loading of linear, elastic, conservative structures. 因此，我们将讨论线弹性保守结构因静力加载所引起的位移和应力。We will further restrict our attention to discrete-membered structures (rigid-and pin-jointed frameworks) as opposed to continuous structures. 我们将进一步将注意力集中到离散杆系结构（刚结和铰结框架结构）而非连续结构。However, it is important to recognize at the outset that the concepts that will be presented can be extended to the solution of many other classes of structural problems, including those involving dynamic response, material and geometric nonlinearitys, inelastic ity, instability, and continuous systems. 然而，重要的是要在开始就认识到我们将要介绍的概念可推广到许多其它结构问题，其中包括动力响应、材料及几何非纯属、非弹性、失稳和连续结构体系。Furthermore, the same concepts can be applied to problems from other areas of engineering, such as geotechnics, hydraulics, and heat transfer, as well as to problems outside of engineering altogether. 而且，同样的概念也可应用于其它工程领域的问题，如土工学、水力学、热传导以及甚至是工程领域之外的问题。Finally, to conserve space and time, most of our studies will deal with planar structures subjected to planar loadings in the plane of the structure. This approach will retain enough generality that the resulting analysis methods can be readily extended to three-dimensional applications. 最后，为了节省时间和篇幅，我们研究的大多数问题将涉及平面内受平面力作用的平面结构。这一方法将保持足够的普遍性，从而使所得到的分析方法能容易地推广到三维空间问题。
《专业英语》复习题 一、选择题 1.civil engineering dealt with permanent structures for (civilian) use, whereas military engineering dealt with temporary structures for military use 2.attention must (be paid to) the working temperature of the machine. 3.diplomatic relations (have been established) between china and the united states of America 4.a direct current is a current (flowing) always in the same direction. 5.it’s our duty to (comply with) the specification. 6.dose your shop (supply) rebar ? 7.neither I nor he (is) fond of music. 8.the (above-mentioned)cements(水泥) are widely used on the construction site. 9.the production of steel has been increased (by) 70%. 10.i f the garden is big, some floodlights can be (installed). 11.(wherever) you go, you can see many buildings. 12.d ams, (bridge), water supply systems, and other large projects ordinarily employ several engineers to work together. 13.the bigger quantity you order,(the lower until cost you will be offered). 14.i n modern road constructions, powerful modern machines are
第一课 土木工程学土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 领域。因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。 贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。计算机成为了现代土木工程师的必备品，因为它使得工程师能有效地掌控所需的大量数据从而确定建造一项工程的最佳方法。 结构工程学。在这一专业领域，土木工程师规划设计各种类型的结构，包括桥梁，大坝，发电厂，设备支撑，海面上的特殊结构，美国太空计划，发射塔，庞大的天文和无线电望远镜，以及许多其他种类的项目。结构工程师应用计算机确定一个结构必须承受的力：自重，风荷载和飓风荷载，建筑材料温度变化引起的胀缩，以及地震荷载。他们也需确定不同种材料如钢筋，混凝土，塑料，石头，沥青，砖，铝或其他建筑材料等的复合作用。 水利工程学。土木工程师在这一领域主要处理水的物理控制方面的种种问题。他们的项目用于帮助预防洪水灾害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，维护河滩及其他滨水设施。此外，他们设计和维护海港，运河与水闸，建造大型水利大坝与小型坝，以及各种类型的围堰，帮助设计海上结构并且确定结构的位置对航行影响。 岩土工程学。专业于这个领域的土木工程师对支撑结构并影响结构行为的土壤和岩石的特性进行分析。他们计算建筑和其他结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。他们也需计算并确定如何加强斜坡和填充物的稳定性以及如何保护结构免受地震和地下水的影响。 环境工程学。在这一工程学分支中，土木工程师设计，建造并监视系统以提供安全的饮用水，同时预防和控制地表和地下水资源供给的污染。他们也设计，建造并监视工程以控制甚至消除对土地和空气的污染。他们建造供水和废水处理厂，设计空气净化器和其他设备以最小化甚至消除由工业加工、焚化及其他产烟生产活动引起的空气污染。他们也采用建造特殊倾倒地点或使用有毒有害物中和剂的措施来控制有毒有害废弃物。此外，工程师还对垃圾掩埋进行设计和管理以预防其对周围环境造成污染。
第一部分必须掌握，第二部分尽量掌握 第一部分： 1 Finite Element Method 有限单元法 2 专业英语Specialty English 3 水利工程Hydraulic Engineering 4 土木工程Civil Engineering 5 地下工程Underground Engineering 6 岩土工程Geotechnical Engineering 7 道路工程Road (Highway) Engineering 8 桥梁工程Bridge Engineering 9 隧道工程Tunnel Engineering 10 工程力学Engineering Mechanics 11 交通工程Traffic Engineering 12 港口工程Port Engineering 13 安全性safety 17木结构timber structure 18 砌体结构masonry structure 19 混凝土结构concrete structure 20 钢结构steelstructure 21 钢-混凝土复合结构steel and concrete composite structure 22 素混凝土plain concrete 23 钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete 24 钢筋rebar 25 预应力混凝土pre-stressed concrete 26 静定结构statically determinate structure 27 超静定结构statically indeterminate structure 28 桁架结构truss structure 29 空间网架结构spatial grid structure 30 近海工程offshore engineering 31 静力学statics 32运动学kinematics 33 动力学dynamics 34 简支梁simply supported beam 35 固定支座fixed bearing 36弹性力学elasticity 37 塑性力学plasticity 38 弹塑性力学elaso-plasticity 39 断裂力学fracture Mechanics 40 土力学soil mechanics 41 水力学hydraulics 42 流体力学fluid mechanics 43 固体力学solid mechanics 44 集中力concentrated force 45 压力pressure 46 静水压力hydrostatic pressure 47 均布压力uniform pressure 48 体力body force 49 重力gravity 50 线荷载line load 51 弯矩bending moment 52 torque 扭矩53 应力stress 54 应变stain 55 正应力normal stress 56 剪应力shearing stress 57 主应力principal stress 58 变形deformation 59 内力internal force 60 偏移量挠度deflection 61 settlement 沉降 62 屈曲失稳buckle 63 轴力axial force 64 允许应力allowable stress 65 疲劳分析fatigue analysis 66 梁beam 67 壳shell 68 板plate 69 桥bridge 70 桩pile 71 主动土压力active earth pressure 72 被动土压力passive earth pressure 73 承载力load-bearing capacity 74 水位water Height 75 位移displacement 76 结构力学structural mechanics 77 材料力学material mechanics 78 经纬仪altometer 79 水准仪level 80 学科discipline 81 子学科sub-discipline 82 期刊journal ,periodical 83文献literature 84 ISSN International Standard Serial Number 国际标准刊号 85 ISBN International Standard Book Number 国际标准书号 86 卷volume 87 期number 88 专着monograph 89 会议论文集Proceeding 90 学位论文thesis, dissertation 91 专利patent 92 档案档案室archive 93 国际学术会议conference 94 导师advisor 95 学位论文答辩defense of thesis 96 博士研究生doctorate student 97 研究生postgraduate 98 EI Engineering Index 工程索引 99 SCI Science Citation Index 科学引文索引 100ISTP Index to Science and Technology Proceedings 科学技术会议论文集索引 101 题目title 102 摘要abstract 103 全文full-text 104 参考文献reference 105 联络单位、所属单位affiliation 106 主题词Subject 107 关键字keyword 108 ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers 美国土木工程师协会 109 FHWA Federal Highway Administration 联邦公路总署
第一课土木工程学 土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 领域。因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。 贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。计算机成为了现代土木工程师的必备品，因为它使得工程师能有效地掌控所需的大量数据从而确定建造一项工程的最佳方法。 结构工程学。在这一专业领域，土木工程师规划设计各种类型的结构，包括桥梁，大坝，发电厂，设备支撑，海面上的特殊结构，美国太空计划，发射塔，庞大的天文和无线电望远镜，以及许多其他种类的项目。结构工程师应用计算机确定一个结构必须承受的力：自重，风荷载和飓风荷载，建筑材料温度变化引起的胀缩，以及地震荷载。他们也需确定不同种材料如钢筋，混凝土，塑料，石头，沥青，砖，铝或其他建筑材料等的复合作用。 水利工程学。土木工程师在这一领域主要处理水的物理控制方面的种种问题。他们的项目用于帮助预防洪水灾害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，维护河滩及其他滨水设施。此外，他们设计和维护海港，运河与水闸，建造大型水利大坝与小型坝，以及各种类型的围堰，帮助设计海上结构并且确定结构的位置对航行影响。 岩土工程学。专业于这个领域的土木工程师对支撑结构并影响结构行为的土壤和岩石的特性进行分析。他们计算建筑和其他结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。他们也需计算并确定如何加强斜坡和填充物的稳定性以及如何保护结构免受地震和地下水的影响。 环境工程学。在这一工程学分支中，土木工程师设计，建造并监视系统以提供安全的饮用水，同时预防和控制地表和地下水资源供给的污染。他们也设计，建造并监视工程以控制甚至消除对土地和空气的污染。
Part IV：Commonly Used Professional Terms of Civil Engineering development organization 建设单位 design organization 设计单位 construction organization 施工单位 reinforced concrete 钢筋混凝土 pile 桩 steel structure 钢结构 aluminium alloy 铝合金 masonry 砌体（工程）reinforced ~ 配筋砌体load-bearing ~ 承重砌体unreinforced ~非配筋砌体 permissible stress (allowable stress) 容许应力plywood 胶合板 retaining wall 挡土墙 finish 装修 finishing material装修材料 ventilation 通风 natural ~ 自然通风 mechanical ~ 机械通风 diaphragm wall (continuous concrete wall) 地下连续墙 villa 别墅 moment of inertia 惯性矩 torque 扭矩 stress 应力normal ~ 法向应力shear ~ 剪应力 strain 应变 age hardening 时效硬化 air-conditioning system空调系统 (air) void ration（土）空隙比 albery壁厨，壁龛 a l mery壁厨，贮藏室 anchorage length锚固长度 antiseismic joint 防震缝 architectural appearance 建筑外观 architectural area 建筑面积 architectural design 建筑设计 fiashing 泛水 workability (placeability) 和易性 safety glass安全玻璃 tempered glass (reinforced glass) 钢化玻璃foamed glass泡沫玻璃 asphalt沥青 felt (malthoid) 油毡 riveted connection 铆接 welding焊接 screwed connection 螺栓连接 oakum 麻刀，麻丝 tee三通管 tap存水弯 esthetics美学 formwork 模板（工程） shoring 支撑 batching 配料 slipform construction (slipforming) 滑模施工 lfit-slab construction 升板法施工 mass concrete 大体积混凝土 terrazzo水磨石 construction joint 施工缝 honeycomb蜂窝，空洞，麻面 piled foundation桩基 deep foundation 深基础 shallow foundation浅基础 foundation depth基础埋深 pad foundation独立基础 strip foundation 条形基础 raft foundation筏基 box foundation箱形基础 BSMT=basement 地下室 lift 电梯electric elevator lift well电梯井 escalator 自动扶梯 Poisson’s ratio 泊松比μ Young’s modulus , modulus of elasticity 杨氏模量，弹性模量E safety coefficient 安全系数 fatigue failure 疲劳破坏 bearing capacity of foundations 地基承载力bearing capacity of a pile 单桩承载力 two-way-reinforcement 双向配筋 reinforced concrete two-way slabs钢筋混凝土双向板 single way slab单向板 window blind 窗帘sun blind wind load 风荷载 curing 养护 watertight concrete 防水混凝土 white cement白水泥 separating of concrete混凝土离折segregation of concrete mortar 砂浆~ joint 灰缝 pilaster 壁柱 fire rating耐火等级 fire brick 耐火砖 standard brick标准砖
土木工程专业英语课文原 文及对照翻译 Newly compiled on November 23, 2020
Civil Engineering Civil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities. 土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities. 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 The word civil derives from the Latin for citizen. In 1782, Englishman John Smeaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work from that of the military engineers who predominated at the time. Since then, the term civil engineering has often been used to refer to engineers who build public facilities, although the field is much broader 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 Scope. Because it is so broad, civil engineering is subdivided into a number of technical specialties. Depending on the type of project, the skills of many kinds of civil engineer specialists may be needed. When a project begins, the site is surveyed and mapped by civil engineers who locate utility placement—water, sewer, and power lines. Geotechnical specialists perform soil experiments to determine if the earth can bear the weight of the project. Environmental specialists study the project’s impact on the local area: the potential for air and
non-destructive test 非破损检验 non-load—bearingwall 非承重墙 non—uniform cross—section beam 变截面粱 non—uniformly distributed strain coefficient of longitudinal tensile reinforcement 纵向受拉钢筋应变不均匀系数 normal concrete 普通混凝土 normal section 正截面 notch and tooth joint 齿连接 number of sampling 抽样数量 O obligue section 斜截面 oblique—angle fillet weld 斜角角焊缝 one—way reinforced(or prestressed)concrete slab “单向板” open web roof truss 空腹屋架， ordinary concrete 普通混凝土(28) ordinary steel bar 普通钢筋(29) orthogonal fillet weld 直角角焊缝(61) outstanding width of flange 翼缘板外伸宽度(57) outstanding width of stiffener 加劲肋外伸宽度(57) over-all stability reduction coefficient of steel beam·钢梁整体稳定系数(58) overlap 焊瘤(62) overturning or slip resistance analysis 抗倾覆、滑移验算(10) P padding plate 垫板(52) partial penetrated butt weld 不焊透对接焊缝(61) partition 非承重墙(7) penetrated butt weld 透焊对接焊缝(60) percentage of reinforcement 配筋率(34) perforated brick 多孔砖(43) pilastered wall 带壁柱墙(42) pit·凹坑(62) pith 髓心(?o) plain concrete structure 素混凝土结构(24) plane hypothesis 平截面假定(32) plane structure 平面结构(11) plane trussed lattice grids 平面桁架系网架(5) plank 板材(65) plastic adaption coefficient of cross—section 截面塑性发展系数(58) plastic design of steel structure 钢结构塑性设计(56) plastic hinge·塑性铰(13) plastlcity coefficient of reinforced concrete member in tensile zone 受拉区混凝土塑性影响系数
A Type Wooden Ladder A字木梯 A-frame A型骨架 A-truss A型构架 Abandon 废弃 Abandoned well 废井 Aberration of needle 磁针偏差Abnormal pressure 异常压力abnormally high pressure 异常高压Abort 中止 abrasion 磨损 Abrasion surface 浪蚀面 abrasive cut-off machine 磨切机Abrasive Cutting Wheel 拮碟abrasive grinding machine 研磨机Abrasive Grinding Wheel 磨碟abrasive particle 磨料颗粒 Absolute address 绝对地址Absolute altitude 绝对高度Absolute damping 绝对阻尼Absolute deviation 绝对偏差Absolute flying height 绝对航高Absolute gravity 绝对重力 absolute permeability 绝对渗透率absolute porosity 绝对孔隙率absolute temperature 绝对温度absorbability 吸收性；吸附性absorption 吸收 abutment 桥墩 abutting end 邻接端 acceleration 加速 acceleration lane 加速车道Acceleration of gravity 重力加速度acceleration pedal 加速器踏板accelerator 催凝剂；加速器；催化剂acceptance criteria 接受准则 access 通路；通道 access door 检修门；通道门access lane 进出路径 access panel 检修门 access point 入口处；出入通道处access ramp 入口坡道；斜通道access road 通路；通道 access shaft 竖井通道 access spiral loop 螺旋式回旋通道access staircase 通道楼梯 access step 出入口踏步 access tunnel 隧道通道 accessible roof 可到达的屋顶accessory 附件；配件accident 事故；意外 accidental collapse 意外坍塌 accommodate 装设；容纳 accredited private laboratory 认可的私 人实验室 accumulator 储压器；蓄电池 accuracy limit 精度限制 acetylene cylinder 乙炔圆筒 Acetylene Hose 煤喉 Acetylene Regulator 煤表 acid plant 酸洗设备；酸洗机 acid pump 酸液泵 acid tank 酸液缸 acidic rock 酸性岩 acoustic couplant 声耦合剂 acoustic coupler 声音藕合器；音效藕 合器 acoustic lining 隔音板 acoustic screen 隔声屏 Acoustic wave 声波 acrylic paint 丙烯漆料(压克力的油漆) acrylic sheet 丙烯胶片(压克力的胶片) active corrosion 活性腐蚀 active earth pressure 主动土压力 active fault 活断层 active oxidation 活性氧化 actual plot ratio 实际地积比率 actuator 促动器；唧筒；激发器 adapt 改装 adaptor 适配器；承接器；转接器； addition 增设；加建 additional building works 增补建筑工 程 additional horizontal force 额外横向力 additional plan 增补图则(附加的平面 图) additional vent 加设通风口 additive 添加剂 Address 地址 adhesive 黏结剂；胶黏剂 adhesive force 附着力 Adhesive Glue 万能胶 Adhesive Reflective Warning Tape 反 光警告贴纸 adit 入口；通路；坑道口 adjacent construction 相邻建造物 adjacent level 相邻水平 adjacent site 相邻基地 adjacent street 相邻街道 adjoining area 毗邻地区 adjoining building 毗邻建筑物 adjoining land 毗邻土地 adjoining structure 毗邻构筑物 adjustable 可调校 Adjustable Wrench Spanner 昔士 adjuster 调节器 adjustment 调校；调整 Administrative Lawsuit 行政诉讼 Administrative Remedy 行政救济 admixture 掺合剂；外加剂 advance directional sign 前置指路标 志；方向预告标志 advance earthworks 前期土方工程 advance warning sign 前置警告标志 advance works 前期工程 aeration 曝气 aeration tank 曝气池 aerial 天线 Aerial mapping 航空测图 aerial photograph 航测照片 Aerial photography 航照定位 aerial rapid transit system 高架快速运 输系统 aerial ropeway 高架缆车系统 aerial view 鸟瞰图 aerofoil 翼型 aerosol 悬浮微粒；喷雾 aerosphere 大气圈 affix 贴附 aftercooler 后冷却器 afterfilter 后过滤器 aftershock 余震 agent 作用剂；代理人 aggradation 堆积 aggregate 骨材；集料；碎石 aggregate area 总面积 aggregate grading 骨材级配 aggregate superficial area 表面总面积 aggregate usable floor space 总楼地板 空间 agitator 搅拌器；搅动机 air bleeding 放气(空气渗出) air blower 鼓风机 air brake 气压制动器 Air chambor 气室 air circuit 空气回路 air circuit breaker 空气断路器 air cleaner 空气滤清器
Take the road of sustainable development civil engineering Abstract: Civil Engineering is the oldest in human history "technical science" as a system of industrial activity, the essence of civil engineering production process, is a technical process Civil engineering is the construction of various facilities in science and technology, collectively, both refer to the construction of the object, that is built on the ground, underground, water facilities, a variety of projects, but also refers to the application of materials, equipment and carried out survey and design , construction, maintenance, repair and other technology. As an important basis for discipline, civil engineering has its important attributes: a comprehensive, social, practical, technical and economic and artistic unity. With the progress of human society and development, civil engineering has already evolved into large-scale comprehensive subject, and has many branches, such as: construction, railroad engineering, road engineering, bridge engineering, specialty engineering structures, water supply and drainage projects, port engineering, hydraulic engineering, environmental engineering and other disciplines. There are six professional civil engineering: architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, built environment and equipment engineering, water supply and drainage works and road and bridge projects. Civil engineering is a form of human activity. Human beings pursued it to change the natural environment for their own benefit. Buildings, transportations, facilities, infrastructures are all included in civil engineering. The development of civil engineering has a long history. Our seniors had left a lot of great constructions to us. For example, Zhao Zhou Bridge is the representative of our Chinese civil engineering masterpieces. It has a history of more than 1300 years and is still service at present. Civil engineering has been so rapid development of the period. A lot of new bridges have been constructed, and many greater plans are under discussion. China is a large county. And she is still well developing. However, civil engineers will be facing more complex problems. We should pay attention to the growing population and a lot of deteriorating infrastructures. We should prepare for the possibility of natural disasters. To meet grow needs in the
土木工程专业英语原文 及翻译 文档编制序号：[KKIDT-LLE0828-LLETD298-POI08]
08 级土木(1) 班课程考试试卷 考试科目专业英语 考试时间 学生姓名 所在院系土木学院 任课教师 徐州工程学院印制 Stability of Slopes Introduction Translational slips tend to occur where the adjacent stratum is at a relatively shallow depth below the surface of the slope:the failure surface tends to be plane and roughly parallel to the slips usually occur where the adjacent stratum is at greater depth，the failure surface consisting of curved and plane sections． In practice, limiting equilibrium methods are used in the analysis of slope stability. It is considered that failure is on the point of occurring along an assumed or a known failure surface．The shear strength required to maintain a condition of limiting equilibrium is compared with the available shear strength of the soil，giving the average factor of safety along the failure surface．The problem is considered in two dimensions，conditions of plane strain being assumed．It has been shown that a two-dimensional analysis gives a conservative result for a failure on a three-dimensional(dish-shaped) surface． Analysis for the Case of φu =0 This analysis, in terms of total stress，covers the case of a fully saturated clay under undrained conditions, . For the condition immediately after construction．Only moment equilibrium is considered in the analysis．In section, the potential failure surface is assumed to be a circular arc. A trial failure surface(centre O，radius r and length L a where F is the factor of safety with respect to shear strength．Equating moments about O：