Oil Spill Detection in Northern European Waters: Approaches and Algorithms
Anne H.S. Solberg 1, 2 and Camilla Brekke 1, 3
1 Department of Informatics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
2
also at Norwegian Computing Center, Oslo, Norway 3 also at Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, Kjeller, Norway Abstract. The combined use of satellite-based Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images and aircraft surveillance flights is a cost-effective way to monitor deliberate oil spills in large ocean areas and catch the polluters. SAR images enable covering large areas, but aircraft observations are needed to prosecute the polluter, and in certain cases to verify the oil spill. We discuss the limitations of satellite imaging of oil spills compared to aircraft monitoring. Automatic detection of oil spills has proven to be an interesting complement to manual detection. We present an overview of algorithms for automatic detection, and discuss their potential compared to manual inspection as part of an operational oil spill detection framework. Experimental results show that automatic algorithms can perform compa-oil spills, false alarm ratio, and they can also speed up the image analysis process compared to fully manual services.
1. Introduction
Marine pollution arising from illegal oily discharges from ships represents a serious threat to the marine environment. Oil pollution caused by large accidents like the Prestige event in 2002 capture many headlines, but the majority of the oil pollution cases are caused by operational discharges from tankers. Observed oil spills commonly appear in connection with off-shore installations and correlate well with major shipping routes. A combi-nation of aircraft and satellite sensors are currently used to monitor large ocean areas to detect oil spills and catch the polluter. The inclusion of sat-spill surveillance and to cover larger areas.
ellite surveillance allows the user to better target the aircrafts used for oil rable to manual detection, both in terms of accuracy in detecting verified 359
V. Barale, M. Gade (eds.), Remote Sensing of the European Seas.? Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008
360 A.H.S. Solberg and C. Brekke
2. Remote sensing sensors for oil spill detection
For routine monitoring of illegal oil discharges from ships and offshore installations both aircraft sensors and satellite sensors can be used. Satellite-based Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images can be used to screen large ocean areas, while aircrafts are more suitable to be brought into action to identify the polluter, the extent, and the type of spill.
2.1 Aircraft sensors
Most surveillance aircrafts used for oil pollution monitoring in Europe are equipped with a combination of sensors: Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR), infrared/ultraviolet (IR/UV), Laser Fluoro-Sensor (LFS), Micro-wave Radiometer (MWR). For an overview of aircraft sensors for oil spill detection, see (Goodman 1994; Trieschmann et al. 2003). SLAR is the main sensor for long-range detection of oil pollution on the sea surface. The SLAR is used to locate possible spill locations. Then the spill is ins-pected more closely using additional sensors and/or visual inspection. The sensor configuration used on board surveillance aircrafts varies from coun-try to country. An example is the German aerial surveillance, which lo-cates the oil spills by SLAR, IR/UV scanning is used to quantify the extent of the film, a MWR is used to quantify the thickness, and a LFS is used for oil type classification. The SLAR, IR, and LFS can operate at night. A number of different aircraft types are used for oil spill aerial surveillance. They differ in terms of endurance, cruising speed and SLAR sensor equip-ment resulting in different SLAR area coverage during one flight hour. One hour of airborne remote sensing over the sea at a speed of 335 km/h covers an area of 13400 km2 (Tufte et al. 2005).
2.2 Satellite sensors
SAR is the main spaceborne remote sensing instrument for oil spill imag-ing, with all-weather and all-day operation capabilities, although it is not capable of oil spill thickness estimation and oil type recognition. The main limitation for spaceborne optical sensors is the need for daylight and cloud-free scenes, but they have a potential to discriminate between oil and algal blooms. A more detailed discussion of other satellite sensors for oil spill detection is given in (Brekke and Solberg 2005).
SAR is particularly useful for searching large areas. Usually even small volumes of oil cover large areas and thus the need for very high
Oil Spill Detection in Northern European Waters 361
spatial resolution in SAR images is not crucial. SAR has however some limitations, as a number of natural phenomena can produce similar dark objects in the SAR images (see Section 3).
Currently, RADARSAT-1 and ENVISAT ASAR are the two main SAR sensors used for oil spill detection. The best trade-off between spatial cov-erage and spatial resolution is achieved using RADARSAT-1 ScanSAR and ENVISAT ASAR Wide Swath image modes. Table 1 describes the coverage and resolution of these sensors. The costs of satellite images are much lower than the costs of covering the same area by aircraft. The actual time that the satellite passes over a given location will vary with latitude, but the overflight will be fixed in time.
ASAR products.
RADARSAT-1 ScanSAR Narrow ENVISAT ASAR Wide Swath
Spatial coverage per scene Spatial resolution per scene 300 km × 300 km 50 m × 50 m 400 km × 400 km 150 m × 150 m
The number of available RADARSAT-1 or ENVISAT ASAR images of a given area on a given date depends on the geographic latitude and the observation period. Daily coverage is possible in Northern Europe, and a coverage a couple of times a week is possible for all European waters.
2.3 The advantages and limitations of satellite-based vs. aircraft monitoring are summarized in Table 2. In order to cover the same area as a RADARSAT-1 ScanSAR Narrow scene or an ENVISAT ASAR Wide Swath scene with an aircraft, 6 or 12 flight hours, respectively, are needed. A limitation with the satellite monitoring is that the images are taken at fixed times of the day. The fate and persistence of oil in seawater are controlled by processes that vary considerably in space and time. The amount of oil spilled, its initial physical and chemical characteristics, and the prevailing climatic and sea conditions have great impact on the lifetime of an oil spill. A reasonable as-sumption might be that most illegal oil discharges are bilge oil, i.e. a mixture of several kinds of oils (fuel oil, hydraulic oil, etc.). For instance, in the Fin-nish surveillance area it is estimated that 1–5 percent of the detected slicks persists only some hours (Tufte et al. 2005). To cover oil spills occurring at Satellite vs. aircraft – advantages/limitations
Table 1. Coverage and resolution for selected RADARSAT-1 and ENVISAT are thicker slicks that persist several days, and 95–99% are bilge oil that
362 A.H.S. Solberg and C. Brekke
all times of the day, aerial surveillance can be used to supplement the fixed coverage times of the SAR satellites.
Table 2. Advantages and drawbacks with SAR satellite and aerial surveillance. (Adapted from Tufte et al. 2005).
Satellite SAR Aerial surveillance Advantages Advantages lance.
aircraft operational efficiency.
Flexible monitoring. Can be deployed at short notice. Can identify additional oil parameters. Limitations Limitations False targets can occur in analysis.
Fixed monitoring schedule.
Limited to certain wind conditions. High cost. Smaller spatial coverage. Limited to certain weather conditions.
3. SAR imaging of oil spills
Oil spills dampen the Bragg waves (wavelength of a few cm) on the ocean surface and reduce the radar backscatter coefficient. This results in dark regions or dark spots in a satellite SAR image. A part of the oil spill detec-tion problem is to distinguish oil spills from other natural phenomena that dampen the short waves and create dark patches on the surface. Natural dark patches are termed oil spills look-alikes. Oil spills include all oil re-lated surface films caused by oil spills from oilrigs, leaking pipelines, pass-ing vessels as well as bottom seepages, while look-alikes include natural films/slicks, grease ice, threshold wind speed areas, wind sheltering by land, rain cells, shear zones, internal waves etc.
A service for oil spill detection based on SAR images must contain an oil spill detection step where the SAR images are analyzed, and dark re-gions that might be oil spills are identified. In this process, the factors that can be used to discriminate between an oil spill and a look-alike are impor-and provide larger damping to the surrounding sea than natural films (Hovland et al. 1994). A newly released oil spill will have reasonably sharp borders to the surrounding sea. As the weathering effects the spill, the borders can become more fuzzy. The shape will be altered by wind and current. Depending on the source of the outlet, certain shapes of the oil spills can be expected. Oil spills from moving ships are thin, linear or
tant. Due to higher viscosity, oil spills tend to remain more concentrated High accuracy of oil spill detection. Can identify polluter. Large and well-defined spatial coverage.
Less expensive than airborne surveil-
Can be used to cue aircraft to improve
Oil Spill Detection in Northern European Waters 363 piecewise slicks, while oil spills from stationary sources can be wide and regular if a significant amount of oil is released in short time.
Other types of pollution can also cause slicks that are visible in the SAR image Algae can also create dark patches in the SAR image very similar to oil spills. This is in particular a problem in the Baltic Sea, where a certain algae type that dampens the Bragg waves is common during the summer season. If additional information from e.g. ocean color sensors is available, it can be used to identify algae.
The wind speed is also important for imaging of oil spills. With very low wind, no backscatter from the sea surface will be seen. Look-alikes are very frequently observed in low to moderate wind conditions (approxi-mately 3 to 7 m/s). As the wind speed increases, the expected number of look-alikes will be lower. For oil spills, the contrast between the spill and the surrounding sea will decrease with higher wind speeds. At high wind speeds (>10 m/s) only larger slicks with thicker oil will be visible. The up-per limit for observing oil in the SAR image is not known exactly. In an operational oil spill detection service at Kongsberg Satellite Services (KSAT) in Troms?, Norway, an upper limit of 15 m/s is used.
4. SAR oil spill detection: manual vs. automatic
Oil spills in a SAR image can be identified by manual inspection, or the image can first be screened by an automatic algorithm for oil spill detec-tion, followed by manual inspection of the suspect alarms only. Manual interpretation of e.g. a 400 km × 400 km ENVISAT ASAR image can be a complex and time consuming task because the image is so large that the operator can only view a small part of the scene at a time to be able to de-tect thin oil spills. Recent benchmarks (Indregard et al. 2004; Solberg et al. 2006) comparing automatic algorithms to manual detection shows that an automatic algorithm can be a valuable tool when a large number of images are to be inspected.
4.1 Manual oil spill detection
A well-established operational service for oil spill detection is run at KSAT. Trained operators detect oil spills by inspecting the SAR images. In addition to the image, they can use external information about wind speed and direc-tion, oil rig/pipeline location, national territory borders and coast lines. After a possible oil spill has been detected, it is assigned confidence level low, medium or high based on a certain set of rules (Indregard et al. 2004).
364 A.H.S. Solberg and C. Brekke
4.2 Automatic approaches
A literature review of automatic techniques for oil spill detection in SAR images can be found in Brekke and Solberg (2005 ). In this section we give a short update on the state-of-the-art in this field.
Several of the published papers on oil spill algorithms for SAR images (e.g. Fiscella et al. 2000; Del Frate et al. 2000; Solberg et al. 1999, 2006) describe a methodology consisting of dark spot detection followed by fea-ture extraction and a classification step (see Figure 1).
Fig. 1. A framework for oil spill detection algorithms.
Segmentation techniques
As oil spills are characterized by low backscattering levels, the use of thresholding for dark spot segmentation is commonly applied (see e.g. Keramitsoglou et al. 2006; Solberg et al. 1999; Brekke and Solberg 2005). As SAR images tend to become darker with increasing range and as local variations in the wind level and other meteorological and oceanic condi-tions occur, thresholding algorithms where the threshold is set adaptively based on local statistical estimates should be preferred.
Dark spot feature extraction
Discrimination between oil spills and look-alikes are often based on a number of features computed for each suspicious dark spot on the sea sur-face (see e.g. Topouzelis et al. 2002; Solberg et al. 1999; Brekke and Sol-berg 2006; Del Frate et al. 2000; Fiscella et al. 2000).
Good features are very important for the success of the following classi-fication step. Most of the features applied in the literature are covered by the following types:
? the geometry and shape of the dark spot;
The location of detected oil spills and their confidence level is then immediately
sent to the surveillance aircrafts.
Oil Spill Detection in Northern European Waters 365 ?the physical characteristics of the backscatter level of the dark spot and its surroundings;
?the dark spot contextual features;
?the texture features of both the dark spot and the surroundings.
Slick classification
The purpose of the classification step is to distinguish oil spills from look-alikes. How difficult the classification task is depends on the variability in the feature values for objects in the oil spill class relative to the difference between feature values for objects in the look-alike class. Effective methods for developing classifiers involve learning from example patterns (training). In statistical approaches, the classification decision is based on the probabil-ity and the cost of a certain decision (e.g. Solberg et al. 1999; Brekke and Solberg 2007; Brekke et al. 2007).
Various classifiers have been applied to the oil spill detection problem (Fiscella et al. 2000; Nirchio et al. 2005; Del Frate et al. 2000; Keramitso-glou et al. 2006). All detection algorithms suffer from false alarms, and dark spots classified as oil spills may be confused with look-alikes (e.g. natural film and low wind areas). Applying external data to improve classification and assess the slick nature has been suggested. Girard-Ardhuin et al. (2005) combines characteristics of the detected dark spots from the SAR images and meteorological and oceanic data through a multi-sensor approach (in-cluding information about surface wind measurements, sea-surface tempera-ture, atmospheric fronts and clouds and chlorophyll).
5. A benchmark study of oil spill detection approaches As part of the EC project Oceanides, a benchmark study comparing oil spill recognition approaches was performed. Manual oil spill detection based on SAR images was compared to semi-automatic and automatic ap-proaches. A joint satellite-airborne campaign was performed during 2003. The campaign covered the Finnish and German sectors of the Baltic Sea, in addition to the German sector of the North Sea. The campaign was or-ganized in such a way that a trained operator at KSAT (KSAT1) analyzed the SAR images, and reported possible oil spills to the Finnish and German pollution control authorities. They would check the positions and verify the slicks, and report additional slicks found by the aircraft. This was done for both ENVISAT and RADARSAT-1 images.
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Center (NR) (Solberg et al. 2006) was used to analyze all images without knowing aircraft detections or KSAT results. Figure 2 shows examples of correctly classified oil spills, false alarms, and slicks detected only by aircraft.
Examples of false alarms. The slick in the image on the left was verified as algae, while the clearly suspect dark spot in the right image could not be found when the aircraft inspected
the position (possibly resolved).
For benchmark comparisons, KSAT let another operator (KSAT2) inspect the same SAR images without knowing the aircraft detections or the automatic oil spill detection approach developed at Norwegian Computing
result of the previous inspection to study the inter-operator variance. The ESA/KSAT/NR.
? Fig. 2. ENVISAT images with examples of oil spills and false alarms.
Oil Spill Detection in Northern European Waters 367 The benchmark data set contained 27 ENVISAT images and 32 RADARSAT-1 images. The real-time inspection of the ENVISAT images at KSAT (KSAT1) detected 11 oil spills that were verified as oil spills by the aircraft. The repeated inspection by another operator, KSAT2, detected 8 of these verified slicks, the automatic algorithm (NR) also detected 8 of the verified slicks. For RADARSAT-1 data, there was 18 verified oil spills, KSAT2 found 15 of these, while the NR algorithm found 14.
This demonstrates that the inter-operator variance was significant. KSAT has later taken measures to reduce this variability by increasing op-erator training and harmonising the interpretation process. The perform-ance of the NR algorithm is also almost comparable to KSAT2, so it can be a valuable alternative or supplement to manual inspection.
It is also of interest to study additional slicks reported by the aircraft, but not detected from satellite image analysis. In general, these slicks involved a small amount of oil. For some of them, the time of aircraft pass was sev-eral hours after the satellite image acquisition, so the release could be new. For other cases, the satellite image was taken several hours after the air-craft pass, and a small amount of oil could very well be resolved during this time period.
The number of false alarms, the number of slicks reported by satellite, but verified as not oil by the aircraft, was also studied. All false alarms are discussed in detail in (Indregard et al. 2004). Some linear slicks with good contrast were detected in the satellite image but verified as algae.
The confidence levels that are associated with reported possible oil spills from KSAT can be used by the surveillance aircraft crew to prioritize which oil spill positions they will inspect first. Slicks that were assigned confidence level High had very low false alarm ratio, slicks that were assigned confi-dence Medium had reasonably low false alarm ratio, while slicks that were assigned confidence Low had relatively high false alarm ratio (again the de-tails can be found in (Indregard et al. 2004). However, the confidence as-signed by two different operators at KSAT varied. The automatic algorithm can also be used to compute confidence levels using a set of rules that simu-late the rules used by the operators at KSAT (see Solberg 2005 for how this is done). By comparing the confidence levels assigned by two KSAT opera-tors and NR’s automatic algorithm on a set of 22 selected oil spills, it was found that KSAT1 and KSAT2 assigned the same confidence for 7 out of 22 slicks, while the algorithm and KSAT1 agreed for 13 of 22 slicks, and had a confidence level difference of one (indicating e.g. High vs. Medium) for six additional slicks. What this indicates is that there is still some subjectivity involved in confidence assignment, and using an algorithm to get a “second opinion” to use in confidence assignment might be valuable.
368 A.H.S. Solberg and C. Brekke
The processing time for manual inspection at KSAT varied between 3 and 25 minutes for RADARSAT-1 images, with an average of 9 minutes. The automatic algorithm had an average processing time of 3 minutes. For ENVISAT images, the average time for manual inspection at KSAT was 10 minutes, while the automatic algorithm had an average processing time of 1.45 minutes.
6. Discussion and conclusions
The combined use of satellite-based SAR images and aircraft surveillance flights is a cost-effective way to monitor large areas and catch the pollut-ers. The coverage in terms of the number of weekly satellite passes of European waters is very good in Northern Europe and decent in the Medi-terranean.
Oil spill detections from aircrafts and satellite images were compared in a benchmark study. In general, there were good agreement between aircraft detections and satellite-based detections when the time offset between the image acquisitions was low.
Some information about oil spill statistics and hot spots exist, see e.g. (Bauna and Clayton 2004; Tufte et al. 2005). Hot spots coincide well with major shipping routes, pipelines, oil rigs etc. Tufte et al. (2005) discuss sampling requirements as guidelines for operational oil spill monitoring in European waters. They also summarize current monitoring efforts for many countries in Northern Europe, and their experience in using a com-bination of aerial- and satellite monitoring. The best approach for a spe-cific national authority depends on the size and shape of the area to be monitored, and other resources available. International cooperation with neighboring countries on planning satellite acquisitions and sharing costs is important.
Many different techniques are proposed for automatic detection of oil spills. They often consist of three main parts: segmentation, feature extrac-tion and classification. However, there is still a challenge in reducing the number of false alarms, and automatically assigned confidence levels can be helpful in prioritizing the alarms. Interoperator variance in manual de-tection should be reduced by better training, or introducing the algorithm as a second information source. This applies to both detection and confi-dence assignment.
Presently, one of the biggest challenges for operational oil spill de-tection services is obtaining sustainability in terms of data availability. SENTINEL-1 is a planned two-satellite system (C-band) to be operated as
Oil Spill Detection in Northern European Waters 369 a constellation for maximized coverage/repeat cycle. The first satellite will be launched in 2010 and the second some 12–15 months later (Attema 2005 ). RADARSAT-2 is a Canadian SAR satellite planned to be launc-hed in the summer of 2007. The SAR instrument will be C-band like RADARSAT-1, but there will be more flexibility in the selection of polarizations.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Oceanides project, in particular Marte Indregard, Peter Clayton and Lars Tufte for contributions to the benchmark study on oil spill approaches.
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…Back to Sleep?: Why Are 2,500 U.S. Babies Still Dying of SIDS Each Year? ‘用背部睡觉’：为什么美国每年都有2500个婴儿死于婴儿猝死综合症 Putting babies on their back to sleep has dramatically reduced the number of SIDS deaths, but thousands of babies still die each year. A look at the key risk factors. 让婴儿用背部睡觉戏剧性的减少了婴儿猝死综合症的死亡数量，但每年还是有上千数量的婴儿死亡。这有一种对于关键的风险因素的看法。 There?s no doubt that the Back to Sleep campaign launched in 1994 to get parents to stop putting babies to sleep on their tummies has been a success. In the 1970s and 1980s, the rate of infant deaths per 1,000 live births was 1.5; it?s now 0.5. 无需置疑的是，1994年发起的用背部睡觉的运动，旨在阻止父母让婴儿用肚子睡觉是成功的。在20世纪70到80年代，婴儿死亡率为每一千名安全出生婴儿中有1.5，现在是0.5。 Within a generation, most babies are now put to bed on their backs, and yet 2,500 U.S. infants still die each year in the U.S. Researchers trying to understand why have noticed a curious byproduct of the trend toward back-sleeping: as fewer babies were being put to sleep on their bellies, more babies were documented engaging in other pediatric no-nos — sleeping with their parents, for example — which is another risk factor for SIDS. 在一代人中，大部分婴儿现在都用背部放在床上，但美国每年依然有2500个婴儿死亡。研究员正试图弄明白为什么人们会注意到用背部睡觉这种趋势的奇怪的副产品：越来越少的婴儿用腹部睡觉，越来越多的婴儿被证明参与到了一些儿科禁止的事情中——例如，和父母一起睡——这是婴儿猝死综合症的另一个风险因素。 A study published Monday in the journal Pediatrics takes a look at how risk factors for SIDS have evolved over the years. In an analysis of the 954 babies who died suddenly and unexpectedly in San Diego County between 1991 and 2008 — 568 of these deaths were attributed to SIDS — researchers found that
近代以来国际权力中心的演变 随着国际体系的发展，国际权力中心也在不断进行演变。由威斯特伐利亚体系到雅尔塔体系解体，国际权力中心先后经历了以欧洲——美国和苏联——以美国为中心并逐渐拓展至全球的演变历程。进入21世纪以后，随着中国实力的不断增强，世界权力中心的转移也在又一次的发展当中。本文第一部分主要对国际权力中心进行研究；第二部分以近代以来主要国际关系体系发展为线索，讨论随着体系的变化国际权力中心的演变发展；第三部分以权力中心的发展为线索，提出有关权力转移的观点，进而为中国现阶段的崛起提供参考。 标签：国际体系；权力转移；大国兴衰；中国崛起 随着改革开放的不断深入，中国综合国力不断提升，由此中国也不断参与国际规则的制定，权力的中心正在悄然发生着变化。基于此背景，需要对自威斯特伐利亚体系以来的现代国际关系体系及相应的权力架构进行分析，从而了解权力转移的基本规律，对我国现阶段融入国际体系并发挥更为重要的作用有着深远影响。 一、国际权力中心 权力是一切政治行动的要素[1]，国际权力中心即国际政治的中心地带。而国家和地区本身具有的实力是其成为中心地带的核心要素。具体而言，世界权力中心主要包括两方面力量标准。首先是物质性力量，在物质性力量当中经济力量是决定性的，具体体现在其对世界经济的强制控制力上，如制定贸易规则、掌握世界货币以及进行经济制裁等。此外，军事力量也是重要表现方式。军事力量，或“硬实力”，在实际运用当中，除战争之外更多的是表现在军事威慑等方面。政治权力就是根据行使这种军事力量的硬实力施加对社会的影响，如标准、信仰和价值得以确定的影响形式[2]。与此同时，文化力量，即“软实力”，也可对其他国家施加影响。软实力，即该国或地区的文化、制度以及思想内涵等在周边乃至更广范围内的影响力和控制力。软实力与意识形态、传统文化以及政治制度等息息相关，其核心是国家通过非硬性的手段使其他国家或地区受到来自软实力输出国或地区的影响，而它可能无须以高昂的代价运用强制性权力或硬实力[3]。软实力对于其他国家的作用是一个潜移默化的过程，因此，在国际政治当中，充分运用硬实力和软实力，使其相互结合并交互发生作用的国家或地区才可被称作是国际政治权力的中心国家或地区。 二、国际关系体系发展与权力中心变迁 近代以来的国际关系体系主要包括威斯特伐利亚体系、维也纳体系、凡尔赛—华盛顿体系以及雅尔塔体系。而国际权力中心也由起初的欧洲到二战之后的美苏两极权力中心，在苏东剧变后，国际权力中心逐渐转移至美国。冷战后，随着中国的逐渐发展，围绕着中国和美国之间的权力中心之争的讨论也此起彼伏。
一 采集技能 1.Mining 采矿 使用工具：镐 经验获得：采掘矿物 经验列表：见右方 被动技能： 双倍掉落 采掘时有几率出现双倍掉落，几率为[(0.1*等级)%] 增加采矿速度(暂无作用) 增加你的采矿的速度 主动技能： 疯狂采掘 在疯狂采掘状态下玩家采掘速度将增加1倍并且有三倍掉落几率，但是会损耗双倍的耐久度。采掘效果仅能对给经验的方块有效 2.Woodcutting 伐木 使用工具：斧 经验获得：砍伐木头 经验列表：见右方 被动技能： 双倍掉落 伐木时有几率出现双倍掉落，几率为[(0.1*等级)%] 除叶 等级100以上时出现，当你用斧子砍树叶时有10%的几率掉落树苗（仅需砍一下，无需持续按住） 主动技能： 树木杀手 在树木杀手状态下，当你采伐一块原木时，这块原木一定范围之内的所有木及叶子将会 被采伐。这个技能冷却时间固定为4分钟。范围列表见右上方。 3.Herbalism 药剂学 使用工具：锄 经验获得：收获作物 经验列表：见右方 被动技能： 治疗 面包和蘑菇汤将会有治疗作用，具体效果由等级决定，面包治疗量：[3.5+(等级/50)*0.5个 ]，蘑菇汤治疗量：[5+(等级/50)*0.5个 ]。 园艺家 当你把种子洒在某些方块时，有几率变成另一种方块(石砖变为青苔石砖，土变成草地等)，几率随等级而增长。 方块种类 XP 方块种类 XP 萤石 30 地狱岩 30 砂岩 30 石头 40 煤矿 100 红石矿 150 黑曜石 150 铁矿 250 金矿 350 金青石矿 400 钻石矿 750 方块种类 经验 树木① 90 红木② 80 桦木③ 70 等级 范围 0-499 周围3格 500-949 周围4格 950+ 周围5格 作物种类 经验 仙人掌 30 蘑菇 150 甘蔗 30 小麦 50 西瓜 20 南瓜 500
2012年1月4日星期三 雌激素是新的“利他林”吗？ ——性激素能让一部分女性思维敏捷，却也让一部分迟钝 大考即将来临？无法集中注意力？尝试一点雌激素吧。 加州大学伯克利分校的神经系统科学家在最近的一项研究中报道称，女性生理周期中的荷尔蒙波动可能会如咖啡因、甲基苯丙胺或最常见的兴奋剂利他林一样影响其大脑。 近年来的研究表明，工作记忆（短期信息处理能力）是依赖于化学物质多巴胺的。事实上，像利他林这样的药物可以模仿多巴胺帮助人们集中注意力。在老鼠身上的研究显示，雌激素似乎可以诱发多巴胺的释放。但是伯克利这次的新研究是首次把认识能力和人的雌激素水平联系起来，这也就解释了为什么有些女性会在她们生理周期的不同时间点有着或好或坏的认识能力。 这只研究团队对24名健康女性进行了检测。通过基因测试，她们中有些天然多巴胺水平高，而有些天然低。不出所料，多巴胺水平低的女性对于处理复杂的工作记忆问题有困难，比如将一串五个数字反着背出来。但当测试在排卵期中进行，雌激素水平最高时（一般是月经期的10~12天后）这些女性的表现显著改善，有大约10%的进步。令人惊讶的是，多巴胺水平天然高的女性处理复杂问题的能力，却在排卵期中雌激素水平最高的时候有很明显的下降。 根据组织此次研究的Ph.D Emily Jacobs说，脑中的多巴胺是“classic Goldilacks scenario”。对于多巴胺水平最低的25%女性来说，在月经期多巴胺水平的增加会增强她们的认识能力，而对于多巴胺水平最高的25%女性来说，月经期多巴胺水平的增加可能会使她们的多巴胺水平超过一个上限，从而减弱她们的认识能力。而剩下的50%女性都处在这两类女性水平之间，不在研究的范围内。 这项研究有着重大的意义。Jacob说，像咖啡因、利他林这种诱发多巴胺释放的药物对于特定时期的女性是无效，甚至是损害性的。而且，她还希望提醒科学家们注意，在研究脑部疾病时，男女大脑虽然天赋相同但是并不完全一样。 Jacob说，这之间有很大区别，只有我们能知道他们在正常状态下的区别，我们才能预测他们在疾病状态下的区别。 毁约——脑扫描揭示誓言什么时候会不被遵守 新郎说“我愿意”而又和别人有一腿的时候，他脑中发生了什么？朋友承诺还钱却一直不还，他的脑中又发生了什么？一项最新研究显示，毁约是一项很复杂的神经生物学事件。而且脑扫描可以在毁约发生前预测出谁将要毁约。 瑞士苏黎世大学的科学家运用核磁共振技术把大脑比喻成了一场投资游戏。投资者必须决定是否承诺与受托者分享利益。如果投资，会使得账户中的资金增加，但如果受托者选择不分享，结果也会是投资者受损失。几乎所有投资者都说会把钱给受托者，但最后并不会所有人都守约。 通过核磁共振的扫描，研究者可以在他们有机会毁约前预测出他们会不会毁约。毁约者脑部的一些区域的活动会更加活跃，包括分管在压抑诚实回应时自我控制的前额皮质层，和标志
英语翻译 Unit 1Book 3. 中国传统节日以中国的农历为依据。农历年的岁首称为春 节，俗称“过年”，有祈年等多种习俗，是中国人民最隆重的传统节日， 象征团结兴旺。其他主要的节日有元宵节、清明节、端午节、七夕节、 中秋节、重阳节、冬至节、腊八节等等。各个节日都有其来源讲究和风 俗习惯。农历节日与农历中的二十四节气不同。农历节日是中华民族凝 聚力和生命力的体现 Traditional Chinese festivals are usually fixed to the Lunar calendar. January 1st on the lu Seventh Festival, the Mid-Autumn Festival, the Double- Ninth Festival, the Winter Solstice, and the Eight Day of the Twelfth Lunar Month, etc. Ea Lunar calendar. They embody China's cohesion and vitality. Unit 3Book3. 中国古代四大艺术“琴棋书画” 的画特指国画。其绘画形式 是用毛笔蘸水、墨、颜料作画于绢、帛、宣纸之上，古代称之为水墨丹 青。为区别于西方的油画而称之为“中国画”，简称“国画”。其题材有人 物、山水、花鸟等。技法可分为工笔和写意。国画的艺术特质在于“笔 墨”，强调以形写神，画尽意在。国画在艺术创作上反映了中化民族的 审美意识和情趣。 The four art forms in ancient China are guqin, chess, penmanship, and painting. And paint painting.” In order to distinguish it from Western oil-paintings, the Chinese people term their works “traditional Chinese painting” ( hand brushwork. The artistic characteristics lie in “the writing brush and ink.” Chinese pai 5. 中国石窟 中国石窟组要反映的是佛教文化艺术。敦煌莫高窟、大同云冈石窟、洛 阳龙门石窟、天水麦积山石窟，号称中国四大石窟艺术景观。佛教石窟 随山雕凿、彩绘，形象生动自然，将崇尚美与世俗情融为一体，把天然 造化与人工创造有机结合，是由建筑、绘画、雕塑等组成的博大精深、 绚丽夺目的综合艺术殿堂。其艺术成就为世界瞩目，已成为重要的世界 文化遗产。 Chinese Grottoes Chinese grottoes mainly reflect the art of Buddhist culture. In China， there are four major art landscape of grottoes:the Mogao Grottoes at Dunhuang, the Yungang Grottoes at Datong, the Longmen Grottoes at Luoyang, and the Maijishan Grottoes at Tianshui. Carved and painted on mountains, the Buddhist grottoes mingle both sublimity and secular feelings together, presenting us a vivid and natural appearance. They embody the systematic combination of both the exceptional artistry of great nature and the extremely fine craftsmanship of mankind. The Chinese Buddhist Grottoes are regarded
圭亚那盆地地层时代中英文对照 Cainozoic 新生界 Tertiary 第三纪 Pleistocene 第三纪更新世 Miocene 第三纪中新世 Lower Miocene 第三纪下中新世 Oligocene 第三纪渐新世 Eocene 第三纪始新世 Middle Eocene第三纪中始新世 Lower Eocene第三纪下始新世 Paleocene 第三纪古新世、古近系 Cretaceous 白垩纪 Senonian 森诺阶 Campanian 坎帕阶 Santonian 桑托阶 Coniacian 科尼亚克阶（晚白垩纪第三期）Turonian 白垩纪土仑阶（晚白垩纪第二期）Cenomanian 森诺曼阶 Albian 阿尔比阶 Aptian 阿普第阶 Barremian 巴列姆阶 Precambrian 前寒武纪地层
Cainozoic 新生界 Quaternary 第四系Quaternary period 第四纪Paleocene 第三纪古新世、古近系 Mesozoic中生界 Cretaceous 白垩系 Jurassic 侏罗系 Triassic 三叠系 LateTriassicepoch 晚三叠世 Paleozoic 古生界 Permian 二叠系 LatePermianepoch Early Permian 早二叠世 Carboniferous 石炭系石炭纪 Late Carboniferous Devonian 泥盆系泥盆纪upperDevonionseries 上泥盆统 siluric 志留系Silurian 志留纪 Ordovician 奥陶系奥陶纪 Cambrian 寒武系寒武纪 Proterozoic era 元古代
近现代国际关系史四大体系 威斯特伐利亚体系 三十年战争在欧洲历史上，第一次大规模的国际性战争当推发生在1618年～1648年的三十年战争。它由神圣罗马帝国的内战引发，把欧洲的主要国家全都卷入进来，而且带有浓重的宗教色彩，对欧洲的历史进程产生了深远影响。 17世纪初，神圣罗马帝国统辖下的德意志地区，仍然处于诸侯割据状态。各邦诸侯因为信仰不同和教产矛盾，分别组成新教联盟和天主教联盟。为了与对方抗衡，双方都大力寻求外国势力支持。而当时业已形成统一和集权的国家，如英、法、西班牙等，正在谋求对外扩张，自然就把德意志当作角逐的目标。这样，在战争爆发前，欧洲各国在宗教信仰的牵带下，形成了两大对立集团：哈布斯堡集团由奥地利、西班牙、德意志天主教联盟组成，得到罗马教皇和波兰的支持；反哈布斯堡集团由法国、丹麦、瑞典、荷兰、德意志新教联盟组成，得到英国、俄国的支持。 这次战争的导火线是波希米亚(捷克)爆发民族起义，反对神圣罗马帝国皇帝任命天主教徒斐迪南为捷克国王。自1618至1648年的漫漫三十年里，欧洲大地烽火连天，战事不断。终于，1648年10月，参战备方签订《威斯特伐利亚和约》，战争结束。 《威斯特伐利亚和约》的签署标志着近代国际关系史和近代欧洲外交史的开端。它建立了相对稳定的欧洲均势格局，形成了早期的外交制度。法国和瑞典增加了势力，神圣罗马帝国统治实际终结，哈布斯堡王朝受到沉重打击，信教力量增长；确立了国际关系的基本概念和行动原则，促进了国际法的形成与发展；王权进一步替代神权；法国争夺欧洲霸权。 维也纳体系 拿破仑战争拿破仑执政(1799—1804)和法兰西第一帝国(1804—1814，1815)时代，法国资产阶级为了在欧洲建立法国的政治和经济霸权，同英国争夺贸易和殖民地的领先地位，以及兼并新的领土而与奥、普、俄、英为核心的反法联盟进行的一系列战争。 第一，拿破仑战争具有革命性。它是两种社会制度的战争，是革命的：保卫伟大的革命，反对反革命君主国联盟。第二，拿破仑战争具有侵略性和争霸性。当拿破仑建立了法兰西帝国，奴役欧洲许多早已形成的、大的、有生命力的民族国家的时候，法国的民族战争便成了帝国主义战争。 维也纳体系是拿破仑帝国瓦解后，与1814年10月至1815年6月召开的维也纳会议上所确立的欧洲新的均势。它重新划分了欧洲的政治版
第12页 0903060136 梁潇 0903060137 黄浩 0901014108 黄瑞尧 5.3性能分析 通信开销：在和平时期，验证和密钥协商协议的要求只有三路之间的网状路由器和网络用户和双向沟通网络用户之间。这是最低的通信回合要实现相互认证，因此，和平招致降低认证延迟。此外，通过设计，和平带来最低的额外因为它们可能对网络用户的通信开销如掌上电脑和智能手机进行的移动客户端比其他笔记本电脑访问无线网状网。这些移动客户端要少得多强大相比，网状路由器考虑到他们的沟通能力。在消息（M.1），（M.1），（M.2），网络用户只需要发送一组签名履行认证功能。作为我们立足本集团上签字的变化计划[8]中提出，签名的包括两个G的元素五个元素的Z带够。当使用[19]中描述的曲线，可以首要采取p到170位并使用G组1，其中每个元素是171位。因此，总群签名的长度为1192位或149字节。有了这些参数，安全性是大致相同作为一个标准的1024位RSA签名，这是128个字节[8]。也就是说，群签名的长度几乎是作为一个标准的RSA-1024的签名相同。 计算开销：在和平，最昂贵的计算操作的签名生成和验证。签名生成需要两个同构的应用中。同构计算，需要大约同时，作为一个在G1幂（使用快速计算的轨迹图）[8]。因此，签名生成需要约八幂（或multiexponentiations）和两个双线性映射计算。验证签名需要六个幂和3+2|网址|双线性映射计算。按照设计，和平采用会话认证的不对称对称的混合方法，降低计算成本。网络实体（Mesh 路由器和网络用户）执行昂贵的组签名操作相互验证，只有当建立一个新的会话，所有同一会话的后续数据交换是通过高效的基于MAC的方法进行验证。 更具体地说，和平需要进行相互认证，为建立一个新的会话时，执行一个签名生成和签名验证的网络用户。由此可以看出，签名验证的实际成本计算取决于一致资源定址器的大小，而签名的发电成本是固定的。和平可以主动控制的一致资源定址器的大小。此外，可以采取一种更为有效的吊销检查算法，其运行的时间是一致资源定址器的独立[8]中描述了对用户的隐私有点牺牲。这种技术可以进一步带来的总成本六幂和5个双线性映射计算的签名验证。另一方面，和平需要一个网状路由器进行相互认证其覆盖范围内的每个网络用户每每灯塔消息不同的会议和标志定期播出。 存储开销：在和平中，网络用户可以携带资源约束的普及设备，如掌上电脑和智能手机访问的无线网状网。因此，存储每个网络用户的开销应该是负担得起的现代普及设备。在我们的计划显示说明，在和平中的每个网络用户需要存储两个信息：他的小组的私钥及相关系统参数。该组的私钥为每个用户包含1组元素的G1和2个Z元素。如果我们首要选择p到170位，并使用G组1每个组171位的元素，每个组私钥用户只需消耗511位的内存，这是微不足道的现代普及设备。大多数的内存消耗部分是系统参数，其中可能包括代码来形容双线性组（G
Era of Big Data is a woman's age; women in the gene can accumulate and deal with big data/ women are born to accumulate and deal with big data. Many men and children, in fact, have been wondering about this special ability of women. Like, as a child, just as soon as you entered the house your Mother said immediately in a suspicious tone: “Liu zhijun, you didn’t do well in the exam today, did you.” Another example, you just have a glance at the mobile phone, your wife laughs: “Does Er gou the next door ask you to play games?” One more ex ample, when you close the door and make a phone call, your girlfriend will cry: “Who are shot in bed?” They are sometimes right, sometimes wrong. However, On the whole, the accuracy rate is higher than chance level. When they are wrong, men would sneer women always give way to foolish fancies; when they are right, men would say women are sensitive animal maybe with more acute sensory organs. Anyway, that is a guess. It has already scared man that overall accuracy rate is higher than the random level. In order to adapt to this point, the male also developed a very strong skills against reconnaissance. This part is beyond the scope of this article, so no more details about it. Some studies, such as Hanna Holmes’s paper, have indi cated that the white matter of the female’s brain is higher than that of the male. So they have very strong imagination of connecting things together. Some recent studies have shown that women are better than men in the "date" memory. That is the reason why they are able to remember all the birthdays, anniversaries, and even some of the great day of unimportant friends. No matter whether these results are true or not, I am afraid that this is not women's most outstanding ability. Women's most remarkable ability is a long-term tracking of some seemingly unimportant data to form their own baseline and pattern. Once the patterns of these data points are significantly different from the baseline she is familiar with, she knows something unusual. In their daily life, women do not consider the difference between causality and correlation. They believe in the principle: "There must be something wrong out of something unusual." People who talk about big data often take Lin Biao as an example. Lin Biao recorded some detailed and unimportant data after a battle. Such as seized guns, the proportion of rifles and pistols, the age levels of war prisoners, seized grain, whether they are sorghum or millet, etc., all of which were unavoidably recorded in the book. Others laughed at him. But later, he determined where the enemy headquarters were according to these data. What women do is almost the same. A girl A has a secret crush on boy B, but she usually doesn’t contact him directly. Two days later, I asked her if she wanted to ask him to have dinner together. She said he was playing. I wondered “how do you know that?” She said that boy B usually is on the line Gmail at 8:00 am, away status at8:30am, for he goes out to buy coffee and breakfast, on line again at 9:00am, busy status, for he is at work, away again at12:30am for lunch, on line for whole evenings, maybe for reading or playing games. His buddy C is on line at10:00 am, still online till 2:00am next day. He is a boy who gets up late and stays up late. His buddy D is on line for the most of the day. However, the most important pattern is that there are 2-3 days per week, during which they would be offline or away for 3-4 hours together. Conclusion: they are playing together.
从国际关系体系的变化中看欧洲大国的兴衰现代国际体系源于欧洲国际体系，而欧洲国际关系体系的变化大致经历着如下变化：经历三十年战争之后形成的威斯特法利亚体系，维也纳体系，俾斯麦体系，凡尔赛—华盛顿体系，雅尔塔体系，以及欧共体等6个发展阶段。 在这6个发展阶段中，起主流作用的无非就是法国、英国、德国等几个大国，本文通过分析不同国籍关系体系的一个建立与瓦解的过程，了解欧洲大国的兴衰更替。 一、威斯特伐利亚体系 可以这样说，欧洲国际关系体系滥觞于意大利体系，而意大利体系的存在是以五个势均力敌的城邦及其互动形成的，五个城邦分别是威尼斯、米兰、佛罗伦萨、热那亚以及那不勒斯，随着法国和西班牙入侵意大利以及西班牙的收复失地运动使得西欧国际势力发生改变，意大利城邦体系崩溃，西班牙成为意大利的主宰。 随着西班牙的扩大，在查理五世时期（1519——1556）西班牙与奥地利实际上合而为一，在外交上着力参与对法国的意大利战争控制富庶的意大利，力图清除新教势力将分散的德意志诸邦统一在皇帝之下，同时守护、巩固和扩大哈布斯堡的版图争取包围乃至最终征服最大劲敌法国，建立对其他国家的领导地位。然而，随着帝国对外不断兼并战争，带来的国家财政的超支，最终导致“过渡伸展”政策带来的帝国的衰落。而法国仍坚持“均势政策”（与东方、中欧与南方三方结盟体系相对抗），在此政策下，查理五世摆脱不了在欧陆和地中海受法国和土耳其两大强敌夹攻的困境，称霸图谋终告失败。法土结盟打败查理五世独霸欧洲图谋，为现代史上欧洲均势之外部源泉和外部动因的最初重大表现，即法国援引欧洲外缘的“侧翼大国”的决定性干预。 在查理五世称霸的美梦破灭之后，其子腓力二世继承其大部分领土，对外依旧实行“扩张”政策，但是，这次是在荷兰和英国的干预下彻底失败。腓力二世的失败使得哈布斯堡王朝实力大为削弱，而1618—1648年的三十年战争，使得哈布斯堡王朝彻底失去大国地位。因为三十年战争的主战场在德国，所以除了哈布斯堡王朝丧失大国地位，还直接导致德意志帝国经济严重衰败与民族分裂，直
21st_century_skills_english_map.doc 的翻译 21st Century Skills Map 21世纪技能地图 DESiGnED in CooPErATion wiTh ThE nATionAl CounCil of TEAChErS of EnGliSh该设计的合作全国委员会英语师范 This 21st Century Skills Map这个21世纪技能地图 is the result of hundreds of结果是数百 hours of research, development小时的研究，开发 and feedback from educators从教育工作者和反馈 and business leaders across和商界领袖在 the nation.The Partnership伙伴关系的nation.The has issued this map for已发出此地图 the core subject of English.英语的核心科目。 This tool is available at此工具可在 https://www.doczj.com/doc/6210139407.html,。 The Partnership advocates for the integration of 21st Century Skills into K-12的K - 12的伙伴关系成为品牌的拥护者为一体的21世纪技能 education so that students can advance their learning in core academic subjects.教育，让学生可以提前学习的核心学科。 The Partnership has forged alliances with key national organizations that represent the core academic subjects, including Social该伙伴关系结成联盟，其核心学术学科国家重点组织代表，包括社会 Studies, English, Math, Science and Geography.As a result of these collaborations, the Partnership has developed this map to研究，英语，数学，科学和Geography.As一个协作的结果，其中伙伴关系已经发展到这个地图 illustrate the intersection between 21st Century Skills and English.The maps will enable educators, administrators and policymakers路口之间的地图说明21世纪技能和English.The将使教育工作者，管理者和决策者 to gain concrete examples of how 21st Century Skills can be integrated into core subjects.获得核心科目具体的例子，如何把21世纪技能可以集成。 A 21st Century21世纪 Skills技巧 B Skill Definition乙技能的定义 C Interdisciplinary Theme?跨学科的主题 De Sample Student学生范例
对翻译的科学性和艺术性的思考 关键词: 翻译;科学性;艺术性 摘要: 翻译是科学还是艺术历来是译学家们争论的焦点。西方译学家奈达博士在60 年代曾有过建立翻译科学的设想,试图用语言学的理论和方法来说明翻译问题,但未能取得成功。而后,到了90 年代他则断言:翻译不是科学,而是艺术。笔者就奈达博士由科学论向艺术论的转变,对翻译的性质进行了理性思考:翻译中对“忠实”目标的追求体现了翻译的科学精神,而为实现“忠实”又离不开艺术创造,因此科学性和艺术性贯穿于翻译活动的全过程,二者互为补充,缺一不可。 Philosophic Thinking of the Science and the Art of Translating ———on Nida’s“Toward a Science of Translating” ZHANG Rui - qing1 ,ZHANG Hui - qing2 (1. The School of Foreigh L anguages , S hanxi University , Taiyuan , China ; 2. English Department , Northern China Engineering Institute , Taiyuan , China) Key words : t ranslation ;science ;art ;faithfulness. Abstract : What is t ranslating ? Is it science or art ? This has long been one of the focal cont roversies among t ranslatologist s. Dr. Eugene A. Nida attempted to establish a science of t ranslating by applying linguistic theories and approaches to t ranslating problems in the 1960s ,but failed. In the 1990s he claimed conversely that t ranslating was not science ,but skills. His shift prompt s the author of this essay to draw the couclusion that ,in the process of t ranslating ,the pursuit of faithfulness to the original reveals the scientific approach of t ranslators ,but to attain faithfulness , artistic creation plays an immeasurable role in good t ranslations. “翻译科学”是一门“研究翻译的科学”。怎样才能构成科学? 首先必须要有客观规律正如金堤先生所说:“艺术与科学之争的焦点是一个实质性的问题。翻译这一活动究竟是否受客观规律的支配? 如果受客观规律的支配,那么既然我们现在还没有完全认识这些规律,我们就必须用科学的方法加以研究,而如果这一活动主要靠独创,谈不到什么规律,那么我们只能把它当作一门艺术。”因此,翻译是科学还是艺术关键就在于其是否具有客观规律。我们在翻译活动中没有探索到客观规律之前,是无法断定翻译是科学的。西方译论家并没有主张建立“翻译科学” ,在他们的译论中,也不用“翻译科学”一词。在西方大学课程中,只有“翻译理论” ,或“翻译研究”,或“翻译学”。唯一用过“翻译科学”一词的,只有奈达博士。60年代,他在“Toward a Science of Translating”一书中指出,翻译是科学也是艺术,并试图用乔姆斯基的转换生成语法的原理,通过深层结构的分析,探索语际转换的客观规律,从而建立翻译科学。但这一尝试未能取得成功,语际转换的规律也未能找到。此后,他在1991 年发表的《翻译:可能与不可能》一文中说,我们不能使翻译成为一门科学,出色的翻译是创造性的艺术。可见奈达由科学派转向了艺术派,并从此放弃了建立翻译科学的设想。1998 年,他在答《外国语》记者问时,又重申了这一论点,认为翻译不可能成为科学。 一翻译科学论的困惑 寻求支配翻译活动的客观规律是历代译学家们孜孜以求的奋斗目标,困扰了几代译学家。只有到了现代,有了现代语言学的基础,才有可能打出翻译科学论的旗号,将侧重点放在科学的基点上。然而,，奈达为何一度认为翻译是科学也是艺术,而后来又说翻译不是科学只是艺术呢?翻译的科学论之所以陷入矛盾,其根源在于翻译对象所涉及的媒介———语言———本身所具有的特性———任意性特征。这种特性决定了科学无法完成其使命,因而即使很不情愿也不得不转而求助于艺术。首先,大多数人已经接受的一个事实是:虽然科学力图把文本语言中的意义一点一滴地落实,但语言却总是拒绝把它的全部意义交出来。事实上,现代批评
试论近代国际关系体系的特点及演变 所谓国际关系体系，实际上就是在一定时期内，在一流强国力量对比的基础上，形成的国际秩序和利益分配体系。近现代国际关系史的演变划分为威斯特伐里亚体系、维也纳体系、俾斯麦体系、一战前的两极体系和战后的凡尔赛——华盛顿体系、二战后的雅尔塔体系等几个阶段。 一、威斯伐利亚体系 16-17世纪之交欧洲社会的重大变化，各国政治经济的冲突，封建王朝和诸侯的领土纠纷以及宗教意识的矛盾，构成了战争的复杂背景。1618-1648年的三十年战争以及其后签订的威斯特伐利亚和约标志着近代国际关系的格局已经脱离了中世纪的影响，向着更复杂多样的时代迈进，三十战争是欧洲历史上第一次大规模的国际战争。威斯伐利亚和约的基础是主权国家、国际法准则。这就奠定了以主权国家为主体的西欧国际的基础，标志着近代国际关系体系的形成。《威斯特伐利亚和约》所构建的国际秩序影响深远，一直延续到1815年维也纳会议所确立的维也纳体系。 二、维也纳体系形成 维也纳体系是在欧洲反法联盟围剿法国革命和拿破仑帝国的基础上建立起来的。确定了欧洲的封建统治秩序和国家体系。具有明显倒退性质并且矛盾重重的维也纳体系使英国重新控制了欧洲，并且达成了欧洲势力均衡，均势外交的思想也由此体现。继承和发展维也纳体系的则是俾斯麦以及其代表的大陆体系，这一体系瓦解了维也纳同盟并且确立了以德国为中心的多边均势外交格局，这一体系也是均势外交思想最明显的体现，而均势一旦被打破，旧的国际格局就势必要面临瓦解的危险。很快，随着法俄结盟，大陆体系崩溃 三、凡尔赛—华盛顿体系的形成 一战后列强各国实力对比变化，战胜国要求重新瓜分世界，调整其在欧洲、中东、东亚和太平洋地区的统治秩序。这一体系暂时调整了帝国主义国家之间的矛盾，客观上维护世界形势的相对稳定，有利于社会经济发展，开创了国际合作新形式。实际上是战胜国分赃妥协的产物。导致了许多新的矛盾出现，使此国际新秩序潜伏着深刻的危机，不会长久，必将崩溃。 四、雅尔塔体系 就是指在第二次世界大战后期以雅尔塔会议为代表的一系列重要国际会议上，美英苏三大国就结束战争与维护战后和平问题所通过的各种宣言、公报以及达成的各种协议（包括口头协议与秘密协议），统称为雅尔塔体制。具体说就是战后出现的两种社会制度两种意识形态和两大对立的军事集团分庭抗礼的国际关系格局。雅尔塔体系原则上倡导自由、民主，对战后世界各国的和平运动和政治民主化进程起了推动作用，对战后国际关系的发展产生了积极影响。同时雅尔塔体系是建立在美苏实力均势基础之上的，事实上划分了美苏的势力范围，深深打上了大国强权的烙印，对战后国际关系的发展也产生了消极影响。 总的来说，国际关系的演变呈现出以欧洲为中心的关系格局。第二次世界大战终结了凡尔赛体系，这场全球规模的战争最终彻底终结了以欧洲为中心的国际关系体系。美苏两级对抗下的冷战格局确立，直到苏联解体。多极化成为如今的国际关系主流。国际关系不管如何变化，都是以综合国力为基础的，因此大力发展生产力，提高我国的综合实力，才能在国际大舞台上占据主导地位。