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An Empirical Perspective on the Duty to RescueI.介绍习惯法中的救助方法清楚而简单。
出了有限的几个例外情况，习惯法中没有救助责任，不论救助有多简单抑或是不救助可能的结果。
1通过限制救助者在侵权案中对于其遭到伤害的案件的胜诉的可能性，习惯法实际上是在抑制救助行为的。
一代代的法学专业学生了解无救助责任法则，他们主要是通过阅读假设的小孩溺水于浴缸案件以及实际的人们溺水与河渠或湖泊的案件，而旁观者则无所作为。
无责任法则在美国的四十七个州占优但是却不受欢迎。
当某个不救助案件广为人知，报纸社论以及电视评论员便会公开指责那些漠不关心的旁观者。
假如人们能够知道并认出那个不救助者，那么他将会成为众矢之的。
负责案件的检查官只能不情愿地承认在此情况下刑法是无约束力的，只能在道义上谴责不救助者。
如果不救助者真的遭到侵权起诉，那么法官将不会受理，但是会要求不救助者去向上帝解释未能救助的问题。
政治家会通过立法来改变习惯法的这一法则。
人们会将诸如Kitty Genovese案件的臭名昭著的不救助案件与之进行比较。
迅速地,在学术会议以及座谈会，与会者将会批评不救助法则以及那些漠不关心的旁观者。
提倡共产主义社会者会说美国的公民责任心不强，在乎社会的学者则会说不救助法则正向人们传达错误的极具感染性的信息。
女权主义者则会遣责男性主导的强调个人自治以及个人决策的侵权法。
心理学家以及进化生物学家则会提出来源于利他主义以及集体性缺乏的研究。
惩罚性法制学者会认为法律应该执行大众的道德直觉意志。
比较法学者则会建议美国应该学习其他世界文明国家采用救助责任。
法律以及经济学学者会争论不及尊责任是否是有效的。
教条学者会讨论处理对未来不救助者的刑事和民事侵权的制裁的优缺点。
谴责目前法律状态的法律评论文章与短文将会出版。
然后，这一案件的争论将会告一段落，直到下一不救助案件的出现。
在这一系列的愤怒表现中，每个人表现地好像不救助行为经常发生而救助法律急需确立。
全文分为作者个人简介和正文两个部分：作者个人简介：Hello everyone, I am an author dedicated to creating and sharing high-quality document templates. In this era of information overload, accurate and efficient communication has become especially important. I firmly believe that good communication can build bridges between people, playing an indispensable role in academia, career, and daily life. Therefore, I decided to invest my knowledge and skills into creating valuable documents to help people find inspiration and direction when needed.正文：总强调认识一致,又推崇见解读到的英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Conformity: The Cornerstone of Unity, Yet Obstructed by the Siren Call of DiversityAs students navigating the tumultuous currents of academia, we are confronted with a paradoxical dilemma that challengesthe very foundations of our intellectual pursuits. On one hand, we are inundated with the clarion call for unity, a harmonious convergence of perspectives that fosters a sense of belonging and cohesion within our scholarly community. Yet, on the other, we are seduced by the alluring siren song of diversity, a celebration of divergent viewpoints that promises to broaden our horizons and enrich our understanding of the world around us.It is within this delicate balance that we must tread carefully, for the path we choose will inevitably shape the trajectory of our academic journey and, by extension, the very fabric of society itself. And it is through the lens of literature, that vast tapestry of human experience and expression, that we can glimpse the intricate interplay between these seemingly contradictory forces.In the hallowed halls of our institutions, we are taught to revere the pursuit of knowledge as a sacred undertaking, a quest for truth that transcends the boundaries of individual biases and preconceptions. It is here that the clarion call for conformity resonates most profoundly, a rallying cry for a unified front against the insidious forces of ignorance and divisiveness. For what is knowledge if not a shared understanding, a consensusforged through rigorous discourse and the relentless scrutiny of our peers?And yet, even as we revel in the comforting embrace of this collective wisdom, we cannot ignore the siren call of diversity that echoes through the pages of the literary masterpieces we study. It is within these timeless works that we encounter a kaleidoscope of perspectives, each one a unique prism through which the human experience is refracted, casting a multitude of hues upon the canvas of our understanding.Take, for instance, the seminal works of Shakespeare, those towering pillars of the English literary canon. In the tragic tale of "Romeo and Juliet," we are confronted with the devastating consequences of unyielding conformity, as the titular lovers are torn asunder by the unrelenting feud between their families, a clash of ideologies that ultimately leads to their untimely demise. Yet, in the same breath, we are presented with a poignant celebration of individuality, as the star-crossed lovers defy the conventions of their time, their love transcending the boundaries imposed by societal norms.Or consider the haunting prose of Toni Morrison's "Beloved," a searing exploration of the enduring legacy of slavery and the resilience of the human spirit. Here, we arechallenged to confront the harsh realities of a society built upon the subjugation of an entire people, a stark reminder of the dangers of conformity when it is wielded as a tool of oppression. And yet, amidst the harrowing tales of suffering and resilience, we are also invited to embrace the rich tapestry of cultural diversity that has woven itself into the very fabric of our nation.It is through these literary lenses that we are forced to grapple with the inherent tension between conformity and diversity, a tug-of-war that has shaped the course of human civilization since time immemorial. For every instance where conformity has been lauded as a unifying force, there is an equal and opposite reaction, a clarion call for the celebration of individuality and the embracement of diverse perspectives.And herein lies the crux of our dilemma: how do we reconcile these opposing forces, these competing ideologies that threaten to tear asunder the very foundations upon which our scholarly pursuits are built? The answer, I posit, lies not in the wholesale rejection of either principle, but rather in a delicate balancing act, a constant recalibration of our moral compasses to navigate the treacherous waters of academic discourse.We must embrace conformity as a guiding light, a beacon that illuminates the path toward shared understanding andcollective progress. For it is through the synthesis of our disparate viewpoints that we can forge a unified front against the forces of ignorance and division, a bulwark against the insidious forces that seek to undermine the very pursuit of knowledge itself.Yet, even as we revel in the comforting embrace of this collective wisdom, we must remain ever vigilant against the seductive allure of conformity taken to its extremes. For when conformity becomes dogma, when it is wielded as a cudgel to silence dissent and stifle the free exchange of ideas, it threatens to extinguish the very spark of intellectual curiosity that has propelled our species to the heights of enlightenment.It is here that we must turn to the siren call of diversity, that vibrant tapestry of perspectives and experiences that enriches our understanding of the world around us. For it is through the celebration of our differences, the embrace of divergent viewpoints, that we can truly expand the boundaries of our knowledge and challenge the status quo.In this endeavor, literature serves as our guiding light, a beacon that illuminates the myriad pathways of human experience and invites us to explore the rich tapestry of perspectives that have shaped our cultural landscape. Whether itbe the poignant explorations of identity and belonging in the works of Jhumpa Lahiri, or the searing indictments of social injustice that permeate the pages of James Baldwin's "The Fire Next Time," these literary masterpieces challenge us to confront the uncomfortable truths that lie beyond the realm of conformity.And it is through this constant interplay, this delicate dance between conformity and diversity, that we can truly unlock the full potential of our academic pursuits. For it is only by embracing the unifying force of shared understanding while simultaneously celebrating the richness of our differences that we can forge a path toward true enlightenment.In the end, our journey through the hallowed halls of academia is not a linear progression, but rather a winding path that meanders through the peaks and valleys of human experience. And it is through the lens of literature that we can navigate this treacherous terrain, guided by the dual beacons of conformity and diversity, each one illuminating a different facet of the human condition.So let us embrace this paradox, this delicate balance between the forces that seek to unite us and those that celebrate our individuality. For it is only by walking this tightrope, byembracing the inherent tensions that exist within the pursuit of knowledge, that we can truly unlock the full potential of our academic endeavors and forge a path toward a more enlightened, more inclusive, and ultimately, more human understanding of the world around us.篇2The Power of Groupthink and Individual InterpretationAs students, we are constantly bombarded with a multitude of ideas, perspectives, and ideologies, each vying for our attention and acceptance. In this vast sea of information, it can be tempting to simply conform to the prevailing narratives, adopting the views and opinions that seem most widely embraced. However, I would argue that true intellectual growth and personal development lie in striking a delicate balance between adhering to collective wisdom and cultivating our own unique interpretations based on diligent reading and critical analysis.The allure of groupthink is undeniable. There is a certain comfort in aligning oneself with the dominant paradigms, in embracing the safety and security of shared beliefs. After all, it is human nature to seek validation and acceptance from our peers,and to avoid the discomfort and potential ostracization that may arise from diverging too drastically from the norm. Moreover, there is a certain practicality in adopting widely accepted views, as they often represent the distillation of collective knowledge and experience.However, we must be cautious not to allow this pursuit of conformity to stifle our intellectual curiosity and independent thought. History is replete with examples of societies that succumbed to the tyranny of groupthink, stagnating in their development and even embracing harmful or oppressive ideologies simply because they were the prevailing narratives of the time.It is crucial, therefore, that we temper our desire for acceptance and validation with a willingness to question, to challenge, and to forge our own paths of understanding. This is where the importance of reading and interpretation comes into play.Through the act of reading, we expose ourselves to a vast array of ideas, perspectives, and worldviews. Each author, each text, offers a unique lens through which to perceive and comprehend the complexities of our world. By engaging withthese diverse voices and perspectives, we open ourselves to new possibilities, new ways of thinking and seeing.Yet, reading alone is not enough. It is imperative that we approach these texts with a critical eye, that we strive to interpret and analyze the ideas presented, rather than merely accepting them at face value. This process of interpretation is where our true intellectual growth occurs.As we read and interpret, we must be willing to challenge our preconceptions, to question our assumptions, and to engage in a constant dialogue with the text and with ourselves. We must be open to having our beliefs and perspectives evolve, to allowing new understandings to take root and flourish.This process of interpretation is not a solitary endeavor, however. It is enriched and deepened through discourse and collaboration with our peers. By sharing our interpretations, by engaging in respectful debate and discussion, we not only refine our own understanding but also contribute to the collective wisdom of our community.Yet, even as we engage in this collaborative process, we must remain vigilant against the siren song of groupthink. We must resist the temptation to simply adopt the prevailing interpretations, to conform to the dominant narratives, withoutsubjecting them to the same rigorous scrutiny and analysis that we apply to our own understandings.It is in this dynamic interplay between conformity and individuality, between embracing collective wisdom and cultivating personal interpretation, that true intellectual growth and personal development occur.By acknowledging and respecting the collective knowledge and experiences of our communities, while simultaneously fostering an environment that encourages critical thinking, independent analysis, and respectful discourse, we can create a rich tapestry of understanding that draws upon the strengths of both conformity and individuality.In this way, we can navigate the complexities of our world with a sense of shared purpose and understanding, while also remaining open to new perspectives, new interpretations, and new possibilities. We can honor the wisdom of our predecessors while simultaneously paving the way for future generations to build upon our collective knowledge and insights.Ultimately, the path to true intellectual growth and personal development lies not in blindly adhering to groupthink nor in stubbornly clinging to individual interpretations, but in striking a harmonious balance between the two. By embracing thecollective wisdom of our communities while also nurturing our own critical faculties and interpretive abilities, we can forge a path that is both grounded in shared understanding and open to constant evolution and growth.It is this delicate dance between conformity and individuality, between groupthink and personal interpretation, that will enable us to navigate the complexities of our world with wisdom, insight, and a deep appreciation for the richness and diversity of human thought and experience.篇3The Paradox of Consensus and IndividualityAs students, we are constantly bombarded with the notion that unity and consensus are paramount. Teachers, administrators, and even our peers incessantly drill into us the importance of aligning our thoughts and actions with the prevailing norms and ideologies. Conformity, they preach, is the pathway to success, the bedrock of a harmonious society. Yet, within the hallowed halls of academia, an opposing force tugs at our intellectual curiosity – the siren call of diverse perspectives found within the pages of great literary works.On one hand, we are urged to subsume our individuality to the collective will, to march in lockstep with the established order. Dissent, we are warned, breeds chaos and disunity, fracturing the delicate fabric of our educational institutions. Uniformity of thought and action is lauded as the epitome of academic excellence, the pinnacle of scholarly achievement.However, as we delve into the rich tapestry of literature, a paradox emerges. The very works that shape our understanding of the world and ignite our thirst for knowledge celebrate the virtues of independent thought and the exploration of alternative viewpoints. From the defiant musings of Thoreau to the searing social critiques of Orwell, the literary canon is replete with voices that challenge the status quo and dare us to question the boundaries of conventional wisdom.It is a perplexing dichotomy – the simultaneous exaltation of conformity and the veneration of dissenting perspectives. How can we reconcile these seemingly contradictory tenets? Do we surrender our individuality in pursuit of academic and social harmony, or do we embrace the intellectual diversity that great literature espouses?Perhaps the answer lies not in a binary choice, but in a delicate balance – a nuanced equilibrium where consensus andindividuality coexist in a symbiotic dance. For it is through the interplay of diverse ideas that true progress is born, that the boundaries of human knowledge are pushed ever outward.Consider the great scientific and philosophical revolutions that have shaped the course of human history. Were it not for the audacious thinkers who dared to challenge the prevailing paradigms, we might still cling to the geocentric model of the universe or the notion that the Earth is flat. It was the dissenting voices, the mavericks who refused to conform, that propelled us towards greater understanding and enlightenment.Yet, for every revolutionary idea that has reshaped our world, countless others have fallen by the wayside, consigned to the dustbin of history. It is here that the value of consensus asserts itself, acting as a filter to separate the wheat from the chaff, the profound from the prosaic. For not every dissenting voice is a harbinger of progress; some are mere echoes of misguided or even dangerous ideologies.Thus, the path forward lies in striking a delicate balance – a willingness to embrace diverse perspectives while simultaneously subjecting them to the crucible of rigorous scrutiny and collective wisdom. We must cultivate a culture of intellectual curiosity and open-mindedness, where dissentingvoices are not merely tolerated but actively encouraged and engaged with. Yet, we must also temper our individualism with a reverence for established knowledge and a commitment to the shared pursuit of truth.In this way, our academic institutions can become incubators of innovation and progress, where the symbiosis of consensus and individuality fuels the inexorable march of human understanding. We can honor the great literary works that have shaped our worldviews while simultaneously contributing our own unique perspectives to the ever-evolving tapestry of human knowledge.It is a challenging equilibrium to maintain, a tightrope walk that requires equal parts humility and audacity. But it is a path worth treading, for it is in the fertile intersection of conformity and dissent that the greatest intellectual achievements are born.As students, we stand at a crossroads – the confluence of individual expression and collective wisdom. Will we surrender to the siren song of blind conformity, sacrificing our intellectual independence on the altar of academic harmony? Or will we embrace the rich diversity of perspectives that literature has bequeathed us, daring to challenge the boundaries ofconventional thought while remaining grounded in the shared pursuit of truth?The choice is ours, and the ramifications will resonate far beyond the confines of our academic pursuits. For it is in our ability to navigate this paradox that the future of human progress lies – a future where consensus and individuality are not mutually exclusive but rather complementary forces, propelling us ever forward on the path of knowledge and enlightenment.。
empirical的用法和短语1. Empirical is such a cool word! It basically means based on experience or observation. For example, I told my friend, "I have an empirical knowledge of how to make the best chocolate chip cookies. I've made them so many times and learned from each attempt."2. You know what empirical is like? It's like a treasure chest full of real - life lessons. When my grandpa said, "I have empirical evidence that working hard always pays off. I've seen it in my own life and in the lives of those around me."3. Empirical can be a real game - changer. Imagine you're trying to figure out which route to work is quickest. You can't just guess. You need empirical data. Like my coworker who said, "I've been timing my different routes for weeks. That's empirical research right there."4. Empirical is the key to making smart decisions. It's not about what you think might work, but what has actually worked. I once told my sister, "Your idea for the party sounds fun, but we should also consider empirical facts. Last time we had a party like that, it was chaos."5. This word empirical is like a compass in the world of knowledge. My teacher said, "We use empirical methods in science to find the truth. Just like how sailors use a compass to find their way." For example, scientists study the empirical results of experiments to draw conclusions.6. Empirical knowledge is like gold. It's precious because it's been tested. I heard a mechanic say, "I have empirical know - how when it comes to fixing cars. I've fixed so many different problems over the years."7. Have you ever thought about how empirical evidence can save you from making big mistakes? I was thinking of buying a new phone just because it looked cool. But then my friend said, "Don't be silly. Look for empirical reviews online first. See what people who actually used it have to say."8. Empirical is a word that gives power to the practical. My dad always says, "I don't believe in just theories. I believe in empirical facts." For instance, when he was building our shed, he relied on his empirical skills from previous building projects.9. Empirical thinking can open up new worlds. It's like a magic key. My neighbor said, "I started using empirical thinking in my garden. I observed which plants grew well in which spots, and now my garden is amazing."10. Empirical data is like a map to success. I was trying to start a business. My mentor told me, "You need to gather empirical data about your potential customers. Know what they really want, just like you would read a map to find your destination."11. Empirical is not just a word; it's a way of life for some people. My aunt is a great cook. She says, "All my recipes are based on empirical testing. I adjust the ingredients according to how the dish turns out each time."12. You can't underestimate the value of empirical understanding. It's like having a superpower. I told my brother, "If you want to be good at sports, you need empirical awareness of your body's limits and capabilities."13. Empirical evidence is the voice of reality. I remember in a debate, someone said, "Don't just spout ideas. Show me the empirical evidence." Forexample, when discussing climate change, scientists present empirical data from years of research.14. Empirical knowledge is the fruit of experience. My grandma said, "I have so much empirical knowledge about raising children. I learned from raising my own and watching others."15. What would we do without empirical methods? It would be likesailing without a rudder. A scientist once told me, "We use empirical methods to stay on the right track in our research. Otherwise, we'd be lost."16. Empirical is a word that makes you stop and think about the real world. I was chatting with a friend about relationships. He said, "Youcan't rely on just feelings. There's empirical evidence about what makes relationships work."17. Empirical facts are like building blocks for wisdom. My uncle said, "I've collected a lot of empirical facts over the years, and they've built up my wisdom." For example, his knowledge of different cultures came from his empirical interactions with people from all over.18. Empirical research is like a detective's work. You have to dig deep and find the clues. I heard a researcher say, "I'm doing empirical research on ancient civilizations. I'm looking for all the little details that will tell the real story."19. Empirical knowledge is something you can trust. It's not flimsylike some wild guesses. I told my cousin, "The advice I'm giving you is based on empirical knowledge. I've been in your situation before and learned from it."20. Empirical is a word that lights up the path of knowledge. My librarian friend said, "When you read books based on empirical research, you're walking on a well - lit path of truth." For example, reading medical books based on empirical studies can give you reliable health information.。
The attractiveness and competitiveness of tourist destinations: A study of Southern Italian regions Abstract:The present paper aims to assess the relative attractiveness of competing tourist destinations on the basis of individual visitors' perceptions regarding a holiday destination. Using the feeling of tourist well-being achieved by individual tourists we evaluate indirectly the competitive ability of the tourist area to offer a compound tourist site attractiveness. The methodology employed here uses individual survey questionnaires on the tourists' evaluation of the quality of tourist facilities and attributes in a given area (the ‘regional tourist profile’) as the basis for constructing an aggregate expression for the relative attractiveness of that area. Using various multidimensional statistical techniques an estimation of the competitive attractiveness of the Southern regions in Italy is pursued. We also compare our findings with quantitative results on tourist competitiveness values obtained in a related previous study on tourist competitiveness in Italian regions. Finally, the paper highlights the need to use micro and macro data to analyse tourist attractiveness and to identify policies for improving regional tourist competitiveness.Keywords: Tourist attractiveness; Tourist competitiveness; Resource based view; Multi-attribute utility; Principal component analysis1. IntroductionDiscretionary time consumption has become an important activity for many people in a modern welfare society. As a consequence, the leisure sector has become a prominent economic industry in the Western world. The rise in disposable income and in free time in recent decades has created thefoundation for a new lifestyle, where recreation and tourism have become major elements of consumer behaviour. Today, in many regions and countries, tourism is regarded as one of the major growth industries that deserve due policy attention. Clearly, tourism has become a global socio-economic phenomenon in a mobile world.The new trend in modern tourism towards non-traditional and remote destinations is likely an expression of the passage from mass tourism to a new age of tourism, and illustrates a change in the attitudes and needs of many tourists towards tailor-made tourist facilities ([Fayos–Solà, 1996] and [Poon, 1993]). Nowadays, isolated or previously unknown destinations have become places to be explored, since they meet the tourists' expectations: namely, a unique or special leisure experience based on a specific tourist destination profile.A tourist destination (e.g. city, region or site) is at present often no longer seen as a set of distinct natural, cultural, artistic or environmental resources, but as an overall appealing product available in a certain area: a complex and integrated portfolio of services offered by a destination that supplies a holiday experience which meets the needs of the tourist. A tourist destination thus produces a compound package of tourist services based on its indigenous supply potential. This may also create fierce competition between traditional destinations seeking to maintain and expand their market share and new destinations that are trying to acquire a significant and growing market share. The success of tourist destinations thus depends on their regional tourist competitiveness in terms of the attractiveness characteristics (or quality profile) that make up the tourist strength of a certain area (see also [Agrawal, 1997], [Butler, 1980] and [Hovinen, 2002]).The dynamic nature of tourist channel competition requires destinations to be able to combine and manage their tourist resources in order to gain competitive advantage (see Teece, Pisano, & Shuen, 1997). The new needs of tourists impose destinations constantly to reconfigure, gain, and dispose of attractive resource able to meet the demand of a shifting market. This has led to the concept of dynamic capabilities; viz. organisation's processes (in our case tourist destination) that “integrate, reconfigure, gain and release resources to match and even create market change”(Eisenhardt & Martin, 2000: p. 1107).In the tourist field competition among territorial areas is usually not centred on the single aspects of the tourist product (environmental resources, transportation, tourism services, hospitality, etc.), but on the tourist destination as an integrated and compound set of tourist facilities for the client ([Buhalis, 2000] and [Ritchie and Crouch, 2000]). As a consequence, destinations have to face the challenge of managing and organizing their scarce resources efficiently in order to supply a holiday experience that must outperform alternative destination experiences on the tourist market. Consequently, in the recent literature the analysis and measurement of tourist destination competitiveness have attracted increasing interest ([Alavi and Yasin, 2000], [Crouch and Ritchie, 1999], [Enright and Newton, 2004], [Kozak, 2002], [Kozak and Rimmington, 1999], [Ritchie and Crouch, 2000] and [Ruhanen, 2007]).Our study seeks to provide an assessment of the relative competitiveness of tourist regions based on an analysis of tourists' judgements – or perceptions – of attractiveness profiles of destination areas. We will apply this approach to micro-based data from the Southern Italian regions.The paper is organized as follows. In section 2 we describe the rationale and context of our study, where we will use the Crouch and Ritchie (1999)model as our main reference framework. Section 3 is then devoted to a description of the database, while section 4 outlines the statistical methodology employed in this study. Next, in section 5 the empirical results are presented and interpreted. These results will be compared in section 6 with findings from a previous study by the present authors. Section 7 makes some concluding remarks.2. The rationale and context of the studyRecent tourism research has highlighted the multifaceted driving forces of modern tourism (see also Matias, Nijkamp, & Neto, 2007). Destination areas are, therefore, challenged to offer a balanced package of those tourist services which all together shape an appealing multidimensional profile for a tourist area. An example of research along these lines can be found in the ‘magic pentagon’ of Müller (1994), where attributes such as the visitors' satisfaction, the protection of natural resources, the sustainability of the local culture, and the like play a role in a balanced tourist portfolio.In our analysis, the multidimensional satisfaction of visitors/tourists is investigated in a broader setting. In the spirit of the resource based view (RBV) ([Barney, 1991], [Eisenhardt and Martin, 2000], Grant, (2005) and [Wernerfelt, 1984]), we consider tourist areas as set of specific physical, natural, cultural and human resources, which are rare, inimitable and non-substitutable and can generate capabilities which become useful to create and develop competitive advantage (Barney, 1991). The capabilities of a tourist place reflect the ability of a destination to achieve its goals; viz. providing better value to its stakeholders (tourists, residents, firms, etc.) (see Grant, (2005) and [Salaman and Asch, 2003]).3. Destination branding marketingEver since the brand literature commenced in the 1940s (see for example Guest, 1942), there has been consistent recognition that branding offers organisations a means for differentiation in markets crowded with similar offerings ([Aaker, 1991], [Gardner and Levy, 1955], [Keller, 2003] and [Kotler et al., 2007]). For destinations, effective differentiation is critical given the increasingly competitive nature of tourism markets, where many places offering similar features are becoming substitutable (Pike, 2005). For example, around 70% of international travellers visit only 10 countries, leaving the remainder of national tourism offices (NTOs) competing for 30% of total international arrivals (Morgan, Pritchard, & Pride, 2002). The pursuit of differentiation is explicit in brand definitions, which have most commonly been variations of that proposed by Aaker (1991, p. 7):A brand is a distinguishing name and/or symbol (such as a logo, trademark, or package design) intended to identify the goods or services of either one seller or a group of sellers, and to differentiate those goods from those ofcompetitors.However, in the foreword to the first issue of Place Branding and Public Policy, editor Simon Anholt (2004, p. 4) suggested “almost nobody agrees on what, exactly, branding means” in describing place branding practice as akin to the Wild West. There has been a lack of consistency in defining what constitutes destination branding, both within industry and within academia (see [Blain et al., 2005], [Park and Petrick, 2006] and [Tasci and Kozak, 2006]). The most comprehensive definition to date has been that proposed by Blain et al. (2005, p. 337), which followed Berthon, Hulbert,and Pitt's (1999) model of the functions of a brand from both the buyer and seller perspectives:Destination branding is the set of marketing activities that (1) support the creation of a name, symbol, logo, word mark or other graphic that readily identifies and differentiates a destination; that (2) consistently convey the expectation of a memorable travel experience that is uniquely associated with the destination; that (3) serve to consolidate and reinforce the emotional connection between the visitor and the destination; and that (4) reduce consumer search costs and perceived risk. Collectively, these activities serve to create a destination image that positively influences consumer destination choice.Branding is therefore considered mutually beneficial from both the supply and demand perspectives. Enhancing the ability of the brand to differentiate effectively can generate advantages for products and services, such as increased purchase intent (Cobb-Walgren, Beal, & Donthu, 1995), lower costs (Keller, 1993), increased sales, price premiums, and customer loyalty ([Aaker, 1991] and [Aaker, 1996]). Advantages for destination marketing organisations (DMO) include increased potential to differentiate against places offering similar benefits, increased destination loyalty and increased yield for stakeholders such as local tourism businesses and travel intermediaries. Benefits for the traveller include ease of decision making through reduced search costs, reduced risk, and possibly enhanced brag value.The focus of most research reported to date has been concerned with the development of destination brand identities and the implementation of campaigns (see for example, [Crockett and Wood, 1999], [Hall, 1999], [May, 2001] and [Morgan et al., 2002]). One area requiring increased attention is that of tracking the performance of destination brand positions overtime. That is, the extent to which destination brands' positioning and repositioning campaigns have been effective in enhancing brand equity consistent with that intended in the brand identity. This is an important gap, given: i) increasing competition (see Morgan, Pritchard, & Piggot, 2002), ii) the increasing level of investment by destination marketing organisations (DMO) in branding since the 1990s, iii) the complex political nature of DMO brand decision making and increasing accountability to stakeholders (see Pike, 2005), and iv) the long-term nature of repositioning a destination's image in the marketplace (see Gartner & Hunt, 1987). In terms of metrics for DMOs in general, a number of researchers in various parts of the world have pointed to a lack of market research monitoring effectiveness of destination marketing objectives, such as in Australia (see [Carson et al., 2003] and [Prosser et al., 2000]), North America ([Masberg, 1999] and [Sheehan and Ritchie, 1997]), and Europe (Dolnicar & Schoesser, 2003).4. Destination branding positioning and The rationale meaningThe aim of this study was to track the brand positions held by a competitive set of near-home destinations between 2003 and 2007. For this purpose the efficacy of a hierarchy of consumer-based brand equity (CBBE) was trialled. CBBE was first promoted by (Aaker, 1991) and (Aaker, 1996) and more recently by (Keller, 1993) and (Keller, 2003) to supplement traditional balance sheet brand equity measures. The rationale underpinning CBBE as a brand performance metric is that consumer perceptions of the brand underpin any financial estimate of future earnings estimated in the financial measure of brand equity. Since a financial balance sheet brand equity measure will be of little practical value to destination marketers, the concept of CBBE is worthy of consideration by DMOs. However, the potential of CBBE for destinations has only recently attracted theattention of academic researchers (see [Boo et al., in press] and [Konecknik and Gartner, 2007]).。
强调重要意义英语作文In the realm of English composition, the ability to emphasize the significance of a topic is paramount. It not only captures the reader's attention but also guides them through the writer's perspective. Here are some key points to consider when emphasizing the importance of a subject in an English essay:1. Introduction with a Bang:Begin your essay with an engaging introduction that sets the tone for the significance of the topic. Use a powerful statement, a question, or a quote to hook the reader and make them curious about what follows.2. Clear Thesis Statement:Your thesis statement should clearly articulate the importance of the topic. It should be concise, specific, and assertive, leaving no doubt about the significance of the subject matter.3. Use of Persuasive Language:Employ persuasive language to underscore the importance of your topic. Words like "crucial," "essential," "fundamental," and "vital" can help to elevate the significance of your subject.4. Logical Structure:Organize your essay in a logical manner that builds upon thesignificance of your topic. Each paragraph should contribute to the overall argument, reinforcing the importance of the subject.5. Evidence and Examples:Support your claims with concrete evidence and relevant examples. This not only strengthens your argument but also highlights the importance of your topic by showing its impact or relevance.6. Contrast and Comparison:Use contrast and comparison to emphasize the significance of your topic. By comparing it with less important subjects or contrasting it with opposing views, you can highlight its unique importance.7. Emotional Appeal:While maintaining a scholarly tone, don't hesitate to appeal to the reader's emotions. Stories, anecdotes, and vivid descriptions can make the significance of your topic more relatable and compelling.8. Reiteration:Reiterate the importance of your topic throughout your essay. This reinforcement can be done subtly through the development of your argument or more directly by summarizing the importance at key points.9. Conclusion with Impact:Finish your essay with a strong conclusion that leaves the reader with a lasting impression of the topic's significance.Summarize your main points and restate the importance of your subject in a memorable way.10. Revise and Refine:Finally, revise your essay to ensure that the emphasis on the topic's significance is clear and consistent. Look for areas where you can enhance the argument and remove any elements that may detract from the central message.By following these guidelines, you can craft an English composition that not only discusses a topic but also effectively emphasizes its importance, leaving a lasting impression on your readers.。
Respect is a fundamental aspect of human interaction,signifying an appreciation for the worth and dignity of others.It is a multifaceted concept that encompasses various dimensions,including respect for individuals,their beliefs,cultures,and the environment. Here is a detailed exploration of the importance of respect and how it can be demonstrated in various contexts.The Essence of RespectRespect is the cornerstone of a harmonious society.It is the recognition of the intrinsic value of every individual,regardless of their background,status,or beliefs.Respect fosters a sense of equality and promotes an environment where everyone feels valued and heard.It is a twoway street,requiring both the acknowledgment of ones own worth and the appreciation of others.Cultural RespectIn our increasingly globalized world,cultural respect is more important than ever.It involves understanding and appreciating the customs,traditions,and values of different societies.Cultural respect is not about agreement or acceptance of all practices but about acknowledging their significance to the people who hold them dear.It is about being openminded and learning from the diversity that enriches our world.Respect for the EnvironmentThe environment is a silent witness to human activity,and it deserves our respect and protection.Respecting the environment means recognizing its fragility and the impact our actions have on it.It involves making conscious choices to reduce waste,conserve resources,and support sustainable practices.By doing so,we ensure the health of our planet for future generations.Respecting Authority and EldersIn many societies,respect for authority figures and elders is deeply ingrained.This respect is not about unquestioning obedience but about acknowledging the wisdom and experience that these individuals often possess.It is about engaging in dialogue and learning from their insights while maintaining a respectful demeanor.Respecting DifferencesDiversity in thought,opinion,and lifestyle is a hallmark of a vibrant society.Respectingdifferences means accepting that people have the right to hold opinions that may differ from our own.It involves engaging in constructive dialogue,seeking to understand rather than to criticize,and finding common ground where possible.Respect in the WorkplaceThe workplace is a microcosm of society,and respect is crucial for a productive and positive work environment.It involves treating colleagues with courtesy,valuing their contributions,and fostering an atmosphere of collaboration.Respect in the workplace also means recognizing the importance of diversity and inclusion,ensuring that all voices are heard and valued.Respect in EducationEducation is a space where respect is paramount.It is about creating a learning environment where students feel safe to express their thoughts and ideas without fear of ridicule or dismissal.Teachers play a crucial role in modeling respect,encouraging open dialogue,and valuing the unique perspectives that each student brings to the classroom. Respect in Personal RelationshipsIn our personal lives,respect is the foundation of any strong relationship.It involves listening to others,valuing their feelings and opinions,and treating them with kindness and consideration.Respect in personal relationships also means maintaining boundaries and ensuring that each persons needs and desires are acknowledged and respected.ConclusionRespect is a powerful force that can bridge divides,foster understanding,and create a more harmonious world.It is not just about what we say but also about how we act and the attitudes we hold.By practicing respect in all aspects of our lives,we contribute to a society that values diversity,promotes equality,and nurtures a sense of shared humanity.。
Steve PavlinaBeing an AchieverAugust 6, 2015You become an achiever by achieving your goals. If you achieve your goals, you’re an achiever. If you don’t achieve your goals, you’re not an achiever.This is a simple, binary way to think about achievement. To achieve means to reach, attain, or accomplish. What you choose to reach, attain, or accomplish is up to you.The difference between an achiever and a non-achiever is largely a matter of attention. Non-achievers give their goals little attention, if they bother to set goals at all. Achievers give their goals sufficient attention so as to reach, attain, or accomplish those goals.Non-achievers reach, attain, and accomplish something other than their goals. Quite often they will reach, attain, and accomplish someone else’s goals, without consciously making those goals their own.To be an achiever, you must give your goals sufficient attention to reach, attain, or accomplish them. This means you must withdraw much of your attention from activities that are not directly leading to the accomplishment of your goals.In a given week, where is your attention going? If you aren’t habitually obsessing over your goals, then what are you obsessing over instead?What do you normally put ahead of your goals?Do you manage to watch some TV or movies?Do you keep up with email, social media, and text messages?Do you attend to the social obligations that your family, friends, andco-workers expect from you?What exactly are you reaching, attaining, or accomplishing in a typical week? Are you making progress on your goals by giving them many hours of attention, or are you putting your attention elsewhere?Achievers accept that in order to achieve their goals, they must withdraw attention from non-goal activities. Achievers also accept that these competing interests may resist being put on the back burner.The cable company may try to talk you out of canceling. Starbucks may send you a reminder email if you don’t show up for too long. Your mother may nag you about something trivial. Achievers learn to decline these invitations for their attention by default. They keep putting their attention back upon their goals.You must especially be on guard for new invitations and opportunities that come up while you’re working on your goals. These hidden distractions can easily sidetrack you. If an opportunity aligns solidly with your goals, wonderful… take full advantage of it. But if it seemsoff-course with respect to your current goals, then stick to your path, and say no to the diversion. Generally speaking, it’s wise to be less opportunistic, so you can be more of a conscious creator. You’ll often make faster progress by creating your own opportunities instead of haphazardly chasing the random opportunities that others bring you.The Scarcity of AttentionAttention is a limited resource. The ability to consciously direct your attention with good energy and focus is even scarcer than the time you have available each day.In any given week, there may be many interests competing for your attention: friends, family, co-workers, random strangers, corporations, organizations, government agencies, media, and more. And these days they have many different ways to reach you.Internally you have some competition as well: your physiological needs, your emotional needs, your cravings, your habitual behaviors, etc. You need to eat, sleep, eliminate waste, bathe, and so on. These activities require some attention too.Somewhere among those competing interests is another voice seeking your attention. This is your goal-oriented nature, your greater intelligence, your desire to live a life rich in meaning and purpose. This part of you craves achievement, and it won’t be satisfied by anything less. It wants you to set your own goals and to reach, attain, and accomplish them.How much of your attention are you giving to your achievement-oriented self?If you starve this part of yourself for attention, it will punish you with low motivation, low self-worth, and a general scarcity of resources. But if you give it the attention it craves, you’ll be rewarded with high energy, drive, passion, abundance, and a sense of purpose and contribution.Directing Your AttentionFortunately you have the power to consciously direct your attention. You can let your attention float around aimlessly. You can focus your attention on something other than your goals, such as the goals other people have for you. Or you can focus your attention on your own goals.To really move your life forward requires a major commitment of attention. If you want to improve your finances, you must put your attention on creating value for people, sharing that value, and intelligently monetizing that value. If you want to positively transform your relationships, then give that part of your life some intense and prolonged attention.Unfortunately we have the tendency to remove attention from those areas of our lives that aren’t doing so well. In the short term, it’s wise to shift focus when we feel overwhelmed because temporary diversions can helprelieve stress. But for deeper transformation to occur, we need to put lots of attention squarely on those areas that scream for improvement.Setting goals requires focused attention. Planning out the action steps to achieve our goals requires even more attention. Executing those action steps takes more attention still. Achievers make such activities a priority in their lives. Non-achievers don’t.As you get older, keep raising your standards for what deserves your attention. Keep deleting and declining unnecessary fluff and obligations that might otherwise distract you from your magnificent goals. This will free up more attention to focus on your goals.Have you noticed that when you put your full attention on a goal and obsess about it, you can really move it forward quickly, and you do eventually achieve it? But when you let your attention become diluted by too many competing interests, then progress on your goal slows to a crawl, and you eventually lose your connection to the goal altogether. Goals require significant and prolonged nurturing until they’re achieved; otherwise they die.Say No to Almost EverythingThe difference between successful people and really successful people is that really successful people say no to almost everything.– Warren BuffetWhat does it mean to say no to almost everything?For me this means being able to work full-time on my goals, without letting anything get in the way. It means keeping my schedule free of distracting entanglements. It means that even when I work on goals that seem to be put on my plate by someone else, I must either make those goals my own (and say yes to them), or I must reject them and not give them any attention. If I cannot make a goal my own in some way, it doesn’t deserve my attention.Even a goal like doing your taxes, you can make your own. You can commit to keeping your finances up to date and in good order. You can choose to pay the tax contribution for whatever reasons appeal to you. But if you can’t make a goal your own, and you try to work on it anyway, then you’re fighting yourself, and your progress will be stunted and inconsistent, which is an enormous waste of precious attention.Don’t dwell in the land of half-commitments. Put your full attention on your own goals, including goals you’ve made your own. If you have a job, then either make the commitment to do your very best at that job, or vacate the position and let someone else do it better.Put Your Goals FirstMany achievers have jobs. Many achievers have families. Many achievers have competing commitments of various kinds. But achievers don’t use their job, kids, and other commitments as excuses for not giving sufficient attention to their goals. For everyone who uses these to excuse their inability to set and achieve goals, there’s a real achiever who started from a more challenging position and used those same elements to help motivate them to achieve their goals. Where non-achievers see excuses, achievers find drive.A good way to put your goals first is to set high-quality, holistic goals to begin with. Don’t squander your attention on shallow pursuits like making money for its own sake. Set goals that will help you grow, build your skills, create value for others, and do some good in the world. Ask yourself: Does the goal seem meaningful and intelligent when you imagine yourself 20 years past its achievement?Deliberately put your attention on your goals. When you catch yourself standing in line, dwell upon your goals. Visualize yourself taking the action steps. Make this your default behavior instead of pulling out your phone to attend to something trivial.Carefully plan out the action steps to achieve your goals. If you received my latest newsletter, you’ll find an extensive how-to article about planning the achievement of your goals.Clear time to work on your goals, and make this time sacred and inviolable. If you can only clear a small slice out of each week to work on your goals, then consider setting a goal to reach the point where you have the freedom to devote as many hours to your goals as your energy allows. What specific goals would you need to set and achieve to make that a reality? Imagine being able to devote most of your time every week to working on your most important goals, without anything getting in the way. Many people live this way, and they love it. Why not you?The Goal of FreedomOne of my past goals was to remove financial scarcity as a potential source of distraction, so I could spend most of my time each week working on my goals, whether they were income-generating or not. I want to center my life around personal growth pursuits and share what I learn as a legacy for others. I devoted a significant amount of attention to that goal over a period of years until it was achieved, and after that I could continue to maintain such a lifestyle with relative ease. I know that some people think it’s unusual to have the freedom to immerse oneself in setting and achieving goals that may have nothing to do with making money or having a job, like traveling around Europe for a month or going vegan or exploring open relationships, but this kind of freedom is important enough to me that I made achieving this goal my top priority for years, sticking with it until it was achieved. It was challenging but definitely worthwhile.I know many people who’ve achieved similar goals. Generally speaking, they tend to be the happiest people I know. Instead of taking orders from someone else as their daily routine, they put their attention on their goals, desires, and interests. They make it a priority to maintain this freedom. They don’t use a job, kids, or the lack of money as excuses — just the opposite in fact. From these people I commonly hear stories of setbacksrecalled with laughter and good cheer, not with fear or regret… like the time a couple of friends had to sleep in a park because they had no money for a place to stay. What non-achievers fear as roadblocks are merely stepping stones (and entertaining future stories!) for achievers.If lifestyle freedom is important to you, then make that your primary aim. Put the attainment of this goal first in your life. Working to achieve this goal must become more important to you than keeping up with social media, pleasing your parents, watching your favorite TV shows, and other distractions. If anything else is truly getting in the way, then either drop it from your life, or find a way to turn it into an advantage that increases your drive and motivation.It’s easy for me to tell the difference between people who are committed to achieving lifestyle freedom vs. those who aren’t committed. The ones who are committed are obsessed with the goal; they think of little else. I can’t get them to shut up about it! They’re constantly trying to figure out how to make it a reality. They work hard at it. They stumble and keep right on going. Usually the goal takes longer than they’d like. They often want it to take less than a year. It usually takes 2-5 years to reach the point of financial sustainability. The achievers make it obvious that they’ll get there no matter how long it takes. For them the goal is mandatory, not optional.The non-achievers talk about the goal as a distant f antasy. It’s a wish, a dream, a possibility… something that would be nice to have if and when the planets align properly. Their action plan consists mainly of reading books about the Law of Attraction and listening to Abraham-Hicks recordings. They treat the goal as a casual desire but not a serious commitment. They disrespect the tremendous force of will that’s required to achieve it. They virtually never get there.If the goal of lifestyle freedom matters to you, then drop, cut, and burn whatever distracts you from it. Put your attention squarely on that goal, and obsess about it until you achieve it. If you need more time, cancel cable TV, close your social media accounts, and keep your phonepowered off during daylight hours. Take breaks as you need them, but keep putting your attention back on this goal. If you do that, it’s a safe bet that you’ll achieve it.You’ll set yourself on the path to achieving lifestyle freedom when you stop putting other distractions ahead of that commitment.。
2024年6月大学英语六级考试真题和答案（第3套）Part I Writing (30 minutes)Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write an essay that begins with the sentence “Nowadays, cultivating independent learning ability is becoming increasingly crucial for personal development.” You can make comments, cite examples or use your personal experiences to develop your essay. You should write at least 150 words but no more than 200 words.You should copy the sentence given in quotes at the beginning of your essay.Part Ⅱ Listening Comprehension (30 minutes)Section ADirections:In this section, you will hear two long conversations. At the end of each conversation, you will hear four questions. Both the conversation and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C) and D). Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single line through the centre.Questions 1 to 4 are based on the conversation you have just heard.1. A) Read numerous comments users put online.B) Blended all his food without using a machine.C) Searched for the state-of-the-art models of blenders.D) Did thorough research on the price of kitchen appliances.2. A) Eating any blended food.B) Buying a blender herself.C) Using machines to do her cooking.D) Making soups and juices for herself.3. A) Cooking every meal creatively in the kitchen.B) Paying due attention to his personal hygiene.C) Eating breakfast punctually every morning.D) Making his own fresh fruit juice regularly.4. A) One-tenth of it is sugar.B) It looks healthy and attractive.C) One’s fancy may be tickled by it.D) It contains an assortment of nutrients.Questions 5 to 8 are based on the conversation you have just heard.5. A) How he has made himself popular as the mayor of Berkton.B) How the residents will turn Berkton into a tourist attraction.C) How charming he himself considers the village of Berkton to be.D) How he has led people of Berkton to change the village radically.6. A) It was developed only to a limited extent.B) It was totally isolated as a sleepy village.C) It was relatively unknown to the outside.D) It was endowed with rare natural resources.7. A) The people in Berkton were in a harmonious atmosphere.B) The majority of residents lived in harmony with their neighbors.C) The majority of residents enjoyed cosy housing conditions.D) All the houses in Berkton looked aesthetically similar.8. A) They have helped boost the local economy.B) They have made the residents unusually proud.C) They have contributed considerably to its popularity.D) They have brought happiness to everyone in the village.Section BDirections: In this section, you will hear two passages. At the end of each passage, you will hear three or four questions. Both the passage and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A)，B)，C) and D). Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single line through the centre.Questions 9 to 11 are based on the passage you have just heard.9. A) They have created the smallest remote-controlled walking robot in the world.B) They are going to publish their research findings in the journal Science Robotics.C) They are the first to build a robot that can bend, crawl, walk, turn and even jump.D) They are engaged in research on a remote-controlled robot which uses special power.10. A) It changes its shape by complex hardware.B) It is operated by a special type of tiny motor.C) It moves from one place to another by memory.D) It is powered by the elastic property of its body.11. A) Replace humans in exploratory tasks.B) Perform tasks in tightly confined spaces.C) Explore the structure of clogged arteries.D) Assist surgeons in highly complex surgery.Questions 12 to 15 are based on the passage you have just heard.12. A) She threw up in the bathroom.B) She slept during the entire ride.C) She dozed off for a few minutes.D) She boasted of her marathon race.13. A) They are mostly immune to cognitive impairment.B) They can sleep soundly during a rough ride at sea.C) They are genetically determined to need less sleep.D) They constitute about 13 percent of the population.14. A) Whether there is a way to reach elite status.B) Whether it is possible to modify one’s genes.C) Whether having a baby impacts one’s passion.D) Whether one can train themselves to sleep less.15. A) It is in fact quite possible to nurture a passion for sleep.B) Babies can severely disrupt their parents’ sleep patterns.C) Being forced to rise early differs from being an early bird.D) New parents are forced to jump out of bed at the crack of dawn.Section CDirections: In this section, you will hear three recordings of lectures or talks followed by three or four questions. The recordings will be played only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C) and D). Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single line through the centre.Questions 16 to 18 are based on the recording you have just heard. 16. A) We have poor awareness of how many controversial issues are being debated.B) No one knows better than yourself what you are thinking about at the moment.C) No one can change your opinions more than those who speak in a convincing tone.D) We are likely to underestimate how much we can be swayed by a convincing article.17. A) Their belief about physical punishment changed.B) Their memory pushed them toward a current belief.C) The memory of their initial belief came back to them.D) Their experiences of physical punishment haunted them.18. A) They apparently have little to do with moderate beliefs.B) They don’t reflect the changes of view on physical punishment.C) They may not apply to changes to extreme or deeply held beliefs.D) They are unlikely to alter people’s position without more evidence.Questions 19 to 21 are based on the recording you have just heard.19. A) American moms have been increasingly inclined to live alone.B) The American population has been on the rise in the past 25 years.C) American motherhood has actually been on the decline.D) The fertility rates in America have in fact been falling sharply.20. A) More new mothers tend to take greater care of their children.B) More new mothers are economically able to raise children.C) A larger proportion of women take pride in their children.D) A larger proportion of women really enjoy motherhood.21. A) The meaning of motherhood has changed considerably.B) More and more mothers go shopping to treat themselves.C) More mothers have adult children celebrating the holiday.D) The number of American mothers has been growing steadily.Questions 22 to 25 are based on the recording you have just heard.22. A) Add to indoor toxic pollutants.B) Absorb poisonous chemicals.C) Beautify the home environment.D) Soak up surrounding moisture.23. A) NASA did experiments in sealed containers resembling thesuper-insulated offices of 1970s.B) It was based on experiments under conditions unlike those in most homes or offices.C) NASA conducted tests in outer space whose environment is different from ours.D) It drew its conclusion without any contrastive data from other experiments.24. A) Natural ventilation proves much more efficient for cleaning the air than house plants.B) House plants disperse chemical compounds more quickly with people moving around.C) Natural ventilation turns out to be most effective with doors and windows wide open.D) House plants in a normal environment rarely have any adverse impact on the air.25. A) The root cause for misinterpretations of scientific findings.B) The difficulty in understanding what’s actually happening.C) The steps to be taken in arriving at any conclusion with certainty.D) The necessity of continually re-examining and challenging findings.Part III Reading Comprehension (40 minutes)Section ADirections: In this section, there is a passage with ten blanks. You are required to select one word for each blank from a list of choices given in a word bank following the passage. Read the passage through carefully before making your choices. Each choice in the bank is identified by a letter. Please mark the corresponding letter for each item on Answer Sheet 2with a single line through the centre. You may not use any of the words in the bank more than once.A rainbow is a multi-colored, arc-shaped phenomenon that can appearin the sky. The colors of a rainbow are produced by the reflectionand____26____of light through water droplets (小滴) present in the atmosphere. An observer may____27____a rainbow to be located either near or far away, but this phenomenon is not actually located at any specific spot. Instead, the appearance of a rainbow depends entirely upon the position of the observer in____28____to the direction of light. In essence, a rainbow is an____29____illusion.Rainbows present a____30____made up of seven colors in a specific order. In fact, school children in many English-speaking countries are taught to remember the name “Roy G. Biv” as an aid for remembering the colors of a rainbow and their order. “Roy G. Biv”____31____for: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. The outer edge of the rainbow arc is red, while the inner edge is violet.A rainbow is formed when light (generally sunlight) passes through water droplets____32____in the atmosphere. The light waves change direction as they pass through the water droplets, resulting in two processes: reflection and refraction (折射). When light reflects off a water droplet, it simply____33____back in the opposite direction from where it____34____. When light refracts, it takes a different direction. Some individuals refer to refracted light as “bent light waves.” A rainbow is formed because white light enters the water droplet, where it bends in several different directions. When these bent light waves reach the other side of the water droplet, they reflect back out of the droplet instead of____35____passing through the water. Since the white light is separated inside of the water, the refracted light appears as separate colors to the human eye.A) bouncesB) completelyC) dispersionD) eccentricE) hangingF) opticalG) originatesH) perceiveI) permeatesJ) ponderK) precedingL) recklesslyM) relationN) spectrumO) standsSection BDirections: In this section, you are going to read a passage with tenstatements attached to it. Each statement contains information given in one of the paragraphs. Identify the paragraph from which the information is derived. You may choose a paragraph more than once. Each paragraph is marked with a letter. Answer the questions by marking the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2.Blame your worthless workdays on meeting recovery syndromeA) Phyllis Hartman knows what it’s like to make one’s way through the depths of office meeting hell. Managers at one of her former human resources jobs arranged so many meetings that attendees would fall asleep at the table or intentionally arrive late. With hours of her day blocked up with unnecessary meetings, she was often forced to make up her work during overtime. “I was actually working more hours than I probably would have needed to get the work done,” says Hartman, who is founder and president of PGHR Consulting in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.B) She isn’t alone in her frustration. Between 11 million and 55 million meetings are held each day in the United States, costing most organisations between 7% and 15% of their personnel budgets. Every week, employees spend about six hours in meetings, while the average manager meets for a staggering 23 hours.C) And though experts agree that traditional meetings are essential for making certain decisions and developing strategy, some employees view them as one of the most unnecessary parts of the workday. The result is not only hundreds of billions of wasted dollars, but an annoyance of what organisational psychologists call “meeting recovery syndrome (MRS)”: time spent cooling off and regaining focus after a useless meeting. If you run to the office kitchen to get some relief with colleagues after a frustrating meeting,you’re likely experiencing meeting recovery syndrome.D) Meeting recovery syndrome is a concept that should be familiar to almost anyone who has held a formal job. It isn’t ground-breaking to say workers feel fatigued after a meeting, but only in recent decades have scientists deemed the condition worthy of further investigation. With its links to organisational efficiency and employee wellbeing, MRS has attracted the attention of psychologists aware of the need to understand its precise causes and cures.E) Today, in so far as researchers can hypothesise, MRS is most easily understood as a slow renewal of finite mental and physical resources. When an employee sits through an ineffective meeting their brain power is essentially being drained away. Meetings drain vitality if they last too long, fail to engage employees or turn into one-sided lectures. The conservation of resources theory, originally proposed in 1989 by Dr. Stevan Hobfoll, states that psychological stress occurs when a person’s resources are threatened or lost. When resources are low, a person will shift into defence to conserve their remaining supply. In the case ofoffice meetings, where some of employees’ most valuable resources are their focus, alertness and motivation, this can mean an abrupt halt in productivity as they take time to recover.F) As humans, when we transition from one task to another on the job —say from sitting in a meeting to doing normal work—it takes an effortful cognitive switch. We must detach ourselves from the previous task and expend significant mental energy to move on. If we are already drained to dangerous levels, then making the mental switch to the next thing is extra tough. It’s common to see people cyber-loafing after a frustrating meeting, going and getting coffee, interrupting a colleague and telling them about the meeting, and so on.G) Each person’s ability to recover from horrible meetings is different. Some can bounce back quickly, while others carry their fatigue until the end of the workday. Yet while no formal MRS studies are currently underway, one can loosely speculate on the length of an average employee’s lag time. Switching tasks in a non-MRS condition takes about 10 to 15 minutes. With MRS, it may take as long as 45 minutes on average. It’s even worse when a worker has several meetings that are separated by 30 minutes. “Not enough time to transition in a non-MRS situation to get anything done, and in an MRS situation, not quite enough time to recover for the next meeting,” says researcher Joseph Allen. “Then, add the compounding of back-to-back bad meetings and we may have an epidemic on our hands.”H) In an effort to combat the side effects of MRS, Allen, along with researcher Joseph Mroz and colleagues at the University of Nebraska-Omaha, published a study detailing the best ways to avoid common traps, including a concise checklist of do’s and don’ts applicable to any workplace. Drawing from around 200 papers to compile their comprehensive list, Mroz and his team may now hold a remedy to the largely undefined problem of MRS.I) Mroz says a good place to start is asking ourselves if our meetings are even necessary in the first place. If all that’s on the agenda is a quick catch-up, or some non-urgent information sharing, it may better suit the group to send around an email instead. “The second thing I would always recommend is keep the meeting as small as possible,” says Mroz. “If they don’t actually have some kind of immediate input, then they can follow up later. They don’t need to be sitting in this hour-long meeting.” Less time in meetings would ultimately lead to more employee engagement in the meetings they do attend, which experts agree is a proven remedy for MRS.J) Employees also feel taxed when they are invited together to meetings that don’t inspire participation, says Cliff Scott, professor of organisational science. It takes precious time for them to vent their emotions, complain and try to regain focus after a pointless meeting—one of the main traps of MRS. Over time as employees find themselves tied up in more and more unnecessary meetings—and thus dealing with increasing lag times from MRS—the waste of workday hours can feel insulting.K) Despite the relative scarcity of research behind the subject, Hartman has taught herself many of the same tricks suggested in Mroz’s study, and has come a long way since her days of being stuck with unnecessary meetings. The people she invites to meetings today include not just the essential employees, but also representatives from every department that might have a stake in the issue at hand. Managers like her, who seek input even from non-experts to shape their decisions, can find greater support and cooperation from their workforce, she says.L) If an organisation were to apply all 22 suggestions from Mroz and Allen’s findings, the most noticeable difference would be a stark decrease in the total number of meetings on the schedule, Mroz says. Lesstime in meetings would ultimately lead to increased productivity,which is the ultimate objective of convening a meeting. While none of the counter-MRS ideas have been tested empirically yet, Allen says one trick with promise is for employees to identify things that quickly change their mood from negative to positive. As simple as it sounds, finding a personal happy place, going there and then coming straight back to work might be key to facilitating recovery.M) Leaders should see also themselves as “stewards of everyone else’s valuable time”, adds Steven Rogelberg, author of The Surprising Science of Meetings. Having the skills to foresee potential traps and treat employees’ endurance with care allows leaders to provide effective short-term deterrents to MRS.N) Most important, however, is for organisations to awaken to the concept of meetings being flexible, says Allen. By reshaping the way they prioritise employees’ time, companies can eliminate the very sources of MRS in their tracks.36. Although employees are said to be fatigued by meetings, the condition has not been considered worthy of further research until recently. 37. Mroz and his team compiled a list of what to do and what not to do to remedy the problem of MRS.38. Companies can get rid of the root cause of MRS if they give priority to workers’ time.39. If workers are exhausted to a dangerous degree, it is extremely hard for them to transition to the next task.40. Employees in America spend a lot of time attending meetings while the number of hours managers meet is several times more.41. Phyllis Hartman has learned by herself many of the ways Mroz suggested in his study and made remarkable success in freeing herself fromunnecessary meetings.42. When meetings continue too long or don’t engage employees, they deplete vitality.43. When the time of meetings is reduced, employees will be more engaged in the meetings they do participate in.44. Some employees consider meetings one of the most dispensable parts of the workday.45. According to Mroz, if all his suggestions were applied, a very obvious change would be a steep decrease in the number of meetings scheduled.Section CDirections:There are 2 passages in this section. Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements. For each of them there are four choices marked A), B), C) and D). You should decide on the best choice and mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2 with a single line through the centre.Passage OneQuestions 46 to 50 are based on the following passage.Sarcasm and jazz have something surprisingly in common: You know them when you hear them. Sarcasm is mostly understood through tone of voice, which is used to portray the opposite of the literal words. For example, when someone says, “Well, that’s exactly what I need right now,” their tone can tell you it’s not what they need at all.Most frequently, sarcasm highlights an irritation or is, quite simply, mean.If you want to be happier and improve your relationships, cut out sarcasm. Why? Because sarcasm is actually hostility disguised as humor.Despite smiling outwardly, many people who receive sarcastic comments feel put down and often think the sarcastic person is rude, or contemptible. Indeed, it’s not surprising that the origin of the word sarcasm derives from the Greek word “sarkazein” which literally means “to tear or strip the flesh off.” Hence, it’s no wonder that sarcasm is often preceded by the word “cutting” and that it hurts.What’s more, since actions strongly determine thoughts and feelings, when a person consistently acts sarcastically it may only serve to heighten their underlying hostility and insecurity. After all, when you come right down to it, sarcasm can be used as a subtle form of bullying —and most bullies are angry, insecure, or cowardly.Alternatively, when a person stops voicing negative comments, especially sarcastic ones, they may soon start to feel happier and more self-confident. Also, other people in their life benefit even more because they no longer have to hear the emotionally hurtful language of sarcasm.Now, I’m not saying all sarcasm is bad. It may just be better usedsparingly—like a potent spice in cooking. Too much of the spice, and the dish will be overwhelmed by it. Similarly, an occasional dash of sarcastic wit can spice up a chat and add an element of humor to it. But a big or steady serving of sarcasm will overwhelm the emotional flavor of any conversation and can taste very bitter to its recipient.So, tone down the sarcasm and work on clever wit instead, which is usually without any hostility and thus more appreciated by those you’re communicating with. In essence, sarcasm is easy while true, harmless wit takes talent.Thus, the main difference between wit and sarcasm is that, as already stated, sarcasm is often hostility disguised as humor. It can be intended to hurt and is often bitter and biting. Witty statements are usually in response to someone’s unhelpful remarks or behaviors, and the intent is to untangle and clarify the issue by emphasizing its absurdities. Sarcastic statements are expressed in a cutting manner; witty remarks are delivered with undisguised and harmless humor.46. Why does the author say sarcasm and jazz have something surprisingly in common?A) Both are recognized when heard.B) Both have exactly the same tone.C) Both mean the opposite of what they appear to.D) Both have hidden in them an evident irritation.47. How do many people feel when they hear sarcastic comments?A) They feel hostile towards the sarcastic person.B) They feel belittled and disrespected.C) They feel a strong urge to retaliate.D) They feel incapable of disguising their irritation.48. What happens when a person consistently acts sarcastically?A) They feel their dignity greatly heightened.B) They feel increasingly insecure and hostile.C) They endure hostility under the disguise of humor.D) They taste bitterness even in pleasant interactions.49. What does the author say about people quitting sarcastic comments?A) It makes others happier and more self-confident.B) It restrains them from being irritating and bullying.C) It benefits not only themselves but also those around them.D) It shields them from negative comments and outright hostility.50. What is the chief difference between a speaker’s wit and sarcasm?A) Their clarity.B) Their appreciation.C) Their emphasis.D) Their intention.Passage TwoQuestions 51 to 55 are based on the following passage.Variability is crucially important for learning new skills. Consider learning how to serve in tennis. Should you always practise serving from the exactly same location on the court, aiming at the same spot? Although practising in more variable conditions will be slower at first, it will likely make you a better tennis player in the end. This is because variability leads to better generalisation of what is learned.This principle is found in many domains, including speech perception and learning categories. For instance, infants will struggle to learn the category “dog” if they are only exposed to Chihuahuas, instead of many different kinds of dogs.“There are over ten different names for this basic principle,” says Limor Raviv, the senior investigator of a recent study. “Learning from less variable input is often fast, but may fail to generalise to new stimuli.”To identify key patterns and understand the underlying principles of variability effects, Raviv and her colleagues reviewed over 150 studies on variability and generalisation across fields, including computer science, linguistics, categorisation, visual perception and formal education.The researchers discovered that, across studies, the term variability can refer to at least four different kinds of variability, such as set size and scheduling. “These four kinds of variability have never been directly compared—which means that we currently don’t know which is most effective for learning,” says Raviv.The impact of variability depends on whether it is relevant to the task or not. But according to the ‘Mr. Miyagi principle’, practising seemingly unrelated skills may actually benefit learning of other skills.But why does variability impact learning and generalisation? One theory is that more variable input can highlight which aspects of a task are relevant and which are not.Another theory is that greater variability leads to broader generalisations. This is because variability will represent the real world better, including atypical (非典型的) examples.A third reason has to do with the way memory works: when training is variable, learners are forced to actively reconstruct their memories.“Understanding the impact of variability is important for literally every aspect of our daily life. Beyond affecting the way we learn language, motor skills, and categories, it even has an impact on our social lives,”explains Raviv. “For example, face recognition is affected by whether people grew up in a small community or in a larger community. Exposure to fewer faces during childhood is associated with diminished face memory.”“We hope this work will spark people’ s curiosity and generate morework on the topic,” concludes Raviv.“Our paper raises a lot of open questions. Can we find similar effects of variability beyond the brain, for instance, in the immune system?”51. What does the passage say about infants learning the category “dog”if they are exposed to Chihuahuas only?A) They will encounter some degree of difficulty.B) They will try to categorise other objects first.C) They will prefer Chihuahuas to other dog species.D) They will imagine Chihuahuas in various conditions.52. What does Raviv say about the four different kinds of variability?A) Which of them is most relevant to the task at hand is to be confirmed.B) Why they have an impact on learning is far from being understood.C) Why they have never been directly compared remains a mystery.D) Which of them is most conducive to learning is yet to be identified.53. How does one of the theories explain the importance of variability for learning new skills?A) Learners regard variable training as typical of what happens in the real world.B) Learners receiving variable training are compelled to reorganise their memories.C) Learners pay attention to the relevant aspects of a task and ignore those irrelevant.D) Learners focus on related skills instead of wasting time and effort on unrelated ones.54. What does the passage say about face recognition?A) People growing up in a small community may find it easy to remember familiar faces.B) Face recognition has a significant impact on literally every aspect of our social lives.C) People growing up in a large community can readily recognise any individual faces.D) The size of the community people grow up in impacts their face recognition ability.55. What does Raviv hope to do with their research work?A) Highlight which aspects of a task are relevant and which are not to learning a skill.B) Use the principle of variability in teaching seemingly unrelated skills in education.C) Arouse people’s interest in variability and stimulate more research on the topic.D) Apply the principle of variability to such fields of study as the immune system.。
mba 英语万能句式-回复在MBA英语写作中，虽然没有严格意义上的“万能句式”，但有一些经典且实用的句式结构可以提升你的论述质量和表达效果。
以下是一些常用的句式：1. 引入观点句式：- "A critical analysis of... reveals that..."- "It is widely acknowledged that..."- "One of the most compelling arguments for/against... is..."2. 表达个人观点或立场：- "From my perspective, I firmly believe that..."- "In my opinion, it is undeniable that..."- "Personally, I am convinced that..."3. 引述数据或事实：- "According to recent statistics, a staggering X of..."- "The empirical evidence suggests that..."- "Notably, several studies have demonstrated that..."4. 表达因果关系：- "The proliferation of... has led to..."- "A direct consequence of... is..."- "This trend can be attributed to the fact that..."5. 过渡句式：- "Furthermore, it is important to consider that..."- "On the other hand, one must not overlook..."- "Despite these advantages, there are also potential drawbacks in that..."6. 总结句式：- "To summarize, it is evident that..."- "In conclusion, we can infer that..."- "Hence, the overall picture suggests that..."请注意，虽然这些句式有一定的通用性，但在实际使用时，一定要结合具体的话题和内容进行适当调整，以保持论述的准确性和连贯性。
2024-2025学年冀教版英语初一上学期期中复习试卷与参考答案一、听力部分（本大题有20小题，每小题1分，共20分）1、听力材料：A. This is my cat. It’s black and white.B. That is my dog. It’s brown and white.Question: What color is the speaker’s cat?A. Black and whiteB. Brown and whiteAnswer: AExplanation: The speaker clearly mentions, “This is my cat. It’s black and white,” which indicates the cat is black and white.2、听力材料：A. I have a new book. It’s about history.B. She has a new bike. It’s red.Question: What does the speaker have that is red?A. A new bookB. A new bikeAnswer: BExplanation: The speaker states, “She has a new bike. It’s red,” which directly answers the question about something red that the speaker has.3、Listen to the dialogue and answer the question.A. What is the weather like today?B. How do they feel about the weather?C. What are they planning to do?Answer: BExplanation: In the dialogue, one person asks how the other person feels about the weather, indicating a question about their feelings towards the weather, not about the weather itself or their plans.4、Listen to the short passage and choose the best answer to the question.What is the main topic of the passage?A. The importance of exerciseB. Different types of sportsC. The benefits of playing outdoor gamesAnswer: CExplanation: The passage focuses on the benefits of playing outdoor games, which is the main topic discussed throughout the passage. The other options, while related to the content of the passage, are not the central focus.5、听力原文：W: Excuse me, where is the nearest post office?M: It’s on the other side of the street. You can see a big sign that says “Post Office” there.Question: Where is the nearest post office?A. On this side of the street.B. On the other side of the street.C. Across the street.D. Behind the big building.Answer: BExplanation: The man says, “It’s on the other side of the street,” which means the nearest post office is located on the opposite side of the street.6、听力原文: M: Hi, Jane. I heard you won the math competition. Congratulations!W: Thank you, Tom. I worked really hard for it. How about you? What’s your favorite subject?M: Well, my favorite subject is science. I find it very interesting and I love doing experiments.Question: What is Jane’s favorite subje ct?A. ScienceB. MathC. EnglishD. HistoryAnswer: BExplanation: Jane responds to Tom’s compliment by saying, “Thank you, Tom.I worked really hard for it,” which indicates that she won the math competition.Therefore, her favorite subject is Math.7、You are listening to a conversation between a student and a teacher.Student: Good morning, Mr. Wang. How was your weekend?Teacher: Oh, it was quite nice. I went hiking with my family. How about you?Student: I stayed at home and watched some movies.Teacher: That sounds relaxing. Did you learn anything new this weekend?Student: Yes, actually. I watched a documentary about space exploration. It was fascinating!Teacher: That’s great. Learning something new is always good. Well, let’s get back to our English class.Question: What did the student do over the weekend?A) He went hiking.B) He stayed at home.C) He went shopping.D) He visited his friends.Answer: B) He stayed at home.解析：根据对话内容，学生回答说他在家看电影，所以选项B是正确答案。
Buckingham Shum, S. (1996). Analyzing the Usability of a Design Rationale Notation. In T. P. Moran and J. M. Carroll, (Eds.) Design Rationale: Concepts, Techniques, and Use, 185-215. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Analysing the Usability of a Design Rationale NotationSimon Buckingham ShumABSTRACTSemiformal, argumentation-based notations are one of the main classes of formalism currently being used to represent design rationale (DR). However, our understanding of the demands on designers of using such representations has to date been drawn largely from informal and anecdotal evidence. One way to tackle the fundamental challenge of reducing DR’s representational overheads, is to understand the relationship between designing, and the idea structuring tasks introduced by a semiformal DR notation. Empirically based analyses of DR in use can therefore inform the design of the notations in order to turn the structuring effort to the designers’ advantage. This is the approach taken in this chapter, which examines how designers use a DR notation during design problem solving.Two empirical studies of DR-use are reported, in which designers used the QOC notation (MacLean et al., this volume) to express rationale for their designs. In the first study, a substantial and consistent body of evidence was gathered, describing the demands of the core representational tasks in using QOC, and the variety of strategies which designers adopt in externalising ideas. The second study suggests that an argumentation-based design model based around laying out discrete, competing Options is inappropriate during a depth-first,‘evolutionary’ mode of working, centered around developing a single, complex Option. In addition, the data provide motivation for several extensions to the basic QOC notation. The chapter concludes by comparing the account of the QOC–design relationship which emerges from these studies, with reports of other DR approaches in use.Simon Buckingham Shum is a Research Fellow at the Knowledge Media Institute, The Open University, UK, studying the implications and applications of the internet and interactive media for learning anddesign.Knowledge Media Institute, The Open University, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, U.K.Email: S.Buckingham.Shum@CONTENTS1.THE NEED FOR EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF DR IN USE2.THE STUDIES: DESIGNERS, TRAINING, AND TASKS3.CORE REPRESENTATIONAL TASKS IN QOC-AUTHORING3.1.QOC authoring as an opportunistic activity3.2.Classifying ideas3.3.Naming and renaming3.4.Structuring and restructuring3.5.Summary4.PROBLEMS USING QOC IN ‘EVOLUTIONARY’ DESIGN:TRYING TO ARGUE ABOUT ONE OPTION?4.1.Difficulties encountered with QOC constructsQuestionsOptionsCriteria4.2.Characterising the relationship between QOCand the two modes of designing5.QOC’S EXPRESSIVENESS5.1.Representing evolution within QOC structures5.2.Expressing constraints and dependencies5.3.The subtleties of expressing Options, Criteria, and Assessments6.RELATIONSHIP TO REPORTS OF OTHER DR APPROACHES IN USE7.CONCLUSIONS8.REFERENCES1.THE NEED FOR EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF DESIGN RATIONALE IN USESemiformal, argumentation-based notations are one of the main classes of formalism currently being used to represent design rationale (DR). Whilst from a notational perspective, graphical formalisms are well suited for recording design arguments as they arise, doing so also introduces representational overheads for the designer. This chapter is concerned with understanding the nature of the extra cognitive work introduced by argumentation-based DR. This is obviously important in the context of a fast-flowing, time-pressured activity such as software design, in which ‘documentation’ is already a bad word.Usable, effective DR tools can only be developed once we have an understanding of the cognitive, group, and organizational factors implicated in the introduction of explicit DR to the design process. The present work focusses on the cognitive factors which determine the usability of argumentation-based DR notations, taking as an example the QOC notation and Design Space Analysis perspective (MacLean, Young, Bellotti, & Moran, this volume, Section 2). Whilst MacLean et al. focus on the properties of QOC as a representation for DR, and its relationship to other approaches, attention in this chapter shifts to the process of authoring QOC, and its relationship to different modes of software design activity. The analyses of the data gathered in these studies address issues relating to QOC’s usability and scope, with broader implications for other DR approaches and their associated representational schemes.2.THE STUDIES: DESIGNERS, TRAINING, AND TASKSAnalyses of two empirical studies are presented in this chapter. All of the data reported are drawn from video-based observational analyses of design problem solving. In Study A, 12 pairs of software designers (16 professionals/8 students) spent an hour using QOC to redesign and rationalize the user interface to a bank’s automated teller machine (ATM). The task was based on that employed by MacLean et al. (this volume, Figure 4).1 In Study B, in which different modes of design are considered, an electronics research student engaged in doctoral research described his work (designing Smalltalk-80 data structures) and use of QOC over three 141hour sessions.In Studies A and B, the designers underwent a training procedure which introduced DR as a general concept, and QOC specifically. Emphasis was placed on the importance of developing coherent rationales which would communicate clearly to an outsider the key reasons behind the designs, reflecting the more retrospective Design Space Analysis approach. The QOC tutorial-tasks were intended to give the designers practice in structuring natural discourse semiformally. Designers were required to translate into QOC the key aspects of several fictional design discussions, such that a third party could understand what had been discussed. By varying the length of these design discussions, and the medium in which they were presented (as transcripts plus sketches, or as a video-recording of a discussion) the representational task became steadily more demanding. Details can be found in Shum (1991).1Two tasks were in fact used, in a between-subjects experimental design. The first described user-steps fora Standard-ATM (SATM) interface, and requested a new design and DR. The second additionallydescribed the Fast-ATM interface, and several SATM usability problems. Designers were required to evaluate the FATM, and if necessary, devise and rationalize changes. The data from both tasks are combined for the analysis presented here.1In all of the studies, designers used pens and large sheets of paper as opposed to a software tool. Under these conditions, the authoring process could be studied with minimal interference from extraneous factors, whilst preserving or even enhancing properties of the online medium such as display space, resolution, and ease of local editing. Whilst computational tools can alleviate some of the mechanical overheads of the task, the core tasks of deciding how to express reasoning as structured argumentation remain essentially unchanged.Throughout this paper, extracts from the design transcripts are used to illustrate points. In longer transcript extracts, the key points are shown in bold, and ideas recorded as QOC are shown like this. Most of the examples in this section are from Study A’s ATM design problem, which centered around reducing customer queues without sacrificing the number of services offered. Other extracts are from Study A tutorial exercises: one task was to design the remote control for a video-recorder intended for the elderly, and the other was to design an airport public information symbol to indicate a “one hour left-luggage office.”3.CORE REPRESENTATIONAL TASKS IN QOC-AUTHORINGIn order to translate ideas into QOC, the designer is faced with three basic cognitive tasks: deciding what kind of an idea one has (classification), how to label it meaningfully (naming), and how it relates to other ideas (structuring). Before these tasks are illustrated, however, it is necessary to emphasize their non-linear relationship, that is, the exploratory, opportunistic nature of the process.3.1.QOC authoring as an opportunistic activityWhen studying designers using QOC, it soon becomes clear that externalising ideas as structured argumentation is not a smooth, top-down process. Continual revision and switching from one task to another characterize QOC authoring as an opportunistic mode of working (Guindon, 1990). The QOC evolves through multiple, sometimes embedded, represent-and-evaluate cycles, switching between different parts of the structure.Various approaches to representing QOC were adopted, demonstrating that the process of developing QOC analyses is quite different from the orderly structure of the final product. For instance, in the following extract in which the designers discuss how the ATM should dispense different kinds of output, it was most natural to generate Options, then Criteria, and the Question last of all.[Study A: Pair 2]P:Halifax machines drop everything into a little drawer... the Question here is... wellthe ideas [i.e. Options] are as is, and everything from one place. The Criteriaare...D:what are you going to call the Question though?P:Hmm, I get caught on the Questions....the Criteria are natural feel to it - getting itfrom different holes doesn’t feel naturalD:actually, it’s more like a teller, more humanP:what? If you get it all from the same hole?D:the same kind of thing like when you go the counter, and the guy gives you itthrough the little slotP:[writes] security in mind (everything from a draw – feels secure). [LinkingOptions to Criteria] - as is – it doesn’t have a natural feel to it, everything fromdifferent slots.2What’s the Question here? (frustrated tone).D:erm... I suppose physical layout of...P:layout of holes [starts to write]D:physical layout of input/output stuff [P. writes layout of I/O for cash/card/receipt]Figure 1 shows the order in which QOC was constructed in another situation, illustrating switching between Questions to capture new ideas as they suggest themselves.2prog. info?minimise keys on controlno. of keystrokes1510Figure 1: [Study A tutorial exercise: Pair 2] Moving opportunistically to a new Question and Options as they arise, and then back to complete the original (numbers added to show sequence of ideas). In QOC, boxed Options indicate a decision, or at least a working commitment.In some cases, subjects explicitly adopted ‘strategies’ to representing the QOC, as ways of imposing some structure on their task. For example, in order to control the tendency to pursue new ideas as they arose opportunistically, one pair declared:[Pair 12: Study A]G:let’s try to write down some of the Questions of concern here, and then someCriteria, and then I think some of the Options will come from that - possibly... ’cosQuestions and Criteria are related a lot aren’t theyJ:so if we have one heading Questions and another here for Criteria, which might notbe relatedG:right - I’m going to concentrate in terms of Questions, and then the Criteria mightcome from the Questions. length of queue is a Question...About a minute later, they started to discuss the details of a possible Option but stopped themselves intentionally, aware that at this early stage it might be a tangent:A:so could you have a machine that behaves like a regular ATM or a fast ATMdepending on where you put the card in?2Apart from ‘cleaned-up’ graphic appearance, all QOC examples used in this chapter are copied directly from designers' QOC representations, unless otherwise stated.3A:you could... but would that be...? – right, soG:yeah - so (writes) variety of machines ... (no further discussion on that Option untillater)It is important to note, however, that strategies of this sort seemed to be short-term, flexible modes of working, that is, they did not govern the structure of the whole session, and within them there was flexibility to attend to different parts of the QOC and to switch strategies, such as:• listing Questions in advance, before elaborating them;• generating Options and Criteria, and then the Question;• generating Questions and Options first, and then evaluating with Criteria.QOC authoring is not only opportunistic when used during conceptual problem solving of the sort required by the ATM task. Even when the decisions have been made and all the arguments are known (i.e. retrospective DR), working out how best to represent them is a separate task. Having recognized that the authoring process is far from a tidily sequenced activity, let us now turn to its constituent tasks.3.2.Classifying ideasThis section focusses on the normal process of classifying ideas. When QOC is being used, the vocabulary and orientation of discussion inevitably changes, with regular references to the new constructs, e.g. that’s an Option; could that be a Question?; this Criterion keeps coming up, and so forth. As with any language, fluency increases with use, such that arguments are more smoothly and accurately translated over time. In Study A, it was found that normally subjects classified ideas without spending much time discussing what type they should be. However, as the examples of restructuring QOC show [Section 3.4], the first translation which springs to mind is not necessarily the optimal representation. Even relative ‘experts’with QOC (e.g. QOC’s developers) still engage in restructuring, reclassification, and renaming, revision activities which are dealt with below. The following examples illustrate classification difficulties characteristic of early use of QOC.(i) Figure 2 shows a typical error in classifying an idea (natural order is initially recorded as an Option, but then corrected to be a Criterion):fast atm-order of eventsfastFigure 2: [Study A: Pair 2] A typical error in classifying an idea (a Criterion as an Option).(ii) In the following extract, an Option is first represented as a Question: [Study A: Pair 2]4D:what does this do then? – the Fast ATM do, if you press the cash amount and not(put in) the card?P:I guess it just goes ‘Ha Ha,’ and clears itself. It’ll have a time out, or clear key.D: yeah, but that’s an Option though – a Clear key.P:on where?D:well on the normal ATM. You could change the order of the events, but you have aclear key and a timeoutP:fast ATM order of events [writes this as a new Question]... that’s an Option?D:yeah that’s an OptionP:oh, it’s an Option which addresses this security issue isn’t it [deletes Question:clear key and timeout on ATM, and writes clear key + timeout as an Option].What’s the Question? It’s sort of a vandalism issue...(iii) This extract shows the pair generating ideas in discussion, and then striving to represent those ideas as QOC:[Study A: Pair 5]R:that’s a design decision [pointing to the keypad sketch]. Deciding that Cancel isgoing to be the emergency get-out, and that we should stick with that as its mode -the mode of that key is ‘get out of this, now’.J:well it certainly is... it goes back to this question of buttons - is that what theCancel... I mean we’ve added the Cancel key, and consider that to be a designconclusion – I like that because it’s intuitive. I suppose that could be a Criterion –in fact it’s a very important user-Criterion. [sigh] How do we record that?(...)J:We’ve not got much time left. We could do with identifying this Cancel key morespecifically. But I don’t know what the Question is.R:in fact the Question is ‘How does the card get returned?’J:you can put it under the question of buttons......I think the Enter key and Cancel key are part of the question of buttons. That’sthe Question [indicates Q. of buttons] – now there are probably other Questionswhich feed into this, and I don’t know that you can actually... Hah! [laughs] Whenis something a Question, and when is it a Criterion?In the above extract, the decisions and arguments are clear in J.’s mind, but neither he nor his partner are sufficiently fluent with QOC to translate them. J. notes in particular the informality inherent in QOC (e.g. how to classify ideas).3.3.Naming and renamingNaming entities is often a process of renaming. The renaming of nodes was a prevalent activity for every pair of designers in Study A. Renaming reflects the problem solving process of developing ideas; if a QOC is constructed as the problem is explored, it is inevitable that node-names which do not reflect current understanding of the problem must be updated.Naming in QOC takes up a significant amount of time for several reasons. Firstly, a node’s name must be succinct, and convey the idea it represents. Secondly, to aid interpretation, a further constraint on Criteria is that they be expressed positively, e.g. easy to learn,low error5rate,low cost,high speed.3 Thirdly, a particularly important characteristic of names is focus. Focus refers to the level of generality at which the idea is expressed: a Question may address several issues; an Option may embody several key features which differentiate it from others, but not along the dimension which is addressed by the Question; a Criterion might be expressed so generally (e.g. intuitive; simple) that it is hard to see how it relates to an Option.A fourth property of a name is its relationship to others of its type: it should be distinctive. An Option may really be an example of another, or two Criteria might really be re-expressions of each other (e.g. each side of a trade-off—depending on the context, this might be useful or redundant). Both distinctiveness and focus in naming are characteristics of ‘well-formed’ QOC.4Although these requirements were not made explicit to designers in Study A, they still appreciated the importance of finding good names for ideas. The extracts below illustrate the cooperative process of refining names.[Study A tutorial exercise: Pair 5]R:so how are we going to...T:“keys to what kind of functions...”R:that’s not a very good way of putting it...T:it’s like the “classes of functions...”R:classes! That’s the way to put it.T:What classes of function keys?R:...you see teletext is the only thing you read – you don’t read other things – youdon’t read the picture.T:what we have are two negative reasonsR:we have to make them positive though...ok, so, “easy to read?”T:well, that wasn’t the point was it? um... it was like that they couldn’t actually...R: they can’t see it, so they don’t need it.T:[laughs] yeah -- it’s like the Criterion is that you’re providing a function which theycan actually make use of, and they can’t make use of the teletext because it’s toosmall to read.R:ok – useful function?T:yeah, ok.The following comment summarizes the experience of many subjects in having to name Criteria positively:[Study A: Pair 5]R:... I mean, I really struggled on that first exercise, and found that very awkward andvery difficult. In fact the thing I found most difficult was negating everything, sothat the attribute was a positive attributeJ:yesR:I just couldn’t get my brain to pick out the right word to describe that attribute.3With this constraint, supports Assessment links to Options can always be interpreted as ‘pros’, and objects-to links as ‘cons’; because Criteria have different weights [Section 5.3], decisions clearly cannot be made on the basis of how many supports links Options have, but they provide an initial visual indication.4Principles for well-formed structures were collated as a ‘QOC styleguide.’63.4.Structuring and restructuringThe primary organization which presents itself to someone browsing a QOC diagram is the Question structure, and it is under Questions which design ideas must be eventually placed. For this reason, the problems which designers choose to address through the Questions are important: the Questions addressed define the space which the team sees their design occupying, and guides the direction of future deliberation. Many examples of Question structuring and restructuring were collated in this and other studies, three of which are reproduced below. Note that renaming of Questions is covered here (rather than in the previous section) because of their importance in shaping the macro-structure of the QOC. (i) Working out the Question together:[Study A: Pair 12]G:(new sheet) Our first Question - do you want different kinds of ATMs for thedifferent – you know, a fast ATM and a fully functional one – or do you want to doit all at once?J:ok, so what’s the Question - ’cos those are the Options aren’t they?G:do you want..um.. well the Question is...em...J:single machineG:yeah, kinds of... do you want to have just one machine or do you want to have...J:well those are OptionsG:yeah, well I know those are Options [laughs], but the Question can kind of beg thequestionJ:well it could be a Question – “do you want a variety of machines?” Yes or NoG:well [Question] number of ATM designs: one and more than one - typically two:[Options] fast and fully functional(ii) The subjects return to their first Question, and realize that it no longer expresses what they have now identified as the real problem (the design of the first screen):[Study A: Pair 10]T:oh no. [pause - returns to Question] Except that this isn’t really how to developuser interface - it’s [really to do with] the first screen isn’t it?A:what do we show initially?T:yeahA:[changes first Question] what do we display on 1st screen?(iii) Similar to the last example, Figure 3 shows how a Question is refocussed to express the problem which the generated Options now seem to be addressing (user interface education).reduces queueseffectivetake noticeFigure 3: [Study A: Pair 2] Refocussing a general Question to capture the issue actually addressed by the Options.7As Bellotti, MacLean and Moran (1991) emphasize, asking the right Questions is critical to developing a useful design space representation, and avoiding particular mental sets or design fixations (Jansson & Smith, 1991). The data collected in these studies in fact demonstrate that Question revision is the natural process which designers follow when using QOC, even though the Study A designers (from whom all of the above examples are taken) were not explicitly told to work on refining Questions. Design Space Analysis, with its particular emphasis on asking good Questions, attempts to build on and support this activity.The above examples showed that the reformulation of Questions often takes place in response to the Options generated. The relationship is reciprocal, however, since an insight into the nature of a Question can lead to restructuring of those Options, by moving them to new or existing Questions; another example would be making an implicit criterion embedded in a Question explicit as a Criterion. Whilst this distinction is useful for analytic purposes, the two are often tightly interwoven during authoring. Several examples of restructuring are presented below.(i) In Figure 4, Options to a Question are moved when it is realized that the Question breaks down into two separate Questions (the Options are separated to indicate that stopwatch and subsequent Options now respond to a second Question).how to represent only for one hour hourglassunderstandability stopwatchhow to showtime passingFigure 4: [Study A tutorial exercise: Pair 8] Dividing a Question into two as it is realized that the Options serve two different roles.(ii) In Figure 5, the designers make the Criterion increased queueing explicit, rather than leaving it embedded in the Question. It can then be used to differentiate between the two Options.how to increase no. of services available, but not increase queueingreduce no. of screensneed extra'complete key' increased queueingFigure 5: [Study A: Pair 8] Extracting an important, but implicit requirement in a Question, and making it explicit as a Criterion to evaluate the Options.8(iii) In another incident [Study A: Pair 10], two designers initially recorded several ideas as Options (reduce response time, minimize key depressions, minimize no. screens) in response to a high level Question, How to reduce queues?They then realized that they really wanted to choose all of them, which was a clue that they could serve as Criteria. The Question was restructured accordingly, and the Criteria reused in subsequent Questions. This pattern has been observed on other occasions, and reflects the process of defining goals (or requirements) as the first step to formulating and evaluating solutions. Recognizing regularities such as these is valuable to user communities as they seek to build and share knowledge and expertise in a particular formalism.(iv) In Study B, a design session involved the gradual identification of hierarchical relationships between Options. The designer redrew his QOC structure in order to make this explicit and went on to develop the hierarchy further, as shown schematically in Figure 6.910low memory requirementslow data transfer rate requiredlow processorcalculation requiredlow data throughput requirement during playlow memory requirementwhen to download data to new instrument allocation?decide whether there is time to downloadlow (high level) computation timecompute time to loadpreload data patterns if Option 1allocate instruments1. one inst. inst. for each eventQuestion Option 1.2.1Option 1.1Option 1.2Figure 6: [Study B] Structural overview of QOC structures to show how they were restructured in order to workon the Option hierarchy (Option numbers added to show the transition). Note that the process of making the Option-structure explicit prompted the designer to change Option 1.3 to Option 1.2.3, and to decompose Option 1.2.2 one level further. (As the designer was using pen and paper and renamed and restructured extensively, the original QOC was littered with changes which have been omitted for clarity). Reproduced from Buckingham Shum and Hammond (1994), with permission, Academic Press, Ltd.3.5.Study A: ConclusionsOpen-ended, ill-structured, ‘wicked’ problems (Rittel & Webber, 1973) are rendered manageable only through the exploratory process of framing and reframing views in order to better understand constraints on the solution space. For the designers studied, designing the ATM user interface engendered such a mode of working, which led to extensive revision of QOC names and structure as ideas developed.Whilst the amount of effort devoted to classifying, naming, and structuring was not documented quantitatively, it is likely that relative amounts would depend at least in part on the users, task and familiarity of domain. Ongoing experiences in using QOC does, however, suggest that these tasks persist as features of ‘expert’ QOC-use, although experts are able to draw on strategies for advancing the QOC in situations which might ‘stall’ a less experienced user (cf. Section 3.4, example (iii), and MacLean et al.’s heuristics (this volume, Appendix)). One would not in fact expect such features of the task to disappear since a claim made explicitly by proponents of semiformal notations is that the discipline of expressing ideas within a constrained vocabulary encourages a dialogue with the representation, which can ‘talk back’ to the designer and expose weaknesses in thinking.The above analysis of authoring behaviour was based on data from a task intentionally selected to allow QOC to be studied—the problem domain was novel, with many issues left open, and the competing ATM designs (presented to half the designers) focussed attention on tradeoffs between Options. In contrast, the evidence described next, from Study B, points to a possible boundary to QOC’s scope of application. Specifically, the study suggests that QOC’s focus on arguing about design spaces defined by multiple Options is poorly suited to work dominated by the evolution of a single Option.4.PROBLEMS USING QOC IN ‘EVOLUTIONARY’ DESIGN:TRYING TO ARGUE ABOUT ONE OPTION?Three sessions were spent with a designer who was working on developing a music composition system in the Smalltalk environment. In session 1, it became clear that many of his ideas were already quite well developed, as a lot of thinking had been invested in the problem beforehand; the main task to which QOC was put was therefore rationalization and decision making. The designer was very positive about QOC’s role in this context, and it was clear from the data (Shum, 1991, Case Study 1) that QOC had assisted in drawing out existing but vague ideas, and clarified relationships between Options and Criteria which would have otherwise remained unarticulated (see Figure 6 for an extract from session 1). In sessions 2 and 3, however, serious difficulties were encountered in using QOC, and no explicit DR was constructed.Let us begin by characterising what will be termed the ‘evolutionary’ mode of working, that is, the iterative development of what the designer conceptualized as one, complex design Option. The designer spent sessions 2 and 3 developing two representations of two Smalltalk data structures, respectively, a hierarchy of data types, and a table of data types such that each column progressively refined the previous one.The designer described the method of developing the hierarchy in session 2 as follows: [Study B]what I’m doing is a sort of consistency check – thinking through the implications of whatI’m doing – this draft suggestion here. And I’ll incrementally alter things [i.e. the datastructure] – I mean I’ve already done that many times to get to this stage...11。
高中英语选择性必修第三册Unit2 同步英文释义1. precise：精准的；英文释义：exact, accurate, and careful about details.2. precisely：精确地；英文释义：in an exact and accurate way; exactly.3. Christianity：基督教；英文释义：the religion based on the person and teachings of Jesus Christ, or its beliefs and practices.4. realistic：现实主义的；英文释义：having or showing a sensible and practical idea of what can be achieved or expected.5. realism：现实主义；英文释义：the attitude or practice of accepting a situation as it is and being prepared to deal with it accordingly.6. realist：现实主义者；英文释义：a person who accepts a situation as it is and is prepared to deal with it accordingly.7. primitive：原始的；英文释义：relating to an early stage in the evolution of human society or to a preindustrial or tribal culture.8. two-dimensional：二维的；英文释义：having only length and width, not depth or thickness.9. dimension：尺寸；英文释义：a measurable extent of some kind, such as length, breadth, depth, or height.10. in particular：特别地；英文释义：especially; specifically.11. set apart from：与...区别开来；英文释义：to distinguish or separate something from others.12. humanistic：人文主义的；英文释义：relating to or characteristic of human beings and their culture.13. humanity：人性；人类；英文释义：the human race; human beings collectively; the quality of being humane or benevolent.14. breakthrough：突破；英文释义：a sudden, dramatic, and important discovery or development.15. influential：有影响力的；英文释义：having great influence on someone or something.16. reputation：声誉；英文释义：the beliefs or opinions that are generally held about someone or something; the state of being widely known or respected.17. noble：高贵的；英文释义：belonging to a hereditary class with high social or political status; having or showing fine personal qualities or high moral principles and ideals.18. rank：等级；英文释义：a position in the hierarchy of the armed forces or in other organizations.19. purchase：购买；英文释义：to obtain something by paying for it; buying.20. mythology：神话；英文释义：a collection of myths, especially one belonging to a particular religious or cultural tradition.21. client：客户；英文释义：a person or organization using the services of a lawyer or other professional person or company.22. photography：摄影术；英文释义：the art or practice of taking and processing photographs.23. emerge：出现；英文释义：to become apparent or known; come into existence or prominence.24. sunrise：日出；英文释义：the daily event of the sun rising above the horizon in the morning.25. convey：传达；英文释义：to communicate or express something, with or without using words.26. subjective：主观的；英文释义：based on personal feelings or opinions rather than facts.27. outer：外部的；英文释义：relating to the outside or exterior; situated on or near the outside.28. subsequent：随后的；英文释义：coming after something in time; following.29. fond：喜欢的；英文释义：having an affection or liking for; liking or caring about someone or something.30. be fond of：喜欢...；英文释义：to like or enjoy someone or something.31. fine art (also fine arts)：美术；英文释义：a visual art considered to have been created primarily for aesthetic and intellectual purposes.32. sculpture：雕塑；英文释义：the art of making two- or three-dimensional representative or abstract forms, especially by carving stone or wood or by casting metal or plaster.33. sculptor：雕塑家；英文释义：an artist who makes sculptures.34. visual：视觉的；英文释义：relating to seeing or sight.35. water lily：睡莲；英文释义：an aquatic plant with round leaves and fragrant, floating flowers.36. pond：池塘；英文释义：a small body of still water formed naturally or by artificial means.37. arched：拱形的；英文释义：having the shape of an arch; curved.38. arch：拱形；英文释义：a curved symmetrical structure spanning an opening and typically supporting the weight of a bridge, roof, or wall above it.39. investment：投资；英文释义：the action or process of investing money for profit or material result.40. bride：新娘；英文释义：a woman on her wedding day or just before and after the event.41. permanent：永久的；英文释义：lasting or remaining without significant change.42. memorial：纪念碑；英文释义：a statue or structure established to remind people of a person or event.43. humble：谦逊的；英文释义：having or showing a modest or low estimate of one's importance.44. criticise/criticize：批评；英文释义：to express disapproval of someone or something; to evaluate or analyze something critically.45. criticism：批评；英文释义：the expression of disapproval of someone or something on the basis of perceived faults or mistakes.46. representative：代表性的；英文释义：typical of a particular group, person, or thing; serving as a symbol or emblem of something.47. ink：墨水；英文释义：a colored fluid used for writing, drawing, printing, or duplicating.48. animation：动画；英文释义：the technique of photographing successive drawings or positions of puppets or models.49. frame：框架；英文释义：a rigid structure that surrounds or encloses something.50. symphony：交响乐；英文释义：a long musical composition for full orchestra, typically in four movements.51. decline：下降；英文释义：a gradual and continuous loss of strength, numbers, quality, or value.52. exhibition：展览；英文释义：a public display of works of art or items of interest, typically held in an art gallery or museum.53. bronze：青铜；英文释义：a yellowish-brown alloy of copper with up to one-third tin.54. ceramic：陶瓷的；英文释义：made of clay and hardened by heat; relating to the art of making objects out of clay.55. vase：花瓶；英文释义：a decorative container, typically made of glass or pottery, used for holding cut flowers or as a display piece.56. artistic：艺术的；英文释义：relating to or characteristic of art or artists; showing skill or excellence in artistic expression.57. entry：参赛作品；英文释义：a piece of writing, music, artwork, etc., submitted for judgment in a competition or for publication.58. civil：民事的；英文释义：relating to ordinary citizens and their concerns, as distinct from military or ecclesiastical matters.59. recognition：认可；英文释义：the action or process of recognizing or being recognized, in particular, the identification of someone or something.60. Buddhist：佛教的；英文释义：relating to or characteristic of Buddhism or Buddhists.61. Buddhism：佛教；英文释义：a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs, and spiritual practices.62. expansion：扩展；英文释义：the action of becoming larger or more extensive.63. bring to life：使具体化；英文释义：to make something animate, vivid, or real.64. guarantee：保证；英文释义：a formal assurance or promise, especially that certain conditions will be fulfilled or that a product will be of a specified quality.65. contemporary：当代的；英文释义：belonging to or occurring in the present; modern.66. worthy：有价值的；英文释义：having worth, value, or merit; deserving of attention or respect.67. be worthy of：值得...；英文释义：to deserve or merit something.。
中英文名词解释第一章导言Consumer behavior: The term consumer behavior is defined as the behavior that consumers display in searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing of products and services that they expect will satisfy their needs.消费者行为学：消费者在寻求、购买、使用、评价和处理他们期望能够满足其需求的产品和服务过程中所表现出的行为。
Consumer decision making: In put, process, out put.消费者决策：输入、处理、输出Consumer research: Methodology used to study consumer behavior.消费者研究：描述用以研究消费者行为的过程与工具。
Marketing concept: A consumer-oriented marketing philosophy that focuses on the needs of the buyers and the profits through customer satisfaction.市场营销观念：关注买方的需求通过顾客满意来创造利润的顾客导向的市场营销哲学。
Organizational consumer: A business, government agency, or other institution (profit or nonprofit) that buys the goods, services, and/or equipment necessary for the organization to function.组织消费者：包括盈利和非盈利的商业单位、政府机构和各种组织机构，它们必须购买产品、设备和服务来维持组织的运转。
Analyzing organizational effectiveness and leadership roles. Explanation of Competing Values Framework of Quinn and Rohrbaugh. ('83)WHAT IS THE COMPETING VALUES FRAMEWORK? EXPLANATIONThe Competing Values Framework of Robert Quinn andRohrbaugh is a theory that was developed initially fromresearch done on the major indicators of effectiveorganizations. Based on statistical analyses of a comprehensivelist of effectiveness indicators, Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983)discovered two major dimensions underlying conceptions ofeffectiveness.COMPETING VALUES IN ORGANIZATIONALEFFECTIVENESS∙The first dimension is related to organizationalfocus, from an internal emphasis on thewell-being and development of people in theorganization towards an external focus on the well-being and development of the organization itself.∙The second dimension differentiates the organizational preference for structure andrepresents the contrast between stability and control and flexibility and change. Together the two dimensions form four quadrants.The Competing Values Framework got its name because the criteria within the four models at first seem to carry conflicting messages. Organizations must be adaptable and flexible, but we want them at the same time to be stable and controlled. A paradox.Each quadrant of the framework represents one of four major models of organization and management theory (Quinn 1988):1.Human Relations Model. Places a lot of emphasis on flexibility and internal focus. It stressescohesion, morale, and human resources development as criteria for effectiveness.2.Open Systems Model. Emphasizes flexibility and external focus, and stresses readiness,growth, resource acquisition and external support.3.Rational Goal Model. Emphasizes control and an external focus. It regards planning, goalsetting, productivity and efficiency as being effective.4.Internal Process Model. Emphasizes control and an internal focus, and stresses the role ofinformation management, communication, stability and control.Another variant of the Competing Values Framework deals with leadership.COMPETING VALUES IN LEADERSHIP ROLESQuinn uses his competing values framework oforganizational effectiveness to organize the literature onleadership. Eight categories of leader behavior, or roles,emerge from his review of the literature. The figure onthe right plots these eight roles onto the sameframework as for the organizational effectiveness.The resulting model of leadership was derivedtheoretically and represents "a hypothetical rather thanan empirical statement about the perceptualunderstructure of leadership".Quinn argues that more effective managers have theability to play multiple, even competing leadership roles.Managers are expected to play all of these roles. And they should simultaneously consider and balance the competing demands that are represented by each set of expectations.The Competing Values Framework can be used in organizational context. It can be used as a strategic tool to develop supervision and management programs. It can also be used to help organizations diagnose their existing and desired cultures. Furthermore, it can be seen as a tool to examine organizational gaps. Another function might be to use it as a teaching tool for practicing managers. Or to help interpret and understand various organizational functions and processes. Another application is: to help organizational members better understand the similarities and differences of managerial leadership roles.。
英语演讲智慧树知到课后章节答案2023年下哈尔滨工程大学哈尔滨工程大学第一章测试1.The oldest known handbook on effective speech was written on papyrus inEgypt some 1,500 years ago.答案:错2.As a speaker, you need to be alert to the listeners’ reactions and adjust yourmessage accordingly.答案:对3.If you make an obvious mistake during a speech, it is a catastrophe.答案:错4.According to what we have learned, the __________ speaker delivers a speechwith little or no immediate preparation.答案:impromptu5.One of the major differences between public speaking and ordinaryconversation is that public speaking usually requires __________.答案:a more formal manner of delivery6.The __________ is whatever a speaker communicates to someone else.答案:message7.Which of the following behavior is NOT an example of feedback?答案:Listeners wear warm clothes.8.Rather than trying to eliminate every trace of stage fright, you should aim attransforming it into __________.答案:positive nervousness9.Which of the following factors is NOT relevant to your success as a speaker?答案:Your circle of friends.第二章测试1.You need to keep your audience in mind only during the speech.答案:错2.Whenever you use a hypothetical example in a speech, it is usually a goodidea to follow it with statistics or testimony to show that the example is notunrealistic.答案:对3.Good public speakers are __________.答案:audience-centered4.One of the ways speakers analyze audiences is by looking at traits such as age,gender, sexual orientation, religion, group membership, and racial, ethnicand cultural background.What is this called?答案:Demographic audience analysis.5.Most people speak best about subjects __________.答案:with which they are most familiar6.“To inform my audience about the symptoms, causes, and treatment ofchronic fatigue syndrome” is an example of a __________.答案:specific purpose7.When the general purpose of your speech is to __________, you act primarily asa teacher or lecturer.答案:inform8.The basic kinds of supporting materials include all of the following EXCEPT__________.答案:comments9.What suggestion for using supporting materials is used in the followingspeech excerpt?Since it first opened for business, McDonald’s has sold over 100 billionhamburgers. To give you an idea how many hamburgers that is, think of itthis way: Since each McDonald’s burger (with the bun) is about 2 inches thick, 100 billion hamburgers stacked on top of each other would reach over 3million miles fifteen times as far as the moon.答案:Explain your statistics.10.In her speech about child abuse, Kim included the following statement:The effects of child abuse last long after the child has grown to adulthood. As one victim of child abuse stated in a local newspaper article just last week, “I know it sounds crazy, but sometimes I still wake up in fear in the middle of the night. Even worse, I find myself raging at my own children and treating them like my parents treated me.”According to what we have learned, what kind of supporting material didKim use?答案:Peer testimony.第三章测试1.It is easier to create an effective introduction after you know exactly whatyou will say in the body.答案:对2.“Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for yourcountry” is an example of antithesis.答案:对3.Most speeches contain __________ main points.答案:from two to five4.Here are the main points for an informative speech about China’s NationalStadium, the Bird’s Nest.I. A red concrete seating bowl is one of the two main structures of thestadium.II. An outer steel frame around the bowl is the other main structure of the stadium.III. Spacious concourses are accessible at different levels of the stadium.IV. A large mixed-use retail development is beneath the stadium.These main points are arranged in __________ order.答案:spatial5.Words or phrases that indicate when a speaker has completed one thoughtand is moving on to another are called __________.答案:transitions6.Which objective of a good speech introduction is fulfilled by the followingstatement?Today we will explore the three most important forms of intellectualproperty protection—copyrights, trademarks, and patents.答案:Preview the body.7.Which of the following is recommended as a way to reinforce the central ideain a speech conclusion?答案:Refer back to the introduction.8.The following passage from a speech introduction is an example of a__________ .In my speech today, I will show you the serious health dangers posed by the flu, and I will urge each of you to get a flu shot every year without fail.答案:preview statement9.__________ words refer to ideas or concepts rather than to tangible objects.答案:Abstract10.“We will be candid, consistent, and confident” is an example of __________.答案:alliteration第四章测试1.Nonverbal communication is based on a person’s use of voice and body,rather than on the use of words.答案:对2.If you were summarizing statistical trends in a speech, the best visual aid touse would probably be a graph.答案:对3.Changes in a speaker’s rate, pitch, volume, and pauses are referred to as__________.答案:vocal variety4.If the object you want to use as a visual aid is not available, the next bestoption ideally is a __________.答案:model5.When using visual aids in a speech, you should __________.答案:display visual aids only while discussing them6.You should use low pitch when you want to show _______.答案:mourning7.When you feel a certain part of your speech is not that easy for people tounderstand, you should ______.答案:slow down your speaking rate8.______ are motions of a speaker’s hands or arms during a speech.答案:Gestures9.When you say “I have three major points to talk about today” while holdingup two fingers, your gesture is ______ your verbal message.答案:contradicting10.Which of the following gestures is appropriate in speechmaking?答案:Hand slicing to emphasize.第五章测试rmative speeches are seldom organized in topical order.答案:错2.Persuasion takes place only if the audience is strongly in favor of thespeaker’s position by the end of the speech.答案:错3.“To inform my audience about the major parts of a 35-millimeter camera” isa specific purpose statement for an informative speech about a(n) __________.答案:object4.In an informative speech, the speaker acts as a(n) __________.答案:teacher5.When giving an informative speech, you should take special care to __________.答案:translate technical information into everyday language6.The three types of questions that give rise to persuasive speeches arequestions of __________.答案:fact, value, and policy7.__________ order is a way to structure a persuasive speech on a question ofpolicy when the audience already agrees that a problem exists but needs to be persuaded that your plan provides the best solution to the problem.答案:Comparative advantages8.According to your textbook, “To persuade my audience that they shouldadop t a program of regular exercise” is a specific purpose statement for a persuasive speech on a question of __________.答案:policy9.__________ usually makes the difference between an ordinary speech and asuperb one.答案:Creativity10.If you make a bigger mistake in your impromptu speech, don’t be afraid tosay something like __________ and then move on.答案:“I’m sorry, I meant to say…”。
国际经济学罗伯特凯伯第13版答案CHAPTER 1THE INTERNATIONAL ECONOMY AND GLOBALIZATION国际经济学罗伯特凯伯第13版答案MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS1. A primary reason why nations conduct international trade is because:a. Some nations prefer to produce one thing while others produce otherthingsb. Resources are not equally distributed among all trading nationsc. Trade enhances opportunities to accumulate profitsd. Interest rates are not identical in all trading nations2. A main advantage of specialization results from:a. Economies of large-scale productionb. The specializing country behaving as a monopolyc. Smaller production runs resulting in lower unit costsd. High wages paid to foreign workers3. International trade in goods and services is sometimes used as a substitutefor all of the following except:a. International movements of capitalb. International movements of laborc. Domestic production of the same goods and servicesd. Domestic production of different goods and services4. If a nation has an open economy, it means that the nation:a. Allows private ownership of capitalb. Has flexible exchange ratesc. Has fixed exchange ratesd. Conducts trade with other countries5. International trade forces domestic firms to become more competitive interms of:a. The introduction of new productsb. Product design and qualityc. Product priced. All of the above6. The movement to free international trade is most likely to generate short-term unemployment in which industries?a. Industries in which there are neither imports nor exportsb. Import-competing industriesc. Industries that sell to domestic and foreign buyersd. Industries that sell to only foreign buyers7. International trade is based on the idea that:a. Exports should exceed importsb. Imports should exceed exportsc. Resources are more mobile internationally than are goodsd. Resources are less mobile internationally than are goods8. Arguments for free trade are sometimes disregarded by politicians because:a. Maximizing domestic efficiency is not considered importantb. Maximizing consumer welfare may not be a chief priorityc. There exist sound economic reasons for keeping one’s economy isolatedfrom other economiesd. Economists tend to favor highly protected domestic markets9. How much physical output a worker producers in an hour’s work depends on:a. The worker’s motivation and skillb. The technology, plant, and equipment in usec. How easy the product is to manufactured. All of the above10. The largest amount of trade with the United States in recent years has beenconducted by:a. Canadab. Germanyc. Chiled. United Kingdom11. Increased foreign competition tends to:a. Intensify inflationary pressures at homeb. Induce falling output per worker-hour for domestic workersc. Place constraints on the wages of domestic workersd. Increase profits of domestic import-competing industries12. ________ is the ability of a firm/industry, under free and fair market conditions,to design, produce, and market goods and services that are better and/or cheaper than those of other firms/industries.a. Competitivenessb. Protectionismc. Comparative advantaged. Absolute advantage13. A firm’s ________, relative to that of other firms, is generally regarded as themost important determinant of competitiveness.a. Income levelb. Tastes and preferencesc. Governmental regulationd. Productivity14. Free traders maintain that an open economy is advantageous in that itprovides all of the following except:a. Increased competition for world producersb. A wider selection of products for consumersc. The utilization of the most efficient production methodsd. Relatively high wage levels for all domestic workers15. Recent pressures for protectionism in the United States have been motivatedby all of the following except:a. U.S. firms shipping component production overseasb. High profit levels for American corporationsc. Sluggish rates of productivity growth in the United Statesd. High unemployment rates among American workers16. International trade tends to cause welfare losses to at least some groups in acountry:a. The less mobile the country’s resourcesb. The more mobile the country’s resourcesc. The lower the country’s initial living standardd. The higher the country’s initial living standard17. For a nation to maximize its productivity in a global economy:a. Only imports are necessaryb. Only exports are necessaryc. Both imports and exports are necessaryd. Neither imports nor exports are necessary18. A feasible effect of international trade is that:a. A monopoly in the home market becomes an oligopoly in the worldmarketb. An oligopoly in the home market becomes a monopoly in the worldmarketc. A purely competitive firm becomes an oligopolistd. A purely competitive firm becomes a monopolist19. International trade in goods and services tends to:a. Increase all domestic costs and pricesb. Keep all domestic costs and prices at the same levelc. Lessen the amount of competition facing home manufacturersd. Increase the amount of competition facing home manufacturers20. The real income of domestic producers and consumers can be increased by:a. Technological progress, but not international tradeb. International trade, but not technological progressc. Technological progress and international traded. Neither technological progress nor international trade21. In the United States, automobiles are:a. Imported, but not exportedb. Exported, but not importedc. Imported and exportedd. Neither exported nor imported22. Technological improvements are similar to international trade since theyboth:a. Provide benefits for all producers and consumersb. Increase the nation’s aggregate incomec. Reduce unemployment for all domestic workersd. Ensure that industries can operate at less than full capacity23. A sudden shift from import tariffs to free trade may induce short-termunemployment in:a. Import-competing industriesb. Industries that are only exportersc. Industries that sell domestically as well as exportd. Industries that neither import nor export24. Recent empirical studies indicate that productivity performance in industriesis:a. Directly related to globalization of industriesb. Inversely related to globalization of industriesc. Not related to globalization of industriesd. Any of the above25. Empirical research indicates that ________ best enhances productivity gains forfirms and industries.a. Local competitionb. Regional competitionc. Global competitiond. No competition26. Increased globalization is fostered by:a. Increased tariffs and quotasb. Restrictions on the migration of laborc. Reduced transportation costsd. Restrictions on investment flows27. A reduced share of the world export market for the United States would beattributed to:a. Decreased productivity in U.S. manufacturingb. High incomes of American householdsc. Relatively low interest rates in the United Statesd. High levels of investment by American corporations28. The dominant trading nation in the world market following World War II was:a. United Kingdomb. Germanyc. South Koread. United States29. A closed economy is one in which:a. Imports exactly equal exports, so that trade is balancedb. Domestic firms invest in industries overseasc. The home economy is isolated from foreign traded. Saving exactly equals investment at full employment30. Relative to countries with low ratios of exports to gross domestic product,countries having high export to gross domestic product ratios are ________ vulnerable to changes in the world market.a. Lessb. Morec. Equallyd. Any of the above31. Which of the following is a fallacy of international trade?a. Trade is a zero-sum activityb. Exports increase employment in exporting industriesc. Import restrictions increase employment in import-competing industriesd. Tariffs and quotas reduce trade volume32. Foreign ownership of U.S. financial assets:a. Has decreased since the 1960sb. Has increased since the 1960sc. Has made the U.S. a net borrower since the late 1980sd. Both a and c33. The first wave of globalization was brought to an end by the:a. Great Depressionb. Second World Warc. First World Ward. Smoot-Hawley Act34. Multilateral trade negotiations have led to:a. Continued trade liberalizationb. Financial liberalizationc. Increased investmentd. All of the aboveTRUE-FALSE QUESTIONST F 1. Important trading partners of the United States include Canada, Mexico, Japan, and China.T F 2. The United States exports a larger percentage of its gross domestic product than Japan, Germany, and Canada.T F 3. Opening the economy to international trade tends to lessen inflationary pressures at home.T F 4. The benefits of international trade accrue in the forms of lower domestic prices, development of more efficient methods and newproducts, and a greater range of consumption choices.T F 5. In an open trading system, a country will import those commodities that it produces at relatively low cost while exporting commoditiesthat can be produced at relatively high cost.T F 6. Although free trade provides benefits for consumers, it is often argued that import protection should be provided to domesticproducers of strategic goods and materials vital to the nation’ssecurity.T F 7. In the long run, competitiveness depends on an industry’s natural resources, its stock of machinery and equipment, and the skill of itsworkers in creating goods that people want to buy.T F 8. If a nation has an open economy, it means that the nation allows private ownership of capital.T F 9. Increased foreign competition tends to increase profits of domestic import-competing companies.T F 10. Restrictive trade policies have resulted in U.S. producers of minerals and metals supplying all of the U.S. consumers’ needs.ANSWERSAnswers to Multiple-Choice Questions1. b2. a3. d4. d5. d6. b7. d8. b9. d10. a11. c12. a13. d14. d15. b16. a17. c18. a19. d20. c21. c22. b23. a24. a25. c26. c27. a28. d29. c30. b31. a32. d33. c34. dAnswers to True-False Questions1. T2. F3. T4. T5. F6. T7. T8. F9. F10. FSHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS1. What is the most important factor that contributes to competitiveness?Answer:Key to the concept of competitiveness is productivity, or output per worker-hour.2. What are the challenges of the international trading system?Answer:Among the challenges that the international trading system faces are dealing with fair labor standards and concerns about the environment.ESSAY QUESTIONS1. Does exposure to competition with the world leader in a particular industryimprove a firm’s productivity?Answer:The McKinsey institute found that higher productivity rested on the ability of mangers to invent new and ever more efficient ways of making products and on the ability of engineers to design products that are easy to make. The institute researchers observed that in the auto industry in Japan or the food industry in the United States, managers and engineers do not achieve innovations because they are smarter work harder or are better educated than their peers. They do so because they are subjected to intense global competition, where improving labor productivity is the key to success.2. What are the essential arguments in favor of free trade?Answer:Proponents of an open trading system contend that international trade results in higher levels of consumption and investment, lower prices of commodities, and a wider range of product choices for consumers. Trade also enables workers to become more productive, and wages of workers whose skills are more scarce internationally tend to rise.。
R ESEARCH A RTICLEC OMPETING FOR A TTENTION:A N E MPIRICAL S TUDY OFO NLINE R EVIEWERS’S TRATEGIC B EHAVIOR1Wenqi ShenVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061 U.S.A. {shenw@}Yu Jeffrey HuScheller College of Business, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30308 U.S.A. {yuhu@}Jackie Rees UlmerKrannert School of Management, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 U.S.A. {jrees@}Top online reviewers who reliably gain consumers’ attention stand to make significant financial gains and monetize the amount of attention and reputation they have earned. This study explores how online reviewers strategically choose the right product to review and the right rating to post so that they can gain attention and enhance reputation. Using book reviews from Amazon and Barnes & Noble (BN), we find that reviewers on Amazon, where a reviewer ranking system quantifies reviewers’ online reputations, are sensitive to the competition among existing reviews and thus tend to avoid crowded review segments. However, on BN, which does not include such a ranking mechanism, reviewers do not respond to the competition effect. In addition, reviewers on Amazon post more differentiated ratings compared with reviewers on BN since the competition for attention on Amazon is more intense than on BN. Overall, reviewers on Amazon behave more strategically than reviewers on BN. This study yields important managerial implications for companies to improve their design of online review systems and enhance their understanding of reviewers’ strategic behaviors.Keywords: Online attention, scarcity of attention, competing for attention, online product reviews, user-generated content“Attention is the hard currency of cyberspace.”–Thomas Mandel and Gerard Van der Leun (1996)IntroductionConsumers increasingly rely on online opinions and experi-ences shared by fellow consumers when deciding what products to purchase. Deloitte (2007), for instance, finds that almost two thirds (62%) of consumers read consumer-written online product reviews; among consumers who read online reviews, 82 percent say their purchase decisions have been directly influenced by online reviews. Consumers also increasingly expect to find product reviews on retailer web-sites or manufacturer websites.2 Therefore, it is very impor-tant for companies developing or maintaining online review systems to understand the incentives for online reviewers to write product reviews and the effect of incentives on the content of product reviews.1Rajiv Kohli was the accepting senior editor for this paper. Paul Pavlou served as the associate editor.2Consumers expect to find product reviews on shopping websites (72%) while around half (47%) seek them out on company websites and 43% on price comparison sites, according to a recent study by Lightspeed Research (Leggatt 2011).MIS Quarterly Vol. 39 No. 3, pp. 683-696/September 2015683Shen et al./Online Reviewers’ Strategic BehaviorsThere is a large body of literature on online product reviews, but most of the existing literature has overlooked the question of how online reviewers are incentivized to write reviews. Instead, the literature has focused on the numerical aspects of reviews such as volume, valence, or variance, and the impact of reviews on consumers’ purchases (e.g., Basuroy et al. 2003; Dellarocas et al. 2004; Liu 2006). Several recent studies investigate the development and evolution of review ratings rather than their influence on sales (e.g., Godes and Silva 2012; Li and Hitt 2008; Moe and Trusov 2011). Other studies investigate various factors that could influence online reviewers’ behaviors such as online reviewers’ characteristics (Forman et al. 2008), product types (Mudambi and Schuff 2010), previous review ratings (Moe and Trusov 2011), and product prices (Li and Hitt 2010). The literature seems to assume that online reviewers may be motivated to write pro-duct reviews simply because of altruism, product involve-ment, and self-enhancement, which are the major motives for offline consumers to provide word-of-mouth (e.g., Dichter 1966). Less attention has been paid to the fact that reviewers, by writing product reviews, can receive benefits such as online reputation and attention from other consumers. Our study is part of this emerging research stream, empirically investigating how online reputation and attention from other consumers affects reviewers’ contributions to online review systems.Users’ voluntary contributions have been studied in other online contexts such as open source software (Lerner and Tirole 2002), firm-hosted online forums (Jeppesen and Frederiksen 2006), and blogs (Faw 2012). Researchers have found that when lacking direct monetary incentives, incentives such as peer recognition and online reputation are important drivers for online users to contribute voluntarily (e.g., Lerner and Tirole 2002). Roberts et al. (2006) explore intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of voluntary developers in the open source software community and report that multiple types of motivation play a role in the decision to participate in the community and to what extent. In the context of firm-hosted online forums, firm recognition of users’ contributions is also reported as valuable to the users (Jeppesen and Frederiksen 2006). Positive reputation and peer recognition can motivate online users to continue contributing voluntarily (Pavlou and Gefen 2004, Resnick et al. 2000).For online reviewers, gaining online reputation and attention from other consumers is an important motivation for their contribution to the review systems.3 For example, Peter Durward Harris, a previous top 10 and hall of fame Amazon reviewer, mentioned that reviewers tend to use the helpfulness vote as a proxy for the attention gained by their reviews, and reported that “every reviewer cares at least a little about votes,” which “provide reviewers with reassurance that people are reading their reviews and assessing them” (Harris 2010). Top online reviewers who reliably gain consumers’ attention stand to make significant financial gains and monetize the amount of attention and reputation they have earned. For instance, Forbes reported that a top Amazon reviewer made thousands of dollars and frequently received free dinner offers and free travel offers; this reviewer also received up to 40 free books a day, communicated regularly with authors and his fans, and eventually launched a writing career (Coster 2006). The launch of Amazon’s Vine Program in 2007 (http://www. /gp/vine/help) has made it easier for top reviewers to receive products from manufacturers and pub-lishers. Similarly, top product bloggers who consistently attract consumer attention can make money, earn free pro-ducts, and even build up a career and become a celebrity through blogging (Faw 2012).Although online reviewers may desire to gain attention, it is not a trivial task since attention is arguably the most valuable and scarce resource on the Internet (Dahlberg 2005; Daven-port and Beck 2001; Goldhaber 1997). The ever-increasing amount of user-generated content creates a processing prob-lem for users seeking relevant and useful information and leads to a competition for attention (Hansen and Haas 2001; Hunt and Newman 1997; Ocasio 1997; Reuters 1998). Given the scarcity and value of attention, online reviewers are likely to compete for attention when contributing voluntarily to review systems.Drawing upon the aforementioned theories on online reputa-tion and consumer attention, this paper extends the literature on online product reviews by empirically investigating how incentives such as reputation and attention affect online reviewers’ behaviors. We argue that reviewers may write their reviews in such a way that it attracts the attention of other consumers. In particular, we study reviewers’ decisions on two levels. First, at the product level, given the status of the current review environment, we investigate the factors that affect a reviewer’s decision on whether to write a review for a particular product. Second, at the review level, we investi-gate factors that affect a reviewer’s rating decision on whether to differentiate from the current average rating based on the status of his/her online reputation.We use a rich data set of online reviews of books and elec-tronics collected from Amazon and Barnes & Noble (BN). The data was collected on a daily basis, which allows us to replicate the review environment when reviewers made the3Goldhaber (1997) has proposed an “attention economy” theory, stating that “obtaining attention is obtaining a kind of enduring wealth, a form of wealth that puts you in a preferred position to get anything this new economy offers.”684MIS Quarterly Vol. 39 No. 3/September 2015Shen et al./Online Reviewers’ Strategic Behaviorsreview decisions. In addition, different from most of the prior studies focusing on one product category and one website, our data set allows us to compare across product categories and across different review systems.Our results indicate that reviewers’ review decisions are affected by the existence of a reputation system that amplifies the effect of reputation and consumer attention. Our compar-ison across two different review systems confirms that reviewers’ behaviors become more strategic in providing reviews when there exists a reviewer ranking system that makes each reviewer’s reputation very quantifiable and visible. We find that reviewers on Amazon, where a reviewer ranking system exists, become sensitive to the competition among existing reviews and tend to avoid crowded review segments. In direct contrast, on the BN website, which does not include such a reviewer ranking system, reviewers do not respond to the competition effect. In addition, reviewers on Amazon post more differentiated ratings compared with reviewers on the BN website, presumably because Amazon’s reviewer ranking system makes each reviewer’s reputation very quantifiable and visible and intensifies the competition for attention. Our findings yield interesting managerial impli-cations for companies interested in encouraging online reviewers’ contributions and in managing review activities on their websites. We discuss these details in the “Discussion and Conclusion” section and provide guidance for managers so that they can improve the design of their review systems in order to fulfill different business needs and goals.The rest of the paper is organized as follows. We present the data and the empirical model used to address our research question. The following section reports our empirical findings and is followed by additional analysis on Amazon reviewers’ rating strategies. Finally, we discuss the mana-gerial implications in the last section.Empirical MethodologyDataThis study uses book reviews on and to study reviewers’ behaviors. We selected Amazon and BN as they are the two largest online book retailers and, most importantly, have two different review environments. Amazon offers a reviewer ranking sys-tem that ranks reviewers based on their contributions. The reviewer ranking system builds up online reputation for reviewers, allowing top reviewers to build their online reputa-tion and to consistently gain future attention. In contrast, BN does not offer such a reviewer ranking system, and thus does not allow reviewers to build reputation and consistently gain future attention. Therefore, reviewers should behave more strategically within Amazon’s environment than within BN’s. Our sample includes all books released in September and October 2010, resulting in a sample of 1,751 books. At the end of the data collection period, there are 690 books on Amazon and 460 books on BN having more than 2 reviews. We have a total of 10,195 reviews in the data set.The data in our sample includes daily information on books, reviews, and reviewers. For books, we collect the book’s release date and its daily sales rank, which will be used as a proxy of its popularity. For reviews, we collect the date when the review was posted, the reviewer’s user name (which could be a real name or a pen name), the review rating, and the total helpfulness vote (this is used as a proxy of the amount of attention a review has captured). The votes are collected daily. We then obtain the reviewer rank from each reviewer’s online profile on Amazon (Amazon ranks reviewers based on the number of reviews and the quality of their reviews4). One unique feature of our sample is that we collect all the review information starting from the release date of each book. Therefore, we are able to observe the dynamics of reviewers’strategies over the time period of the sample. The data spans a three-month period from September 2010 through November 2010.Finally, we randomly selected about 500 electronic products on Amazon, including laptops, netbooks, tablets, Blu-Ray players, GPSs, TVs, and digital cameras. This data set is used for cross category comparison in order to generalize our results from books to other product categories. The data collected in the electronic product dataset is similar to that of the book dataset. The results are reported in the section “Additional Analyses on Amazon Reviewers.”Empirical ModelThe problem for consumers of finding the most useful reviews can be solved if consumers can allocate a sufficient amount of time and effort to read through all of the reviews. However, given the limited time and attention each consumer is able to spend, it is unlikely that a consumer will be able to process all of the available reviews before purchase, as some items may4Amazon uses the ratio of (Helpful vote)/(Total vote) to measure the quality of a review. In addition, they claim that they consider the relative magnitude of the amount of the total vote at the same time.MIS Quarterly Vol. 39 No. 3/September 2015685Shen et al./Online Reviewers’ Strategic Behaviorshave literally hundreds of reviews (Chen et al. 2007; Forman et al. 2008). Consumers have to use heuristics to select a subset of the reviews to read rather than processing all of the reviews systematically (Forman et al. 2008). This constraint on consumers’ limited attention has implications for reviewers’ decisions on creating and posting reviews. Reviewers have to adopt the right strategy so as to compete for this scarce attention from consumers. The competition effect can be magnified when reviewers are able to quantify their online reputation through a reviewer ranking system. As mentioned above, with such a reputation system, reviewers are able to potentially monetize their online reputation and the amount of attention by receiving payments, free products, free travel or dinner offers, and even career opportunities (Coster 2006). Therefore, the competition for attention becomes more intense when there exists a reviewer ranking system to quan-tify a reviewer’s online reputation. The reviewer ranking system builds up online reputation for reviewers, allowing top reviewers to consistently gain future attention. In contrast, without a reviewer ranking system, reviewers are not able to build up reputation and consistently gain future attention. As a result, reviewers may behave more strategically so that they gain attention and enhance reputation when there is a mech-anism to quantify their online reputation.We study reviewers’ behaviors in two review mechanisms at two levels. At the product level, we study how two factors, popularity and crowdedness, affect a reviewer’s decision on whether to write a review for a product. At the review rating level, we study how reputation status affects reviewers’ deci-sions on whether to differentiate from the current consensus. Product ChoiceThe intention of this section is to study how two factors, popularity and crowdedness, affect reviewers’ decisions on choosing a product to review in two different review systems. In order to effectively compete for attention, reviewers may have to choose an appropriate product for which to post a review. This involves balancing the popularity of the product and the crowdedness of the review segment for that product. The popularity of a product is determined by the sales volume of the product. Since sales volume indicates the product awareness in the market (Godes and Mayzlin 2004, Liu 2006), it provides a good measurement of the amount of potential consumers who may pay attention to the reviews. Therefore, popularity indicates the total attention a product may attract. The crowdedness of a review segment is mea-sured by the number of preexisting reviews for the product. This measures the level of competition for attention in the review segment of that product.The data is unbalanced panel data for a three-month periodand is grouped at the book level. We construct a dependent variable, DailyReviewNumber, which is the count of the daily number of new reviews for each book. This variable directly measures how many reviewers choose to review a book each day knowing the popularity and the crowdedness of that book on that day. By understanding how these two factors can affect the arrival process of reviews, we can infer how reviewers make decisions based on these two factors in dif-ferent mechanisms.Since our dependent variable is a count variable, we cannot use the traditional ordinary least square model as the assump-tions of homoscedasticity and normal distribution of the errors are violated. A common model to account for the discrete and nonnegative nature of the count data is the Poisson model, which has been widely used in the marketing literature to study consumers’ purchasing behaviors (e.g., Dillon and Gupta 1996; Gupta 1988; Schmittlein et al. 1987; Wagner and Taudes 1986). We assume the arrival of reviews (i.e., the DailyReviewNumber) follows a Poisson distribution. Note that the Poisson model assumes equal mean and variance. Since we find over-dispersion in our data, we estimate a negative binomial distribution model that allows for over-dispersion of the count variable (Hausman et al. 1984).We performed the Hausman (1978) test to validate the use of a fixed effects model or a random effects model. The Haus-man test checks for violations of the assumption that the random effects specification is uncorrelated with the indepen-dent variables. Our result rejects the null hypothesis at the 1% significance level and is in favor of using a fixed effects model. Using a fixed effects model allows the error term to be correlated with the explanatory variables, making the estimation more robust. Moreover, it controls for the time-invariant unobserved characteristics, such as book quality or author name effects that are associated with each book, which may affect the arrival rate of the reviews.The independent variables include the natural log of book i’s sales rank at the previous day t-1(SalesRanki(t-1)) and the natural log of the number of existing reviews at the previousday t-1 (ReviewNumberi(t-1)). SalesRank measures the popu-larity of the book and ReviewNumber measures the crowdedness of the review segment for that book. We use the previous day SalesRank and ReviewNumber to directly estimate the impact of existing popularity and crowdedness on reviewers’ product choice decisions in the current period t. Amazon is a dummy variable that is 1 if the data is from Amazon and 0 if it is from BN. AmazonReviewNumber and AmazonSalesRank are interaction terms that measure the difference of main effects between the two mechanisms.686MIS Quarterly Vol. 39 No. 3/September 2015Shen et al./Online Reviewers’ Strategic BehaviorsOur model is different from the models used in the online review literature that try to assess the impact of online reviews on product sales. First, the dependent variable in our model is the daily count of new reviews rather than the cumulative number of reviews. This variable does not have the cumulative effect of reviews that could potentially drive product sales. Second, we use the previous period’s sales rank rather than the current or the following period’s sales rank. Even if the daily count of reviews potentially affects sales, it would not be able to affect the previous period’s sales. Therefore, our model does not contradict previous findings that the cumulative number of reviews can drive product sales. In addition, we calculate the variance inflation factor (VIF) value for every variable in all models to check for potential multicollinearity. All of the VIF values are below 10, suggesting no serious multicollinearity in our results (Hair et al. 1995; Marquardt 1970; Mason et al. 1989). One may still argue that the number of daily reviews could be affected by the cumulative sales volume. That is, the number of potential reviewers is proportional to the existing adopters who have already purchased the product. High cumulative sales volume indicates more potential reviewers and could lead to additional future daily reviews. To control for this effect, we construct a variable, PotentialReviewers, to account for the possibility that the increasing number of daily reviews is simply due to the increasing number of potential reviewers over time. Since the SalesRank is a good proxy for the sales volume, the cumulative SalesRank can be used as a reason-able proxy for the existing adopters which indicates the number of potential reviewers. However, the sales rank is negatively correlated with the sales volume (i.e., the smaller the sales rank, the higher the sales volume). We use the inverse of the SalesRank to account for this effect. PotentialReviewers i(t-1) is defined as the sum of the inverse of SalesRank from book i ’s release date to the previous day t-1:(1)()PotentialReviewers i t SalesRank tt i −=−= 111ιιwhere t 0 = the release date of book i , and t = the current date. We use PotentialReviewers i(t-1) to control for the size effect of potential reviewers on the daily number of reviews.Finally, reviewers may lose interest in writing reviews for products that have been released for some time. Their enthu-siasm for writing reviews may decay over time, which can affect the number of daily reviews at different time periods. We construct a variable DaysElapsed it to control for the time effect. DaysElapsed it is the number of days since book i 's release date. We include interaction terms AmazonPotential Reviewers and AmazonDaysElapsed in the model as well.Figure 1 summarizes the key variables in the model.Review Rating ChoiceThe purpose of studying a reviewer’s rating choice is to examine how reviewers offer ratings differently under the two review systems. Reviewers may post more differentiated ratings when there is a reviewer ranking system to quantify their online reputation than when there is no such system. We use RatingDeviation ij(t-1) as the dependent variable to investi-gate reviewers’ rating behaviors. It is the squared difference between the average rating for book i at time t-1 and reviewer j ’s rating; that is, RatingDeviation ij(t-1) = (AvgRating i(t-1) –Rating ij )2. This variable measures the distance from the focal rating to the average rating. Therefore, it indicates how dif-ferentiated the rating is. A large value of RatingDeviation implies that the reviewer is trying to differentiate from others while a value close to zero indicates that the reviewer is fol-lowing the mass opinion. We estimate the following model by using data on the day before the review is posted (i.e., time t-1). Using data on the previous day allows us to replicate the environment when reviewers make rating decisions. β1, the coefficient of the dummy variable Amazon ij , is expected to be positive as reviewers on Amazon would post more differ-entiated ratings than those on BN. Meanwhile, we control for the effects of popularity and crowdedness at the book level.(2)()()()RatingDeviation Amazon SalesRank ij t ij i t i t ijt−−−=++++1012231ββββεReviewNumber ResultsWe estimate our empirical models using unbalanced panel data over a period of three months. The negative binomial distribution models are estimated via the maximum likelihood method. Table 1 provides descriptions of all variables and Table 2 summarizes the descriptive statistics for the relevant variables. Note that Rating and RealName are time invariant variables. All of the other variables change every day.Table 3 presents the fixed effects panel data estimation results for the model of choosing a book to review. Both coefficients of SalesRank are negative and significant at the 1% signifi-cance level for Amazon and BN as in columns (1) and (2),indicating that the more popular the book, the more potential buyers are aware of the product. Regardless of a reviewer ranking system, an individual review is able to share from more total attention. As a result, more reviewers will review the book (i.e., the coefficient for SalesRank is negative). NoteMIS Quarterly Vol. 39 No. 3/September 2015687Shen et al./Online Reviewers’ Strategic BehaviorsVariableDescriptionVariables regarding booksDailyReviewNumber it The number of reviews that book i receives at day tReviewNumber it The natural log of the cumulative number of reviews of book i from its release date to day t SalesRank it The natural log of the sales rank of book i at day tAmazon iA dummy variable which indicates whether a book is on Amazon or BN 1 = book i is on Amazon 0 = book i is on BNPotentialReviewers it The sum of the inverse of SalesRank from book i ’s release date to day t DaysElapsed it The number of days from book i’s release date to day tVariables regarding reviewsRatingDeviation ijt The square of the difference between the rating of review j of book i and the average rating at day tRating ij †The rating of review j of book i (one-to-five scale)Variables for Amazon onlyDailyTotalVote ijt The number of votes that review j of book i receives at day tDailyUnhelpfulVote ijt The number of unhelpful votes that review j of book i receives at day tTotalVote ijtThe cumulative number of votes that review j of book i receives from the day it posted to day t TotalUnhelpfulVote ijt The cumulative number of unhelpful votes that review j of book i receives from the day it posted to day tReviewerRank jt The natural log of the reviewer’s reviewer rank of review j of book i at day tRealname j†A dummy variable measuring the real name identity of the reviewer of review j of book i 1 = the reviewer uses a real name,0 = the reviewer uses a pen name.†Variables are time invariant.688MIS Quarterly Vol. 39 No. 3/September 2015Shen et al./Online Reviewers’ Strategic BehaviorsVariable N Mean Std. Dev.Min Max DailyReviewNumber 83,644.179 1.2930231 ReviewNumber83,644 1.419 1.1260 6.059 SalesRank83,6449.558 2.384.69315.438 PotentialReviewers83,644 3.656 2.761.06638.934 Amazon83,644.485.50001 RatingDeviation461,004 1.024 1.833015.793 DailyTotalVote461,004.083.7270248 DailyUnhelpfulVote461,004.032.5360236 TotalVote461,004 6.15420.8170925 TotalUnhelpfulVote461,004 2.22513.1020885Amazon(1)BN(2)Amazon & BN(3)SalesRanki(t-1)†-.460**(.023)-.668**(.051)-.668**(.051)ReviewNumberi(t-1)†-.073**(.014).473**(.031).473**(.031)PotentialReviewersi(t-1)†.165**(.023).129**(.036).129**(.036)DaysElapsedit -.018**(.001)-.036**(.002)-.036**(.002)AmazonSalesRanki(t-1)†.207**(.056)AmazonReviewNumberi(t-1)†-.547**(.035)AmazonPotentialReviewersi(t-1)†.035(.043)AmazonDaysElapsedi(t-1).018** (.003)Amazoni 1.786** (.143)N40,56826,53367,101 Log likelihood-21627.664-4981.676-26609.34Note: **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05†Variables are normalized using the following formula to allow comparison across two sites:(Variable – Mean)/Std. Devthat after controlling for the effect from the number of potential reviewers, we still observe a significant effect for popularity.Next, the higher the number of preexisting reviews indicating a higher level of crowdedness, the more severe the competi-tion for attention. Consequently, when there is a reviewer ranking system, we find that fewer reviewers will choose to review a book as the review segment becomes crowded (i.e., the coefficient of ReviewNumber is negative for Amazon). This indicates that reviewers tend to avoid crowded review segments so as to reduce the competition for attention. Note that after controlling for the time decay effect, we still observe a significant negative impact from crowdedness on aMIS Quarterly Vol. 39 No. 3/September 2015689。
