1.Pragmatics can be defined in various ways. A general definition is that it is the
study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be defined as the study of language in use.
2.Pragmatics vs. Semantics
The essential distinguish between semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.
3. Being essential to pragmatics, context is generally considered as constituted by the
knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. There‘re two types of shared knowledge: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense.
4.Sentence is a grammatical concept, its meaning is often studied as the abstract,
intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
5. Summary
1) Language meaning can be analyzed at several levels.
2) Semantics concentrates on the meaning that comes from linguistic knowledge, while pragmatics concentrates on those aspects of meaning that cannot be predicted by linguistic knowledge alone and takes into account our knowledge about the physical and social world.
3) The focus of pragmatic analysis is on the meaning of speakers‘ utterances rather than on the meaning of words or sentences.
4) Utterances need not consist of complete sentences. Each utterance is a unique physical event created at a particular point in time for a particular communicative purpose.
6. Entailment：a relationship between sentences that forms the basis for some of these inferences(推断).
7.You would need other, non-。linguistic, information about Tom’s mother and the
particular cat referred to here. These are sometimes labeled as Synthetic Sentence. Synthetically True/ False
8.The term paraphrase is used in semantics when there is a relationship of mutual entailment between two sentences.
9.Summary:
1)All sentences have a number of entailments,
——other sentences which are automatically true if the original sentence is true, then ?other sentences‘ are the entailments of ?the original sentence‘.
2) Entailments are inferences that can be drawn solely from our knowledge about the semantic relationships in a language.
3) This knowledge allow us to communicate much more than we actually ?say‘.
10.Declarative sentences typically function as ?statement‘.Such as you ran away with you the Subject and ran the Verb
In imperative sentences, which typically function as ?commands‘, there is no subject present although it is ?understood‘ as you as in Run away!
Interrogative sentences typically fu nction as ?questions‘.
11.Analyzing the relation of entailment
1）If X is true, Y is necessarily true
2) If X is false, Y may be true or false
3) If Y is true, X may be true or false
4) If Y is false, X is false
12.For presupposition, the key point is that if X
presupposes Y, Y is a presupposition of X
1) If X is true, Y must be true
2) If X is false, Y is still true
3) If Y is true, X is either true or false
4) If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X
13.Notice that possessives lead to a particularly strong Presupposition about the existence of the choc olate cake, and in addition lead to the presupposition that ?Annie has a chocolate cake‘. This basic type
of presupposition is sometimes called an Existential Presupposition.
Here regret in a) triggers the presupposition that what follows is a ?fact‘. This kind of presuppositions sometimes are called Factive
presupposition./ Non-factive Presupposition
Some subjunctive constructions like if I were you…are not only not untrue but even the opposite of the true, or contrary to the facts, they are usually called Counter-factual presupposition
Actually, presuppositions triggered by any words can all be called Lexical Presuppositions while those triggered by any structures can all be called Structural Presuppositions.
14. Summary:
1.We have described presuppositions as inferences about what is assumed in an
utterance rather than directly asserted.
2.Presuppositions are closely linked to the words and grammatical structures
that are actually used in the utterance and our knowledge about the way language users conventionally interpret them.
3.Presuppositions can be drawn even when there is little or no surrounding
context.
15. A conversational implicature is, therefore, something which is implied in conversation, that is, something which is left implicit in actual language use.
16.As we see from the above example, a logical implication does not have to correspond to what in everyday life we understand by ?implies‘. In the above case, we would say that my nephew‘s not cutting the hedge ?implied‘ his not getting a din ner, just like his cutting ?implies‘ his being taken out. However, logic and everyday life do not always look at things the same way. This is why we need another term: in addition to the logical implications, we will speak of conversational implicatures.
16.The Cooperative principle
Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
1. The maxim of quantity
Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange)
2. The maxim of quality
* Do not say what you believe to be false
* Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
3. The maxim of relation
* be relevant
4. The maxim of manner
* Avoid obscurity of expression
* Avoid ambiguity
* Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity)
* Be orderly
17.violation rather than a flouting of the maxim/openly failed
18.According to Grice, conversational implicatures can only be worked out on the basis of the CP.
1.Unlike presuppositions and entailments, implicatures are inferences that cannot be made from isolated utterances. They are dependent on the context of the utterance and shared knowledge between the speaker and the hearer.
2. Grice has proposed a way of analyzing implicatures based on the co-operative principle and its maxims of relevance, quality, quantity and clarity.
3. In Grice‘s analysis, the speaker‘s flouting of a maxim combined with the hearer‘s
assumption that the speaker has not really abandoned the co-operative principle leads to an implicature.
19.Actually, all the imlicatures are based on the quantity of information offered by the speaker. Scalar Implicatures(级差含义)
Generalized Conversational Implicautures (普遍性的会话含义)
Particularized Conversational Implicatures (特定性的会话含义).
Generalized implicatures can be drawn with very little ?inside‘ knowledge among speaker and hearer. That is, If you heard a tape recording of the conversation but knew nothing about the participants or the physical characteristics of the context, you could still draw those implicatures. They are closely connected to the degree of informativeness that we normally expect a speaker‘s utterance to provide.
Scalar implicatures are a special type of generalized implicature where the inference is made by reference to a scale of values, one of which has been chosen
by the speaker. The speaker‘s choice implicates ?not the higher values.
Particularized implicatures require not only general knowledge but also knowledge which is particular or ?local‘ to the speaker and the hearer, and often to the physical context of the utterance as well.
20.Both generalized and particularized implicatures differ from presuppositions in that they sound much less contradictory when they are cancelled by the speaker. 21. Characteristics of implicature
1. Calculability (可推导性)
2.Cancellability (可取消性)
3. Non-detachability
So A conversational implicature is not detachable, because saying the same thing in another way usually carries the same implicature.
4.Non-conventionality (非常规性)
So it is clear from the examples, entailment is part of the conventional meaning. Entailment is determinate. In contrast, implicature is indeterminate, which varies with the context. And this is sometimes seen as another
5.Indeterminacy (不确定性)
A conversational implicature is indeterminate to varying degrees. In many cases,
the list of possible implicatures of an utterance is open.
22.Speech act theory （简介）
is the first major theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John L. Austin in the late 50‘s o f the 20th century.
23.Performatives refer to sentences that do 。not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
Constatives vs Performatives
Instead of stating something, the speaker, when uttering these sentences, is actually doing something. In contrast, Constatives refer to statements that describe, and are thus verifiable.
Maybe just because the problems in the study of performatives and constatives caused Austin gave up his initial distinction between performatives and constatives. He thought that stating was also a kind of act, among many others, that we could
perform with language.
So he set up another model
The theory of Speech Act
i.Locutionary act (发话行为)
locutinary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
ii. Illocutionary act （行事行为）
An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker‘s in tention, it is the act performed in saying something.
while the former force, or illocutionary force may be interpreted as the equivalent of speaker’s meaning, contextual meaning or extra-meaning, similar to Chinese ―言外之意‖.Never translate ?illocutionary act‘ into Chinese ?言外之意‘，since the prefix –il here means ―in or within‖ , not ―not‖.
iii. perlocutionary act （取效行为）
A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the act performed by saying something.
1、什么是语用学 答：语用学，即语言实用学，是研究语言运用及其规律的科学。它研究在特定的情境中的特定话语，特别是研究在不同的语言交际环境下如何理解语言和语言运用。包括话语的交际过程、话语的交际原则、制约话语交际的各种因素、怎样准确而又得体地进行表达、怎样对话语进行准确的理解以及语体和风格等一系列内容。 2、语用学的三大要素 答：话语实体、语用主体、语言环境三大要素。核心要素、内部要素——话语实体(内容)——客体；外部要素——语用主体（人）和语言环境；话语的意义和内容是语用研究的核心。 3、言语行为（直接/间接）P12 答：（1）言语行为理论由英国哲学家奥斯汀提出来的。在他的《论言语行为》一书中，提出了三种言语行为。①言内行为：通过话语字面意义来达到某种思想的发话行为。②言外行为：除字面意义外,还伴随着说话人强烈的心理意向,如承诺、请求、指令、宣告、威胁等等。这些主观意图可由行事动词在话语表层显露。③言后行为：说话人欲通过话语取得某种效果 例如：周朴园：窗户谁叫打开的(曹禺《雷雨》) 从言内行为看——表示询问；从言外行为看——暗含“把窗户关上”的意思；从言后行为看——鲁侍萍听出了他的意思，“很自然地走到窗户前，关上窗户。” （2）美国语用学家塞尔对奥斯汀的理论做了新的发展。他区分了直接言语行为和间接言语行为。 P15 ①直接言语行为：有行事动词出现的、一目了然的行为。 ②间接言语行为则包含下面的多种情况：语言表层没有明确表示心理意向的行事动词的言语行为；通过一种言语行为来间接地执行另外一种言语行为；一段具体的话语可以表示多种不同的言语行为。换言之，某一个言语行为可以有多种不同含义。 4、话语P25 答：话语是语用的基本单位，能表达说话人想要表达的意思，具有完整的交际功能的语言片段。 5、语用原则（合作/礼貌）P16 答：目前讨论较多的语用原则为：合作原则和礼貌原则 (一)合作的原则——美国哲学家、语用学家格赖斯1967年提出，简称CP原则（cooperation principle）。 （1）质的原则。要求说话人的话是真实的，有根据的，不能自相矛盾或虚假。这是“说什么”的问题。 （2）量的原则。要求说话人提供给听者的信息量既足够又不超出。这是“说多少”的问题。（3）关系原则。要求所说的话要紧扣话题，同交际意图密切关联。这是说“为什么说”的问题。（4）方式原则。要求话语清楚明白，简洁，井井有条。这是“如何说”的问题。 (二)礼貌的原则——英国语言学家利奇1983年提出，简称PP原则（politeness principle）（1）得体的:减少有损于他人的观点,增大有益于他人的观点。 （2）宽容的:减少有益于自己的观点,增大有损于自己的观点。 （3）表扬的:减少对他人的贬降,增大对他人的赞誉。 （4）谦逊的:减少对自己的赞誉,增大对自己的贬降。 （5）同意的:减少与他人在观点上的不一致，增大与他人在观点上的共同点。 （6）同情的:减少对他人的反感,增大对他人的同情。 （三）其他小类原则 P18 主要还有荷恩级差原则；列文森三原则；斯波柏、威尔逊的关联原则。还有顺序的原则，同现的原则，角色关系的原则，选择的原则等。 6、语用预设（前提）
1. The study of language development over a period of time is generally termed as _____linguistics. D A. applied B. diachronic C. comparative D. synchronic 2. The sentence that has a NP and a VP can be shown in a __C__ formula "S→NP VP". A. hierarchical B. linear C. tree diagram D. vertical 3. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? A A. [p] B.[m] C.[b] D.[t] 4. The words ―make‖ and ―bus‖ are called _____D____because they can occur unattached. A. derivational morphemes B .inflectional morphemes C. bound morphemes D. free morphemes 5. The pair of words ―lend‖ and ―borrow‖ are____B______. A. gradable antonymy B. relational (converse) antonymy C. synonyms D. co-hyponyms 6. The semantic components of the word ―man‖ can be expressed as ____C___. A.＋animate,＋human,＋male,－adult; B.＋animate,＋human,－male,－adult; C.＋animate,＋human,＋male,＋adult D.—animate,＋human,－male,－adult 7. What kind of function does the sentence ―How do you do?‖ have? B A. Directive B. Phatic C. Informative D. Evocative 8. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as_______A____. A. lexical words B. grammatical words C. function words D. form words 9. Which of the following best states the behaviorist view of child language acquisition?______A_. A. Language acquisition is a process of habit formation B. Language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings C. Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language D. Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use 10. The branch of linguistics that studies meaning of language in context is called __C? A. morphology B. sociolinguistics C. pragmatics D. psycholinguistics 11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.
I.Define the following terms: (15%) 5个 II.Indicate the following statement true or false, mark “T”for the true statements and “F” for the false. (10%) 10题 III.From A, B, C and D, choose the appropriate one to complete the following statements. (20%) 20题 IV.Fill in the blanks with the following word which completes the statements. (20%) 20题 V.Answer the following questions. (35%) 四题 1. Give the description of the following sound segments in English. (5%) Exampl e：[i] front mid-high unrounded short 2. Pick out ten minimal pairs from the following words. (10%) 3. Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences by providing two sentences that paraphrase the multiple meanings. (10%) 4. Answer the questions (10%) 复习题 1. Language is passed on from one generation to the next through , rather than by instinct. A. learning B. teaching C. learning and teaching D. acquisition 2.Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementarity? . A. Lend/Borrow B. Single/Married C. Hot/Cold D. Old/Young 3. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? . A. [p] B. [m] C. [b] D.[r] 4. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to使发生，引起.
2017年10月现代汉语真题—、单项选择题：本大题共20小题，每小题1分，共20分。在每小题列出的备选项中只有一项是最符合题目要求的，请将其选出。 1.【题干】汉语没有丰富的形态变化，属于（）。 【选项】 A．屈折语 B．黏着语 C．孤立语 D．混合语 【答案】C 【解析】C：孤立语：没有丰富的形态变化。 A：屈折语：句子中某些词本身有丰富的形态变化。如“德语” B：黏着语：句子中某些词的形态变化表现为在词的前后附有词缀。如“日语”。D：混合语：在一定社会条件下形成的两种或多种语言的混合体。 【考点】语法方面的主要特点 2.【题干】决定语音与其他声音之不同的属性是（）。 【选项】 A．社会性质 B．生理性质 C．物理性质 D．个体性质
【解析】语音作为语言必不可少的要素之一，必须表达一定的意义，什么样的语音表达什么样的意义，是使用该语言的全体社会成员约定俗成的。因此语音具有物理、生理、社会三方面的性质，其中社会属性是语音的本质属性。 【考点】语音的性质 3.【题干】下列各词，两个音节声母不同的是（）。 【选项】 A．意义 B．字纸 C．历来 D．扭捏 【答案】B 【解析】A：“意义”为零声母；C：“历来”声母均为“L”；D:“扭捏”声母均为“n”；B：“字”声母为“z”，“纸”声母为“zh” 【考点】声母的发音 4.【题干】下列各词，两个音节都属于撮口呼韵母的是（）。 【选项】 A．需求 B．温度 C．学院 D．鱼嘴 【答案】C
【解析】撮口呼：有韵头ü的，或韵腹是ü的韵母。A：“需”为撮口呼，“求”为齐齿呼；B：“温”“度”均为合口呼，D：“鱼”为撮口呼，“嘴”合口呼。 【考点】韵母的分类 5.【题干】下列音节，调值为51的是（）。 【选项】 A．前 B．春 C．比 D．去 【答案】D 【解析】调值51为“去声”，A调值为35；B调值为55，C调值为214 【考点】调值和调类 6.【题干】“不”的读法与其余三项不同的是（）。 【选项】 A．不是 B．决不 C．不好 D．不多 【答案】A 【解析】“不”在词尾或非去声前，读本调“去声”，在去声前读阳平。 【考点】变调
社会语言学的研究对象 （一）定义和解释 社会语言学（sociolinguistics）是联系社会各种因素对语言进行的研究，探讨语言在社会环境中的变化、功能及其使用的一般规律。 概括来说对语言的研究大致有四个角度：部研究、外部研究、比较研究、应用研究。 社会语言学属于对语言的外部研究，但并不是纯粹的外部研究。 （二）研究对象的不同界定 1.布莱特（美国）1964 （1）说话人的身份； （2）听话人的身份； （3）言语事件的社会环境； （4）社会方言的分析； （5）言语行为的社会评价； （6）语言变异的程度； （7）社会语言学的实际应用。 2.礼德（英国） （1）语言宏观社会学、语言人口统计学； （2）双语、多语、多方言研究； （3）语言规、语言发展和规化； （4）语言混合； （5）社会方言； （6）社会语言学和教学； （7）言语的人种史、语言环境； （8）语域和言语能力； （9）语言变化的社会因素； （10）语言和社会化及其传播； （11）社会语言学的方法； （12）语言体系的功能理论； （13）语言相对性； （14）话语理论； （15）人种方法论的语言学。 3.祝畹瑾《社会语言学概论》（1992） 总的来说，社会语言学研究的对象主要包括五个方面： （1）一个国家或地区的语言状况如双语、多语或多方言状况，以及各类言语共同体使用语言的状况和特征； （2）各类语言变体的构造特点及其社会功能； （3）社会以及不同集团对各种语言或语言变体的评价和态度以及由此产生的社会效应；（4）由于社会、文化、经济、政治等原因以及语言接触所引起的语言变化的方式和规律；（5）交际情景与选择语码之间的关系以及语码选择与人际关系的相互作用。 4.戴庆厦《社会语言学概论》（2004） （1）社会因素（阶级、阶层、职业等）对语言结构的影响； （2）个人因素（年龄、性别、性格等）对语言的影响； （3）语言政策、双语等； （4）社会因素引起的语言关系，如语言接触、语言融合；
题型：填空题10，20%；选择题10，20%；判断4，20%（3句话解释原因）；简答3，18%（四句话作答）；论述1，22%（1/4页纸作答）。 导论 1、中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语言文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。 2、中国传统语言研究主要抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵和训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 3、历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经发展成为一门独立的学科。 4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出观点，语言学从此成为一门现代学科。 5、理论语言学，也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。 第一章语言的功能 1、语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着紧密联系。 2、语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。 3、如果一个病人大脑左半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出医院的名称、病房、床号，却能找得到。相反，如果大脑右半球受损，尽管能找到医院的名称、病房、床号，却找不到，能说出家的位置却找不到，这说明语言功能存在大脑左边。 4、儿童学习语言的过程是考察语言与思维关系的一条很好途径。 5、儿童语言的习得一定具有先天生理基础，也离不开外界的社会条件。 6、儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，最迟到十二三岁，如果在此之前没有机会学习语言，那么之后其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了。十二三岁是语言习得的关键时期，之一临界期的分工时间也是一致的。 第二章语言是符号系统 1、符号包含形式和意义两个方面。（能指形式，形指意义，符号构成的两个方面，语言学上通常用形式和意义来表述。形式也叫能指，是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，因而形式具有物质性。意义也叫所指，是符号形式所代表的内容，也就是现实现象事物。） 2、符号的形式和意义之间是没有本质上、自然属性上的必要联系，在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然的征候不同。 3、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家家得·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出来的。 4、语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只有社会约定的关系 5、符号和符号组合起来，结构中各个成分的关系称为组合关系，符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。 第三章语音和音系 1、语音具有自然属性、社会属性的双重属性，从自然属性出发，针对所有人类语言的语音研究，属于语音学的研究；从社会属性出发，针对语音在某一个具体语言的系统中其什么作用的研究，属于音系学的研究。 2、音系学的出发点在于语音在语言系统中的组织方式，属于语言学的核心部分。 3、以语音的自然属性和人类语言共性为研究对象的语音学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音素。以语音的社会属性和语音在具体语言中的作用为研究对象的音系学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音位。
本次考试共四种题型：填空题、名词解释、简答题、应用题 填空题：（举例如：）（每空1分，共10分） 1.语用学源于哲学家对语言的探索。“语用学”这一术语是由美国哲学家（莫里斯）于1938年首先提出的。 2. 1977年，(《语用学杂志》)在荷兰正式出版发行，“语用学成为语言学的一门独立新兴学科”最终得到认可。 名词解释：（每个4分，共20分） ?语用学：研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当地表达和准确地理解，寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当地表达和准确地理解的基本原则和准则。 ?语境：语境是人们运用自然语言进行言语交际的言语环境。语境是人们在语言交际中理解和运用语言所依赖的各种表现为言辞的上下文或不表现为言辞的主观因素。 ?指示词语：指示词语就是表示指示信息的词语。？ ?隐性施为句：人们在言语交际中实际上更经常使用一些不那么明确、不那么特定的语言手段来实施某种行为。 ?优选结构：相邻对中所有可能跟始发语配对的应答语并不具有同等地位，有一组优选结构在起作用，即各种可能的应答语中至少有一类是“合意的”（即听话人的应答能满足说话人发话的期待），有一类是“不合意的”（即听话人的应答不是说话人所期待的）。 ?预示序列：说话人在以言行事之前用以探听虚实的一类话语。说话人使用这类话语的主要动机是考察有无向听话人实施某一言语行为的可能性，即说话人实施某一言语行为能否从听话人那里得到“期待的”反应。 ?会话含义：格赖斯将会话含义分为两类：一般性会话含义和特殊性会话含义。一般性会话含义：不需要特殊语境就能推导出来的含义。特殊性会话含义：需要依赖特殊语境才能推导出来的含义。？ ?直接言语行为：字面意义和说话意图相吻合，也就是句子的结构和功能之间存在着直接的关系。 ?间接言语行为：人们是通过间接的表达方式实现说话的意图，也可以说句子的结构和功能之间存在着间接的关系
第一节语言的本质 一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features） 1.任意性 Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的 声音，各国不同的表达方式 2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning） 3.多产性productive: 语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层 结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences） 4.移位性 Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将 来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等 5.文化传播性 Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中 掌握 二、语言的功能（Functions of Language） 1.传达信息功能 Informative：最主要功能The main function 2.人际功能 Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能 establish and maintain their identity 3.行事功能 performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge， naming，and curses 4.表情功能 Emotive Function：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句 exclamatory expressions 5.寒暄功能 Phatic Communion：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？” “天儿真好啊！”等等 6.元语言功能 Metalingual Function：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如 book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的 “书” 三、语言学的分支 1. 核心语言学 Core linguistic 1)语音学 Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语 言中的单音。Its main focus is on the articulation， transmission and reception of human sounds， especially isolated sounds 2)音位学Phonology：从功能的角度出发对出现在某种特定语言中的语音及其 组合、分布规律进行研究的语言学分支。The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns from function perspective. 3)形态学 Morphology：研究单词的内部构造the internal structure of words 4)句法学 Syntax：研究组词造句的规则the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.
1. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do nobody language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language 答：On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means OK/YES for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying NO. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant. 2. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive What’s your comment on them (1)Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind. (2)colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people. (3)civilized : This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world. 答：They are undoubtedly descriptive, Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way antisexist advocators speak and write. 3.(1)What organs are involved in speech production 答：Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the luns, the trachea, the throat, the nose, and the mouth. (2)Why did George Bernard Shaw say he could spell the word ‘fish’ as ‘ghoti’ 答：This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in ‘enough’, o as [I] in women, and ti as [?] in nation. (3)How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels 答：Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. (4)To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ 答：Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. (5)’Assimilation is often used synonymously with coarticulation’. Discuss. 答：Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation,
英语语言学练习----语用学 一、Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false. 1.The contextual view is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense. ( ) 2.Pragmatics is related to and also different from semantics. ( ) 3.The notion of context is not important to the pragmatic study of language. ( ) 4.All utterances take the form of sentences. ( ) 5.Speech act theory was proposed by the British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s. ( ) 6.Grice made a distinction between what he called “constatives” and “performatives”. () 7.A locutionary act is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. ( ) 8.In their study of language communication, linguists are only interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and pay no attention to how his intention is recognized by the hearer. ( ) 9.Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. ( ) 10.The Cooperative principle was proposed by John Searle. ( ) 11.There are four maxims under the Cooperative principle. ( ) 12.The violations of the maxims make our language indirect. ( ) 13.All the utterances take the form of sentences. ( ) 14.Austin thought that stating was also a kind of act, and that we can perform with language. ( )
一、Antonymy（反义词）：（书本P70） 1.Gradable antonyms（分程度反义词）：a matter of degree. eg. Old—middle-aged—younghot-warm-cold https://www.doczj.com/doc/6618631954.html,plementary antonyms（互补关系）：a matter of degree between two extremes. eg. Alive—dead; male—female 3.relational opposites（关系反义词）：pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items. eg. father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient；buy-sell；above-below 二、Paul Grice（保罗·格莱斯）提出的两个概念（书本P86） 1.conventional implicature（规约含意，约定俗成的）：is based on the conventional meaning of certain words in the language. eg. He is rich but he is not greedy. 2.particularized conversational implicature（特殊规约隐涵）：is inferred by the hearer with reference to the context of communication. eg. A：Where is the steak? B：The dog looks very happy. 三、Charles Hockett（霍凯特）提出的人类语言的识别特征之一（书本P8） Arbitrariness（随意性）：There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. eg. Rumble, crash, cackle, bang 四、Free morpheme（可独立存在的）：a morpheme which can be a word by itself. eg. boy（书本P33） 五、新构词（书本P99） 1.blending（拼缀，紧缩法）：a blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words. eg. Smog --- smoke+fog; motel---- motor+hotel 2.acronyms（首字母缩写，词首字母缩略法）：are words derived from the initials of several words eg.IT-----information technology; CPI---- consumer price index 六、Languageaptitude（语言能力倾向，语言学能）：the natural ability for learning a second language.（书本P164） 七、Semantic Changes（语意变化）：（书本P102） 1.semantic broadening（扩展，意思越来越广，语义扩大化） 2.semantic narrowing（意思变小） 3.semantic shift（转换） 八、indirect speech act（间接言语行动）：which aimed to explain indirect language in the light of the speech act theory.（书本P84-85） 1.The primary speech act is the speaker’s goal of communication while the secondary
一. What is language? 1. Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat. Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen”by any other name is the thing we use to write with. Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare Vocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries. The design/defining /distinctive features of human language: Arbitrariness (任意性） Productivity/Creativity(创造性） Duality （二元性、二层性） Displacement （移位性） Cultural transmission（文化传递性） 2.语言&言语 Langue--- the language system shared by a community of speakers Parole--- the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker. 3. Synchronic vs. diachronic Synchronic (linguistics)---languages are studied at a theoretic point in time: one describes a ‘state’of language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place. Diachronic----languages are studied from point of view of their historical development –for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological, grammatical and semantic terms. 二．语音学（选择题） 三．音位学Phonology 1.音位变体 Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. 同一音位在不同环境中表现出来的两个或多个语音上不同的音段. 例如，在英语里，音位/t/在tin里是送气的[th], 在stand里是不送气的[t]，在eighth里是齿化的[t],在cotton里是鼻除阻的[tn]，在bottle里是边除阻的[tl],在hit里则表现为声门化的[t]. 此外，随着说话人口音的不同，可能还会有其他的语音形式. 这样一套在说话人话语中的语音形式就是音位/t/的音位变体. 把两个音素划归成同一音位的两个音位变体必须满足语音相似性原则，而且它们不能处于对比分布. [p, ph] are two different phones 音子and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution 互补分布because they never occur in the same context: [p] occurs after [s] while [ph] occurs in other places. /p/ [p] / [s] _____
I. Put the following English terms into Chinese. (1'×10＝10') 所指对象referent 所指论Referential theory 专有名词proper name 普通名词common nouns 固定的指称记号rigid designators 指称词语deixical items 确定性描述语definite descriptions 编码时间coding-time 变异性variability 表示反复的词语iterative 表述句constative 补救策略redressive strategies 不可分离性non-detachability 不确定性indeterminacy 不使用补救策略，赤裸裸地公开施行面子威胁行bald on record without redressive actions 阐述类言语行为representatives 承诺类言语行为commissives 指令类言语行为directives 表达类言语行为expressives, 宣告类言语行为declarations 诚意条件sincerity condition
次要言外行为secondary illocutionary act 等级含义scalar implicature 等级划分法rating scales 副语言特征paralinguistic features 非公开施行面子威胁行为off record 非规约性non-conventionality 非规约性意义non-conventional implicature 非论证性的non-demonstrative 非自然意义non-natural meaning (meaning-nn) 否定测试法negation test 符号学semiotics 构成性规则constitutive rules 古典格莱斯会话含义理论Classical Gricean theory of conversational implicature 关联论Relevance Theory 关联原则Principle of Relevance 归属性用法attributive use 规约性含义conventional implicature 人际修辞interpersonal rhetoric 篇章修辞textual rhetoric 含蓄动词implicative verbs 合适条件felicity conditions 呼语vocatives