Chapter 2：Phonology
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.
2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.
3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.
4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.
5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.
6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.
7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.
8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.
9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.
10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.
11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.
12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.
13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.
14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.
15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.
16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.
17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.
18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.
19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.
20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:
21． A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.
22．A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.
23．The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, , they are all b_______ sounds. 24．Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.
25．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.
26．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.
27．S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.
28．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules. 29．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.
30．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.
31．P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.
32．The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.
33．T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.
34．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.
III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
35．Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.
A. mouth
B. lips
C. tongue
D. vocal cords
36．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.
A. voiceless
B. voiced
C. vowel
D. consonantal
37．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.
A. /z/
B. /d/
C. /k/
D./b/
38．The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.
A. identical
B. same
C. exactly alike
D. similar
39．Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.
A. in phonemic contrast
B. in complementary distribution
C. the allophones
D. minimal pair
40．The sound /f/ is _________________.
A. voiced palatal affricate
B. voiced alveolar stop
C. voiceless velar fricative
D. voiceless labiodental fricative
41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.
A. back
B. central
C. front
D. middle
42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.
A. phonetic components
B. immediate constituents
C. suprasegmental features
D. semantic features
43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
A. phone
B. sound
C. allophone
D. phoneme
44．The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.
A. phones
B. sounds
C. phonemes
D. allophones
Suggested answers to supplementary exercises
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. T
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:
21. Aspiration 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place
26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation
31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentence
III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
IV. Define the terms below:
45. phonology 46. phoneme
48. international phonetic alphabet
49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics
52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56.
minimal pair
V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:
57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing？
58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels？
59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics？
60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.
61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not
Suggested answers to supplementary exercises
IV. Define the terms below:
45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.
49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages
51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.
52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.
53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.
54. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.
55. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
56. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs
in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary: 57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing？
1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.
2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.
3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.
58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels？
1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.
2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.
3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.
4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.
59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics？
They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.
1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.
2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.”for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the
possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.
3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.
61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not？
A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.
Unit 2 The Sounds of English I. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false: 1 Of the three phonetics branches, the longest established one, and until recently the most highly developed, is acoustic phonetics 2. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning. 3 sound(p)in the word “spit” is an inspirited stop 4. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories. 5 super segmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence 6. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning. 7 The airstream provided by the lungs has undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound 8. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast. 9 Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce different word, but merely a different pronunciation 10. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific. 11. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. 12. [i:] and [i] are allophones of the same phoneme. 13. Not all English phonemes have allophones. Note: /N/ and /j/ occur in one single position and therefore do not have allophones.
第二章音系学 1．语言的声音媒介 语言的形式有声音和文字。在这两种媒介中，声音是语言最基本的媒介，是第一性的。这是因为在语言的发展过程中，声音媒介早于文字。文字是对声音的记录。在日常交际中，大量信息是通过口头交际来完成的，只有在无法进行口头交际的情况下人们才使用文字形式。除此之外，人们是通过声音媒介来习得自己的母语的。 2. 语音学 2．1什么是语音学 语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。 语音学有三个分支：发声语音学、听觉语音学和声学语音学。它们各有自己的侧重点但又互有联系。发声语音学主要研究语言使用者是如何使用发音器官发出语音，并对所发出的音进行分类。听觉语音学主要是从受话人的角度来研究语音，即语音是如何被受话人感知和理解的。声学语音学主要研究语音的物理特性。通过对语音声波的研究，声学语音学家得出了一些重要的结论。最为重要的结论，所说出的这些通常被认为是同一个话语，如果从声音的物理特性上去分析，其实它们的声波并不相同，只是由于它们之间存在的差异太小，是人耳所不能辨别的。如果它们的声波相同，这只是一种巧合。因此，语音的等同只是一种理论上的理想。 2．2发音器官 人类的发音器官存在于咽腔、口腔和鼻腔腔内。咽腔内最重要的发音器官是位于喉头的声带，发音时声带在气流的冲击下发生颤动决定了声音的浊音化（voicing）。浊音化是所有元音以及部分辅音，如[b],[g],[m]等所具有的特性。声带不发生颤动所发出的音是清音，如[t],[k],[f]等。声带颤动的频率决定了声音的高低。口腔中发音器官最多，有舌头、小舌、软腭、硬腭、齿龈隆骨、牙齿和嘴唇。其中舌头是最灵活、最重要的发音器官。发音时，来自肺部的气流在口腔中受到不同的阻碍，从而发出不同的音。 鼻腔和口腔相通。发音时软腭后移关闭鼻腔，气流只能从口腔通过，所发出的音没有鼻音化。但当鼻腔通道打开，允许气流从鼻腔通过，所发出来的音便是鼻音。 2．3音标——宽式和严式标音法 音标是在国际上被广为接受的一套对语音进行标音的标准符号体系。标音分为宽式和严式标音法。宽式标音法是用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式。严式标音法是一种使用变音符号的标音方式，旨在记录同一个音在不同的语音环境下所发生的细微的变化，如在star 和tar中的/t/的发音就不一样,前者/t/是不送气音，后者/t/是送气音。这些细微区别只有通过严式标音法才能表示。 2．4英语语音的分类 英语中的语音根据气流的受阻情况分为元音和辅音。气流没有受到任何阻碍所发出的音是元音；气流在口腔里受到不同方式的阻碍所发出的音是辅音。 2．4．1英语辅音的分类 根据发音方式，英语的辅音可以分为： 1）爆破音：发爆破音时，气流开始完全受阻，然后突然释放，如[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g] 2）摩擦音:发摩擦音时，气流部分受阻，气流从狭窄的通道挤出，产生摩擦，如[f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[ T ], [∫], [ V ], [h] 3）塞擦音:发塞擦音时，气流开始完全受阻，然后气流从狭窄通道缓慢释放，并伴有摩擦发生，如：[t∫], [dV ] 4）流音：在发流音时，受阻的气流从舌头与上部（roof of the mouth）形成的通道释放出，
第一章 All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a systm of semantics. 语音系统，词汇语法系统和语义系统。 Language is a means of verbal communication. Design Features of language: the features that define our human languages. 决定了语言性质特征叫定义特征 Design Features: Arbitratiness(任意性)：the froms of liguistic signs bear no natural relationsip to their meaning.语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联 系。 1\ Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and ists meaning语素音义关系的任意性 2\ Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法层面上的任意性。 Syntactic: the sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement. 句法学，是依据语法规定构建句子结 构的方法。 3\ Arbitrariness and convention 任意性和规约性 Duality（二层性）: is meant the propertry of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特 性，上层结构的单位底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合 规则。 Sound-the only function is to combine with one another to form units that have meaning相互组合构成有意义的单位。 Creativity（创造性）：is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. 源于二层性和递归性 Displacement(移位性)：human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.人类语言可以让使用者在交往 时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体时间或 观点。比如现在说孔子。 语言功能： 1. informative, also called ideational function. 信息功能也叫概念功能 2) Performative施为功能，is to change the social status of persons. 改变人 的社会地位，比如仪式。 3) Emotive Function感情功能 4) Phatic communion寒暄功能 5) Recreational Function娱乐功能
第二章 一,名词解释(10分,每词2分) 1.符号:就指代某种事物的标记,记号,它是由一个社会的全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的标记和记号. 2.语言符号的任意性指符号的形式和符号的内容的结合是偶然的,没有必然的关系.例如语言符号,语音形式和意义内容的结合就是任意的,没有本质的关系. 3.二层性:语言是由一定的单位按照一定的层级组成的,可分为音位层和符号层,其音位层和符号层我们合称为语言的二层性. 4.组合关系:两个同一性质的结构单位(如音位与音位,词与词等等)按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系. 5.聚合关系:语言结构某一位置上能够互相替换的具有某种相同作用的单位(如音位,词)之间的关系. 二,填空题(20分,每空1分) 1.形式 意义 2.意义 形式 3.语音 意义 形式 4.约定俗成 5.任意性 线条性 6.音位 序列 语素 词 7.组合关系 聚合关系 8.组合关系 聚合关系 9.抽象思维 发音 三,判断题(20分,每小题1分) 1.× 2.√ 3.× 4.× 5.√ 6.√ 7.√ 8.√ 9.× 10.√ 11.× 12.× 13.× 14.√ 15.√ 16.√ 17.√ 18.× 19.√ 20.×四,问 答 题(50分,每小题5分) 1.什么是符号 它有哪些因素构成 所谓符号,就指代某种事物的标记,记号,它是由一个社会的全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的标记和记号.甲能代表乙或指称乙,甲就有条件成为乙的符号.符号由一定的形式和一定的意义构成,二者互相对待,密不可分.例如老师阅卷,用"√"表示正确,就是符号,其形式是线条√,意义是"正确". 2.为什么说语言是一种符号系统 语言就是一种符号系统.语言所以是一种符号,就是因为它能代表或指称现实现象.比如我们一听到"书"这个词,就知道它指的是"成本的著作"这个意义.符号的形成要具备一定的条件,其中最重要的就是在使用中要受
第一章：绪论 1．什么是语言学？ 1．1定义 语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。 1．2语言学的研究范畴: 语言学研究有不同的侧重。对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。 语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。 1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念 1．3．1规定性和描述性 语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。一切符合规定规则的被认为是“正确的”，否则就被冠为“错误的”。 1．3．2共时性和历时性 对语言的研究分为共时研究和历时研究。共时研究是对语言的静态特征的研究。它主要对某个时间点上的语言状态的描述。历时研究主要是对语言变化和发展的研究。现代语言学研究主要是共时性研究。 1．3．3口头语和书面语 现代语言学把书面语看作是口头语的记录，认为口头语是第一性的，是语言交际最基本的方式。这是因为从人类社会交际的发展来看，口头语先于笔头语，笔头语是对口头语的记录。从交际的功能来看，人们交际主要采取口头形式。此外，即使是在当今世界，仍然有不少语言只有口头形式，没有笔头形式。所以语言学研究的语料应从口头语中采集。传统语法学家过分重视笔头语料，轻视口头语料。 1．3．4语言和言语 语言和言语的区别是瑞士语言学家索绪尔在20世纪初提出来的。语言是语言社区所有成员所共有的抽象的语言系统，是一个语言社区所有的人应该遵守的一套约定俗成的规则，它相
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时 学分：4学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。
第一章语言和语言学 第一节语言 一、语言和人类社会一样古老，是人类社会的特征（特有财富）。 1、人类以外的动物不具备语言能力，所以不可能学会人类的语言。 2、其他动物的交际方式如叫喊、舞蹈等，即所谓的“动物语言”和人类语言有着本质的区别。 单位的明晰性结构的二层性 任意性开放性 传授性不受时地、环境的限制 二、语言是符号系统 1、什么是符号？它有哪些因素构成？ 符号是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号、标记。 符号包括了形式和内容（意义）两个方面的要素。形式和内容互相依存。 eg:十字路口的红绿灯就是一种符号。 2、符号和征候的区分：符号和所标记的事物是具有约定性的（或者是由某些人规定，或者是社会习惯），而征候与它所标记的事物之间往往具有自然（本质或必然）的联系。 3、符号的分类: 象征（有一定的含义,有一定的理据） 狭义的符号（没有理据，任意约定的） 4、语言是一种符号系统？
语言具有符号的一切特征：语言是由语音和意义两个方面统一构成。语音和意义在具体的语言中统一于一体，密不可分，二者互为存在条件。语音和语义的联系是社会成员约定俗成的，个人不能任意改变这种联系。 注：具体来说语言中的词可以分为三种情况： 一类是“哈哈” “啊”等叹词，它们可以说是人类感情的本能的反应，可以归入征候。 一类是“哗啦”“汪汪”等拟声词，用事物所发出的声音来记录事物本身，和事物间有着一定的联系，但同一种事物的声音在不同的语言中往往有着不同的记录，也体现了它的社会约定性，可以归入象征。 剩下的语言中绝大多数的词，它们的音和义之间关系完全是社会约定俗称的，没有任何理据可言，属于真正意义上的狭义的符号。 5、语言符号的任意性和线条性特点？ 任意性和线条性是语言符号的两个最基本的特点。 语言符号的任意性是指语言符号的音义关系是由社会约定的，用什么样的“音”去表达什么样的“义”人们说不出什么道理，完全由社会约定，这种音义关系又叫约定性。语言符号的任意性是就语言创制时来说的，语言符号一旦形成，在整个社会范围内的执行就具有强制性，因而也就表现为一定的稳固性（可变性）。——民族性；——时代性 语言符号的线条性是指符号的使用只能在时间的线条上绵延，一个符号跟着一个符号依次出现。语言符号的排列只能成一条线，线条性限制了语言在组合时的空间位置。 语言符号组合时的线条性和层次性结合起来理解。 6、语言符号的系统性？ 语言里的符号不是互不相干的一盘散沙，而是成系统的。语言符号的系统性集中体现在符号的组合和聚合关系之中。
第2章英语语音 Ⅰ.Fill in the following blanks: 1.The sound/p/can be described with“_____,bilabial,stop”.（北二外2007研）【答案】voiceless 【解析】/p/是双唇音，爆破音，清音。 2.The sound/b/can be described with“_____,bilabial,stop”.（北二外2004研）【答案】voiced 【解析】/b/是双唇音，爆破音，浊音。 3.Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel.And as a result are most conveniently described in terms of_____and manner of articulation.（北二外2004研） 【答案】place 【解析】辅音根据发音方式和发音部位进行分类。 4._____are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.（中山大学2006研） 【答案】Consonants 【解析】发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全
被阻塞而产生的音叫做辅音。 5.The present system of the_____derives mainly from one developed in the1920s by the British phonetician,Daniel Jones(1881—1967),and his colleagues at University of London.（中山大学2008研） 【答案】cardinal vowels 【解析】基本元音是指一系列约定俗成、固定不变的元音特质，目的是为语言中实际存在的元音描述提供一个参照框架。 6.Phonetic similarity means that the_____of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.（中山大学2011研） 【答案】allophones 【解析】语音的相似性指一个音位的音位变体必须具备某些语音相似性。 7.The sound/k/can be described with“voiceless,_____,stop”.（北二外2003研）【答案】velar 【解析】/k/是清音，软腭音，爆破音。 8._____transcription should transcribe all the possible speech sounds,including the minute shades.（北二外2004研） 【答案】Narrow 【解析】当我们用复杂的符号精确地标记语音所有可能的细小变化时，我们称之为“严式转
Chapter two Summarize the characteristics of English consonants : [ ] voiceless bilabial stop [ ] voiced bilabial stop [ ] voiceless alveolar stop [ ] voiced alveolar stop [ ] voiceless velar stop [ ] voiced velar stop [ ] bilabial nasal [ ] alveolar nasal [ ] velar nasal [ ] voiceless postalveolar affricate [ ] voiced postalveolar affricate [ ] alveolar lateral [ ] voiceless labioldental fricative [ ] voiced labioldental fricative [ ] voiceless dental fricative [ ] voiced dental fricative [ ] voiceless alveolar fricative [ ] voiced alveolar fricative [ ] voiced alveolar trill [ ] voiceless post-alveolar fricative [ ] voiced post-alveolar fricative [ ] glottal fricative [ ] bilabial approximant [ ] palatal approximant II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 1. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds. 2．A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. 3. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds. 4．Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other. 5．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p____ of articulation. 6．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________. 7．S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc. 8．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules. 9．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is
语言学：It studies how speech sounds are produced,transmitted,and perceived.研究语音的发生、传递和感知 2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生 phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征 or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知 音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统 6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet 变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化 辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法 9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出
题型： I. Multiple Choice 单选(1’×20= 20’) II. Definition下定义(3’×5= 15’) III. True or False 判断正误(2’×10=20’) IV. Comparison对比(4’×3=12’) V. Short answer questions 简答题(5’×3=15’) VI. Essay Questions小论文(8’+10’=18’) 1 language is a means of verbal communication. 课程内容 第一章 1. 记忆 phonetics语音学:studies speech sounds,including the production of speech. Phonology音系学:studies the rules governing the structure,distribution分配,and sequencing排序of speech sounds and the shape of syllables音节. Morphology形态学: concerned with internal organization of words. Syntax句法学: is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentence. Semantics语义学：examines how meaning is encoded编码in a language. Pragmatics语用学：is the study of meaning in context在上下文. 2. 概念辨析 Prescriptive规范的vs. Descriptive描述的 Synchronic限于一时的vs. Diachronic历经时间长河的 A Synchronic description takes a fixed instant as its point of observation, Diachronic linguistics is the study of language through the course of its history. Competence 完美的vs. Performance性能 Competence refers to an ideal speaker on the language. Performance refers to the using of language in daily life. Langue语言vs. Parole言语 langue refers to the linguistic competence of the speaker. Parole refers to the actual phenomena or data of linguistics. 3. 应用 1）能够判断理论语言学与应用语言学各学科的研究范围 Theoretical linguistics : phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics Macrolinguistics: psycholinguistics心理语言学，sociolinguistics社会语言学， anthropological linguisitics人类语言学，computational linguistics计算语言学 2）能够分析语言现象体现的语言功能。 4. 思考 1）什么是语言的design features？分别解释语言的design features (如creativity, duality, displacement)并举例说明。 Design features:the features that define our human language. Creativity创造性：we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness递归性. Duality二元性：the property性质of having two levels of structure,the elements of the spoken language are sounds which do not convey meaning in themselves.
1 第二章音系学 2 1．语言的声音媒介 3 语言的形式有声音和文字。在这两种媒介中，声音是语言最基本的媒介，4 是第一性的。这是因为在语言的发展过程中，声音媒介早于文字。文字是对声5 音的记录。在日常交际中，大量信息是通过口头交际来完成的，只有在无法进6 行口头交际的情况下人们才使用文字形式。除此之外，人们是通过声音媒介来7 习得自己的母语的。 8 2. 语音学 2．1什么是语音学 9 10 语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。 11 语音学有三个分支：发声语音学、听觉语音学和声学语音学。它们各有自12 己的侧重点但又互有联系。发声语音学主要研究语言使用者是如何使用发音器13 官发出语音，并对所发出的音进行分类。听觉语音学主要是从受话人的角度来14 研究语音，即语音是如何被受话人感知和理解的。声学语音学主要研究语音的15 物理特性。通过对语音声波的研究，声学语音学家得出了一些重要的结论。最16 为重要的结论，所说出的这些通常被认为是同一个话语，如果从声音的物理特17 性上去分析，其实它们的声波并不相同，只是由于它们之间存在的差异太小，18 是人耳所不能辨别的。如果它们的声波相同，这只是一种巧合。因此，语音的19 等同只是一种理论上的理想。 20 2．2发音器官 21 22 人类的发音器官存在于咽腔、口腔和鼻腔腔内。咽腔内最重要的发音
器官是位于喉头的声带，发音时声带在气流的冲击下发生颤动决定了声音的浊 23 24 音化（voicing）。浊音化是所有元音以及部分辅音，如[b],[g],[m]等所具有的 25 特性。声带不发生颤动所发出的音是清音，如[t],[k],[f]等。声带颤动的频率 决定了声音的高低。口腔中发音器官最多，有舌头、小舌、软腭、硬腭、齿龈26 27 隆骨、牙齿和嘴唇。其中舌头是最灵活、最重要的发音器官。发音时，来自肺 28 部的气流在口腔中受到不同的阻碍，从而发出不同的音。 29 鼻腔和口腔相通。发音时软腭后移关闭鼻腔，气流只能从口腔通过， 30 所发出的音没有鼻音化。但当鼻腔通道打开，允许气流从鼻腔通过，所发出来 31 的音便是鼻音。 2．3音标——宽式和严式标音法 32 33 音标是在国际上被广为接受的一套对语音进行标音的标准符号体系。 34 标音分为宽式和严式标音法。宽式标音法是用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音 方式。严式标音法是一种使用变音符号的标音方式，旨在记录同一个音在不同 35 36 的语音环境下所发生的细微的变化，如在star和tar中的/t/的发音就不一样, 37 前者/t/是不送气音，后者/t/是送气音。这些细微区别只有通过严式标音法才 38 能表示。 39 2．4英语语音的分类 40 英语中的语音根据气流的受阻情况分为元音和辅音。气流没有受到任 何阻碍所发出的音是元音；气流在口腔里受到不同方式的阻碍所发出的音是辅 41 42 音。 43 2．4．1英语辅音的分类 根据发音方式，英语的辅音可以分为： 44 45 1）爆破音：发爆破音时，气流开始完全受阻，然后突然释放，如
英语语言学概论》重、难点提示 整理人:宁强县第一中学陈宁 第一章语言的性质 语言的定义:语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性;语言的功能(寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为;语言的起源(神授说,人造说,进化说等。 第二章语言学 语言学定义;研究语言的四大原则(穷尽、一致、简洁、客观;语言学的基本概念(口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为;普通语言学的分支(语音、音位、语法、句法、语义;;语言学的应用(语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学等。 第三章语音学 发音器官的英文名称;英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法;语音学的定义;发音语音学;听觉语音学;声学语音学;元音及辅音的分类;严式与宽式标音等。 第四章音位学 音位理论;最小对立体;自由变异;互补分布;语音的相似性;区别性特征;超语段音位学;音节;重音(词重音、句子重音、音高和语调等。 第五章词法学 词法的定义;曲折词与派生词;构词法(合成与派生;词素的定义;词素变体;自由词素;粘着词素(词根,词缀和词干等。 第六章词汇学
词的定义;语法词与词汇词;变词与不变词;封闭词与开放词;词的辨认;习语与搭配。 第七章句法 句法的定义;句法关系;结构;成分;直接成分分析法;并列结构与从属结构;句子成分;范畴(性,数,格;一致;短语,从句,句子扩展等。 第八章语义学 语义的定义;语义的有关理论;意义种类(传统、功能、语用;里奇的语义分类;词汇意义关系(同义、反义、下义;句子语义关系。第九章语言变化 语言的发展变化(词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化;第十章语言、思维与文化 语言与文化的定义;萨丕尔-沃夫假说;语言与思维的关系;语言与文化的关系;中西文化的异同。 第十一章语用学 语用学的定义;语义学与语用学的区别;语境与意义;言语行为理论(言内行为、言外行为和言后行为;合作原则。 1.1. What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book” and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal
Chapter 2：Phonology I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. 2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. 3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. 4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not. 5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. 6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. 7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph. 8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest. 9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing. 10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest. 11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. 12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. 13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels. 14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme. 15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning. 16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories. 17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. 18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast. 19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.