Chapter VI Culture’s Influence on Perception
ⅠTeaching Objectives
1. To identify Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and cultivate students to be able to understand the
various implications of cultural values for international communication
2. To identify how culture affects sensing
3. To identify the process of human perception
4.To identify the distinction between high and low context cultures
ⅡLeading in
ⅢT eaching Procedures
Step1
Have students look at the following lead-in pictures:
Ask students warming-up questions:
What can you see in these pictures?
What kind of ability do you employ to identify these pictures?
Step2
6.1Sensing
General Introduction
Sensation is the neurological process by which people become aware of their environment. Of human senses, sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch are the most studied.
The Human Information Receptor People’s Senses and Their Limitations
Tactile Stimuli
Olfactic Stimuli
(Smell of exhaust
fumes)
Auditory Stimuli
’s police whistle)
Tactile Stimuli
(other pedestrian bumps into you)
to you)
Auditory Stimuli
(car horns)
Visual Stimuli
(color of
stoplight)
Visual Stimuli
(officer directing
Taste Stimuli
Taste Stimuli
(flavor of bitter)
e. Touch
Touch may simply be considered as one of five human senses; however, when a person touches something or somebody, this gives rise to various feelings. Thus the term "touch" is actually the combined term for several senses.
Effects of Culture on Sensing During intercultural communication, many of the stimuli come from the cultural, microcultural, and
environmental context.
No two of us can assume that our sensations are the same. The route
from stimulus to sensation is in part conditioned by culture.
Stinky tofu (Strong-smelling preserved bean curd) is disfavored by quite a large number of people,
however, it is favored greatly by people in the south, esp. in Hunan Province.
6.2 Perceiving
The Process of Perception
The process of perception can be divided into three stages: selection, organization, and interpretation.
a. Selection
The first step is selection. Within their physiological limitations, people are exposed to more stimuli
than they could possibly manage.
b. Organization
The second step is organization. Along with selecting stimuli from the environment, people
must
organize it in some meaningful way.
What are they doing?
Culture can affect the process of perception when communication takes place. When communicators
come from different cultures, however, not only the meanings, but also the mental categories are very
different.
Cross-cultural Difference in Sensation and Perception
There are four reasons for which people differ across cultures in their ability to gather incoming
information:
a. Conditions of the physical environment
b. Indirect environmental conditions
c. Genetic differences
d. Cultural differences in how people interact with their environment
6.3 High versus Low Context
Have students listen to
the lead-in case High-context Culture and Low-context
culture .
Ask students warming-up questions:
● Why did the Chinese doctor feel unhappy and distressed?
● What are the differences in ways of expression between the Chinese doctor and the Canadian
doctor?
● Are the differences in their ways of expression and their communicative conflicts caused, to
some extent, by the different cultures in which they were brought up?
? High-Context Culture
Cultures in which little of the meaning is determined by the context because the message is
encoded in the explicit code are labeled low-context culture.
An American standing on chair in restaurant
giving speech at his leaving his hometown
?Low-Context Culture
Cultures in which less has to be said or written because more of the meaning is in the physical environment or already shared by people are labeled high-context culture.
Tea Ceremony
?Comparisons Between High-Context Culture and Low-Context Culture
In low-context cultures, verbal messages are elaborate and highly specific. Logic and reasoning are expressed in verbal messages; in high-cultures, most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person.
Case Analysis: Chinese Style—Nonverbals
●What are the differences in communication styles between the Chinese old scholar and the
western traveler?
●Can you imagine some problems or communicative barriers caused by different
communication styles of high-context and low-context culture.
Do you think they will have communication problems
due to their different communication styles.
Step3
Distinguishing between High-context Culture and Low-context Culture:
辨别高语境文化和低语境文化：教师通过辨别不同的文化现象引导学生了解高语境文化和低语境文化。
活动目的：帮助学生了解高语境文化和低语境文化，找出这两种文化模式之间的差异，进而引导学生学会接受并尊重不同文化，从而培养学生的跨文化交际意识。
活动过程描述：
步骤一：
教师简要向学生介绍高语境文化和低语境文化的定义。在这一活动环节中，教师也可以用“直接”一词代替“低语境”，用“间接”一词代替“高语境”，以便帮助学生更好地理解这两个概念，使活动的进行更加顺利。
步骤二：
教师发给学生如下名为“Low- and High- Context Communication”的练习，以便加深其理解。
步骤三：
教师给学生5至10分钟时间，对其答案进行讨论，然后教师公布正确答案。
步骤四：
教师引导学生就如下问题进行讨论：
（1）你能否想象当一个来自于低语境文化的人到高语境文化中时，会发生什么事情？
（2）来自于高语境文化的人们在低语境文化中，会遭遇什么挑战？
（3）你是否曾经历过基于语境而非言语行为之上的交际情境呢？
（4）你认为这一课堂活动的意义何在？你又从中得到了什么启示？
Step4
Homework and After-class activities:
●Prepare an oral report with your partner on the differences in communication styles between
high-context culture and low-context culture.
●Surf on the Internet to collect the information about different meanings attached to the same
animals by people from different cultural backgrounds.
●Surf on the Internet to collect some cultural tips which may be helpful to communicate with
people with different communication styles.
Step 5
Test Your Communication Style
Communication researcher William Gudykunst and his colleagues have developed a survey designed to measure low and high communication styles. The instrument below is an adaptation of Gudykunst’s scale.
Below are, 32 statements regarding how you feel about communicating in different ways. In the blank to the left of each item, indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with each statement. If you are unsure or think that an item does not apply to you, enter a 5 in the blank.
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Strongly Agree
1._____I catch on to what others mean, even when they do not say it directly
2._____I show respect to superiors, even if I dislike them
3._____I use my feelings to determine whether to trust another person
4._____I find silence awkward in Conversation.
5._____I communicate in an indirect fashion.
6._____I use many colorful words when I talk.
7._____In argument, f insist on very precise definitions.
8._____I avoid clear-cut expressions of feelings when I communicate with
others.
9. _____I am good at figuring out what others think of me.
10. ____My verbal and nonverbal speech tends to be very dramatic.
11. ____ I listen attentively, even when others are talking in an uninteresting
manner.
12. ____I maintain harmony in my communication with others.
13. ____Feelings are a valuable source of information.
14.____When pressed for an opinion, I respond with an ambiguous
statement/position.
15. ____I try to adjust myself to the feelings of the person with whom I am
communicating.
16. ____I actively use a lot of facial expressions when I talk.
17. ____My feelings tell me how to act in a given situation.
18. ____I am able to distinguish between a sincere invitation and one intended
as a gesture of politeness.
19. ____I believe that exaggerating stories makes conversation fun.
20.____I orient people through my emotions.
21. ____I find myself initiating conversations with strangers while waiting in
line.
22. ____As a rule/I openly express my feelings and emotions.
23. ____I feel uncomfortable and awkward in social situations where everybody
else is talking except me.
24. ____I readily reveal personal things about myself.
25. ____I like to be accurate when I communicate.
26. ____I can read another person "like a book."
27.____I use silence to avoid upsetting others when I communicate.
28.____I openly show my disagreement with others.
29.____I am a very precise communicator.
30.____I can sit with another person, not say anything, and still be comfortable.
31.____I think that untalkative people are boring
32.____I am an extremely open communicator.
Scoring: Reverse your score for items 4,6,7, 10, 16, 19, 21, 22,23,24, 25, 28,29, 31, 32. If your original score was 1, reverse it to a 9; if your original score was a 2, reverse it to an 8, etc. After reversing the score for those 15 items, simply sum the 32 items. Lower scores indicate low-context communication. Higher scores indicate high-context communication.
ⅣSupplimentary Materials
1. Key Terms:
1. Sensation（感觉）：sensation is the neurological process by which people become aware of
their environment.（感觉是人们意识到周围环境的神经过程）
2. Organization（组织）: 把从周围选择的刺激信息，以一种有意义的方式整理，组合。
3. Interpretation（释义）：Interpretation refers to attaching meaning to sense data.（赋予信息意
义）
4. High context culture（高语境文化）：Cultures in which less has to be said or written because
more of the meaning is in the physical environment or already shared by people are labeled high context.（在高语境文化中，在人们交际时，有较多的信息量或者蕴涵在社会文化
环境和情景中，或者内化于交际者的心中；相对地讲，明显的语码则负载较少的信息量。
这也意味着，在强交际环境文化的人们对微妙的环境提示较为敏感。）
5. Low context culture（低语境文化）：Cultures in which little of the meaning is determined by
the context because the message is encoded in the explicit code are labeled low context. （在低语境文化中，交际过程中所产生的信息量的大部分由显性的语码负载，相对地讲，只有少量的信息蕴涵在隐性的环境和情景中。这也意味着，在低语境文化中的人们习惯用语言本身的力量来进行交际。）
2. Additional Information:
Supplementary English Case:
6.2.1.a
This demonstrates that even stimuli we can be aware of we do not attend to continually. Being in a busy airport terminal is a good example. While there, you are confronted with many competing stimuli. You simply cannot attend to everything. However, if in the airport terminal an announcement is made asking you by name to report to a courtesy telephone, you would probably hear your name even in that environment of competing stimuli.
6.2.1.c
Think of how speakers of English categorize life. Most probably use the categories of human life and animal life. Now think of how you typically categorize animal life: probably into wild animals and domesticated animals.
Now think of how you typically categorize domesticated animal life: probably into animals use for food, animals used for sport and recreation, and pets. Look at the picture of the puppy and capture your feelings. Most of us see this puppy in the category of pet for which we have learned to relate warm, loving feelings. Puppies are cute, cuddly, warm, loving creatures. Now look at the pictures below and capture your feelings. Most of us who love dogs find these pictures uncomfortable and disgusting. How can people eat dogs? They’re pets, not food! It all depends on where you categorize them. Dogs are pets in some cultures and food in others. In the Arab world, dogs are acceptable as watchdogs and as hunting dogs but are not kept in the home as pets because they are seen as unclean and a low form of life. To call someone a dog is an insult among Arabs. People in most cultures have strong ideas about which foods are acceptable for human consumption and which are not. People in some countries think the custom in the United States of eating corn on the cob is disgusting because that food is fit only for pigs. The Ukrainian favorite food salo, raw pig fat with black bread and vodka, might cause nausea in some, as would knowing that horse meat from California is served in restaurants in Belgium, France, and Japan.
Your reaction of disgust is a culturally learned interpretation and that interpretation can be quite strong. In 1989, California made it a misdemeanor for any person to sell, buy, or accept any animal traditionally kept as a pet with the intent of killing the animal for food. More recently, animal rights groups have protested the sale of live animals, such as turtles, frogs, lobsters, crabs,
fish, and chicken, for food at Asian-American markets. Asian tradition is that fresh meat is tastier and more healthful, that the best meat is that “that enters your house still breathing.” Animal rights activists contend that the animals are treated inhumanely in the shops and are killed in ways that cause them unnecessary pain. Asian-American groups argue that eating dogs and cats is an extreme rarity among Southeast Asian immigrants and call the law and the animal rights activists racist.
In some cultures, parts of some animals are categorized as medicine. In other cultures, certain animals are considered sacred and would certainly not be eaten. The Hindu elephant-headed God Ganesh is accompanied by a rat whenever he travels. Rats, like cows, are deified in India. No Hindu worship is complete without an offering to Ganesh and his companion, the rat. Rats are fed and rarely killed in India.
A case analysis
Can you use Confucianism to explain why Chinese people have both fan and cai in one meal? Confucianism encourages a sense of balance and harmony. The distinctive process of preparing Chinese cuisine is based on Confucius and his philosophy of balance. There is a division between fan, Chinese for grains and other starch foods, and cai, vegetable and meat dishes. A balanced meal, then, must have an appropriate amount of fan and cai.
中文补充案例及材料：
6.2.1.a （选择）英语国家重长大的人对理解某些日语发音有一定的困难。有些日语的发音现象在英语里不存在。
例如：obasan aunt
obaasan grandmother
kita came
kitta hear
6.2.1.b（组织）不同国家对颜色的划分不同。
6.2.1.c （释义）不同的文化对狗的态度不同：西方国家视之为宠物；韩国视之为美食。
龙在中国文化是吉祥的象征，而在西方文化中却是邪恶的象征。
英语中有，“lucky dog”“而在汉语中却有“狗眼看人低”，“狗仗人势”等词语。
Many people consider dogs as pets, however, in some countries such as Korea, dogs are delicious food.
Can you explain your feelings about this photograph?
6.3 （高语境，低语境）美国的课堂上经常放映关于日本茶道的电影。日本茶道是道教传统
的反映，崇尚精神高于物质，崇尚繁忙生活中的安宁。茶道在和谐的音乐中把主人和客人联
系在一起。此处无声胜有声。一切尽在共同的经历，一切尽在茶室，插花，书法，瓷器之中。
茶道是高语境的典型例子。而在低语境中人们会说“快点，喝杯茶！”茶中没有共同的经历
可分享。
6.3脸的概念：在中国文化中face 有两种解释方法：脸和面子。尽管二者可以互换，但意义
却不近相同。脸代表信心而面子代表荣誉和名誉。
中国的道教有阴阳之分，阴阳是掌控自然和生命的一种平衡的力量。
中国的食物注重色，香，味俱全是平衡和和谐的表现。
中国就餐时既吃饭又吃菜也是平衡和和谐的表现。
6.3 Cross-cultural tips
6.3.1 跨文化交流中“语境文化”的角色
一位受英文教育的新加坡公民的一位居于中国的长辈去世了，她代表父母到中国参加
这位长辈的葬礼。
临行前她母亲千叮万嘱，
要她把一笔钱交给这位去世长辈的亲友，
以表悼
念心意。当她把钱面交有关亲友时，不料对方连连推拒。朋友见状，也就没有再坚持了。岂
料回到新加坡后不久，就听到了亲友的隔海埋怨，责之不晓世事。惟到此时，她才明白了临行前母亲那几近执着的叮咛的真正含义。
一位会说中文的美国投资商人曾叹道，在与中国人共事时，不是自己的话常被别人误解，就是自己对别人的话语理解不到位。
在今天跨文化交流的大环境下，这种沟通不畅的问题，相信对许多读者来说，并不陌生，它实际上是凸显了这样一个事实：在很多的情况下，言语交际的不畅，已不再仅仅是语言本身的问题，而是与语言背后的文化背景和文化因素息息相关。
美国语用学家爱德华·T·霍尔(Edward T. Hall) 于1981年提出“语境文化”概念。在霍尔看来，不同民族在进行言语交际时，往往会不自觉地受到各自的文化背景、民族心理、思维定势和语言习惯的影响，而倾向于采用不同的语言运用和理解模式，这就形成了不同的语境文化。因此，他认为按照言语交际方式对语境的依赖程度，不同的文化其实可以被划分为“高语境文化（high-context culture）”和“低语境文化（low-context culture）”。这里所说的“高”与“低”，并不涉及语言背后的文化、经济实力或者文化本身的素质，而是纯指不同文化在言语交际中对语境依赖程度的高低。
今天，“语境文化”在跨文化交流中的制约作用，已为愈来愈多地的人所重视。语境文化之间的差异，为人们的文化交流开启了许多新的领域，但也同时为人们的沟通设置了不少客观障碍。因此，适当地了解不同语境文化的言语制约特征，对我们更好地进行文化交流和语言交际，可谓不无裨益。
什么是“高语境文化”和“低语境文化”？
从右表中，我们可以看到，日本、中国和中高语境
东诸国的文化均属高语境文化，而欧美文化则属日本人
低语境文化。分属这两种不同语境文化的人在相中国人
互沟通和交流时，会受各自的语境所其制约而采阿拉伯人
用不同的语言运用和理解模式，也会因此而面对希腊人
许多沟通上的问题。墨西哥人
西班牙人
意大利人
法国人
法属加拿大人
英国人
加拿大人
美国人
北欧人
德国人
德国–瑞士人
低语境
在高语境文化中，说话人用含蓄婉转的方式间接地表达自已的意思，期待听话人不仅能依赖上下文来理解自己的话，更能根据特定的社会环境、历史条件、社会关系甚至是宗教因素，对说话人的意图作出正确的判断和理解。在本文开头所举的例子中，我们可以看到，笔者新加坡朋友在中国的亲友们原是希望通过含蓄的“推却”方式，达到“欲推还迎”的表达效果，他们的思维方式和语言交际模式就是受着高语境中特定的“谦让”文化所制约，而这种交际方式在大陆的中国人之间，是很少会引起误解的。
低语境文化则恰恰相反。说话人遣词用字的原则是直接、精确、易于理解。说话人所言之语的字面意思与其背后的含义大致相等，故听话人无需结合太多的文化语境因素来揣摩、猜测说话人所要表达的意思。此外，处于低语境文化的人也希望对方能以直接的方式来理解自己所说的话。
在上述例子中的美国商人，就是来自处于低语境的美国文化，其思维方式和对言语的理解和运用都基于西方的交际语境，习惯对说话人的言语作出字面上的判断，没有去深究字面背后的人情风俗、社会关系、社会地位等一系列的因素，而“理解不到位”的问题也就因此而产生了。
不同语境文化的言语表达特点
下面，让我们再来看看不同语境文化的三个语言表达特点：
（一）言外之意
我们首先注意到是言语中“传情达意”成分的多寡。此处的传意成分不同于“信息量”：如果说“信息量”是指言语所传递的信息多寡的话，那么传意成分则偏重于信息背后的“意”，即那一点点的“言外之意”。
举个例子：餐宴将毕，主人问客人：“你吃饱了吗？”客人对此话的理解和判断过程，实际上会因为主人所处的语境文化而呈现出不同的模式。若主人是一德国人，客人会因为德国文化属于低语境文化，而自然地单纯从字面上去理解这句问话，得出的结论是：“他想知道这顿饭的份量对我来说是否足够。”若主人是一中国人，客人则会做出这样的判断：中国人的文化是高语境文化，因此这句问话中所包含的潜台词，也许会比词语的字面值高得多，其中不仅有“不知这餐饭的份量够不够”之疑，也可能有“这餐饭是否合你口味”、“中国菜你是否喜欢吃”、“你对我的招待是否满意”之问。此时，客人就可能选择这样回答：
“我对这顿饭很满意。中国菜好吃，我很喜欢吃中国菜。我也非常感谢你的盛情款待。”如此一来，不同文化语境中对言语理解的负面制约因素就会被破解，沟通畅顺，宾主尽欢。
因此，了解不同语境文化的传意成分，有助我们更准确地判断对方言语的字面值和潜台词，并据此来调整自己的言语表达和理解模式。
（二）长话短听
其次是言语交际中的用语量大小。人们可能会以为，低语境文化的言语交际全靠话语的字面意义来传递信息，因此人们在交际时就不得不使用更多的词语、更长的句子。其实不然。正如我们在前面所提到的，来自低语境文化的人倾向于使用传意成分高的词语，在遣词用字方面讲求精确、直接、不拐弯抹角，每一个词都能起到其实际的“传意”效果，因此他们的用语量并不大。
反观高语境文化。由于人们使用的是传意成分偏低的言语表达方式，词语附带的理解价值也就相对较低，因此人们可能得讲上好几个回合，兼用婉曲、双关甚至反语，才能间接勾勒出其言的理解背景。正如前文所提及的，中国、日本文化都是一种“谦让”文化，人们不仅使用隐晦含糊的词语，而且在表达方式上也是迂迥暧昧的；没有几个回合，实无法捕捉其话语的本义所在。就是这样的“一推一让”，使得用语量大大增加，也同时加深了听话人准确捉摸言语真正含义的难度。
例如，一个美国人尝试几次邀请一位同路的日本朋友来家做客。刚开始的几次，在家门口简单寒暄之后，日本朋友会说“不用进去了”之类的客套话。要待这位美国人再三发出邀请，促其“不要客气”之后，她才会说：“那我就不客气打扰了”。刚开始时，美国人感到颇不习惯，但在其了解了日本特有的语境文化特征后，这一切又好像不那么难理解了。
因此，在对用语多寡有一个基本认识后，我们在与来自高语境文化的人交流时，就会尽量避免被那些大量的、看似无关紧要的词语弄昏头脑，就会懂得“长话短听”、“抽丝剥茧”，更专注于说话人内心的真正意向。这样一来，沟通畅顺自不在话下。
（三）“面子”问题
再者，对社会地位和“面子”问题的考量，也是高语境文化中不可或缺的重要部分。
对于来自低语境文化的美国人、德国人来说，直接发出质问和提出异议，是解决问题的最佳方式。在他们看来，“直接”是对事不对人，因此不存在尊重与否的问题。
然而，处于高语境文化的日本人、中国人，则不喜采用太过直接的方式去直斥对方的不是，认为此举会让人下不来台。尤其是日本人。即使他们不同意别人的观点，一般也不会反驳，而总是退后多步，用迂回婉转的言辞道出自己的意思，让听话人往深一层去揣摩。在日
本人看来，这种尊敬度高的举动，是一种有修养的表现，能给对方留下足够的反应余地，顾及到对方的面子。
然而，这种“退后多步”的表达方式，有时却是诸多误会的开始。事实上，直来直去的美国人，据说最怕的就是在商业谈判中与日本人交手，因为后者那种模棱两可的表达方式常让他们摸不着头脑。例如，为了表示对听话人的尊重，日本人在表示“不要……”的时侯，会用上“最好不要…….”或“做……的时候要远虑”等等字眼。然而，听在处于低语境文化的美国人耳里，这种拐弯抹角的说法并不等于“不要做”，而是恰恰相反，是表示事情“也许还有考虑的余地”的意思。这里造成的歧义，不可谓不大。
另一方面，来自高语境文化的人在顾及对方“面子”的同时，也极之希望从对方那里，得到同样的“面子”礼遇。了解这一点，对于来自低语境文化的人，包括欧美人士和受西方教育的新加坡人来说，尤为重要：与其说是雄辩滔滔、咄咄逼人，力求在言语用辞上压倒对方，不如采用同样的含蓄表达方式，加强自已用语的尊敬度，让对方感到你对他们的尊重和对其“面子”的照顾。能做到这一点，你离交易的成功还会远吗？
正渐渐放下“惟吾文化独尊”的架子
诚然，文化语境并不是跨文化交流中唯一的制约因素，不同语境文化的语言表达特点实际上也不止以上提及的三点。然而，在今天的跨文化交流中，语境文化所扮演的角色实在不容小觑。
因此，当我们与来自其他国家和文化的人进行言语交际和沟通时，我们应当提醒自己，尽量对当地不同的语境文化、不同的交际沟通模式多了解一点，态度宽容一点，多些尝试按照不同语境文化的特点来调整我们自己的沟通技巧，切忌以封闭的心理去看待不同的语境文化。这样，我们不仅对当地文化表现出应有的尊重，也能较为准确地判断和理解当地言语交际的特点，有效地控制交际的过程，达到最佳的沟通效果。
必须指出的是，随着当今世界上不同民族之间的理解和交往不断加深和扩大，人们正渐渐放下“惟吾文化独尊”的架子，愈来愈多地根据实际交际需要，调整自已面对不同语境文化时的沟通技巧，以求取得平衡，避免不必要的误解。这对跨文化交流来说，的确是一令人欣慰的趋势。
6.3.2 General Introduction to High-context and Low-context Cultures
A nthropologist Edward T. Hall’s theory of high- and low-context culture helps us better understand the powerful effect culture has on communication. A key factor in his theory is context.This relates to the framework, background, and surrounding circumstances in which communication or an event takes place.
High-context cultures (including much of the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and South America)
are relational, collectivist, intuitive, and contemplative. This means that people in these cultures emphasize interpersonal relationships. Developing trust is an important first step to any business transaction. According to Hall, these cultures are collectivist, preferring group harmony and consensus to individual achievement. And people in these cultures are less governed by reason than by intuition or feelings. Words are not so important as context, which might include the speaker’s tone of voice, facial expression, gestures, posture—and even the person’s family history and status. A Japanese manager explained his culture’s commun ication style to an American: “We are a homogeneous people and don’t have to speak as much as you do here. When we say one word, we understand ten, but here you have to say ten to understand one.” High-context communication tends to be more indirect and more formal. Flowery language, humility, and elaborate apologies are typical.
Low-context cultures (including North America and much of Western Europe) are logical, linear, individualistic, and action-oriented. People from low-context cultures value logic, facts, and directness. Solving a problem means lining up the facts and evaluating one after another. Decisions are based on fact rather than intuition. Discussions end with actions. And communicators are expected to be straightforward, concise, and efficient in telling what action is expected. To be absolutely clear, they strive to use precise words and intend them to be taken literally. Explicit contracts conclude negotiations. This is very different from communicators in high-context cultures who depend less on language precision and legal documents. High-context business people may even distrust contracts and be offended by the lack of trust they suggest.
which cultures depend on context
6.3.3 Comparisons between High-context Culture and Low-context Culture
a.
Examples of High- and Low-Context Cultures
Low-Context Cultures High-Context Cultures
Scandinavia Mediterranean
Korea
Germany
Switzerland
North America Vietnam Japan China
Middle East
Latin America
b.
c. Values of High- and Low-Context Cultures
Low-Context (Individualistic) High-Context (Collective)
Mastery over Nature
Personal Control over the Environment Harmony with Nature Fate
Intercultural communication is a form of global communication. It is used to describe the wide range of communication problems that naturally appear within an organization made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds.As a separate notion, it studies situations where people from different cultural backgrounds interact. Aside from language, intercultural communication focuses on social attributes, thought patterns, and the cultures of different groups of people. It also involves understanding the different cultures, languages and customs of people from other countries. Intercultural communication plays a role in social sciences such as anthropology, cultural studies, linguistics psychology and communication studies. Intercultural communication is also referred to as the base for international businesses. There are several cross-cultural service providers around who can assist with the development of intercultural communication skills. Research is a major part of the development of intercultural communication skills. As we all know, there are so many differences between culture of the East and West that I can not list all of their different aspects. I will focus on the differences of diet custom and teaching system. For your better understand , I will set examples of China and America. It is no doubt that it is a tradition to use chopsticks for Chinese. But people in America prefer to forks and knives. This different result is based on different food they are like .Americans choose to eat beefsteak, bread, and salad, while Chinese people choose noodles, pancakes and rice. What is more, the custom of drinking tea in China and drinking coffee in America are stand out particularly .However, there is a trend that the food in both countries has been mixture. For example, the coffee and bread have introduced to China. The famous KFC is very popular at children. The gap of teaching system between China and America is big. Chinese students always complain about their homework. Too much homework has limited the time to exercise and relax. They have to recite many things as to get a high mark. Homework comes the first to them. In my opinion, the study in America is more interesting .Teachers pay attentions t o training students? skills in thinking in realistic life not to emphasis on the importan ce of memories. In a addition, the rate of going to school ,the salary of teaching ,and t he job of graduates are quite different, too. I should say that China government should make great efforts to improve its teaching system. I am also expect to be one day ,the West give more cheers to our country. “Culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the me mbers of one category of people from another.” It is inevitable that the cultural difference has impact on business. For example, when a company is having meeting, the word “table” they mention in American Engli sh means to put something on the agenda, but in British English it means to put somet hing off the agenda. This example indicated how the culture affects the business. In Western wedding culture and the first in the West in thinking about the differe
Cross –cultural communication Thesis statement: This paper is mainly talking about the culture differences between several countries. Outline: Chapter 1: Language and culture in communication Chapter2: Culture shock Chapter3: What’s in a name? Chapter4: Social interaction Chapter 5: Roles and relations Chapter6: Non-verbal communication Chapter 7: In other words. Chapter 8: From a primitive Tribe to a Global Village Conclusion Chapter 1: Language and culture in communication There is no denying the fact that out daily lives depend largely on communication, without it we can’t know each other. So, we should come to realize that communication is of great importance. What is communication? In total, communication can be divided into two parts; they are verbal communication and non-verbal communication. However, different people hold different opinions about communication. In general, if there is communication, there must have 4 cases: there are at least two or more people, some contact between communicators, a language shared by communicators, an exchange of information has taken place. I just take the fist one for example. Suppose there is one person, there can’t be communication. Otherwise, he may talk to himself. Communication not just exist in human-beings There are five kinds of communications they are human communication, animal communication, human-animal communication, human machine communication, machine communication. So, Animals and machines can also communicate with each other. For human beings, how can we communicate with each other? Experts say that there are various kinds of communication. Nowadays, there are different kinds of tools for us to communicate .For people we can use telephone and computer to communicate with each other. By them, finally we can receive message. What is social situation? When there are two or more people gather to do a job or an activity, then it creates a social situation. That is to say, an individual working alone can not constitute a social s A social situation may have two definitions. One is given by the community, and the other by the participants. Finally, we should notice that being polite plays a crucial role in
1.英文原声电影赏析与跨文化交际能力的培养 2."跨文化非语言交际语用失误研究 3."公示语翻译中的语用失误探析 4.国内广告语言语用失误研究现状与分析 5."全球化语境下跨文化交际失误语用归因 6."跨文化交际中的语用失误类型及对策研究 7."基于礼貌原则的跨文化语用失误分析 8."跨文化言语交际中的语用负迁移 9."浅析化妆品广告中的语用预设 10."中西方饮食文化的比较研究 11."中美时间观之对比 1 2."浅析汉英问候语中的文化差异 13."英汉词汇的文化内涵差异探析 14."英语身体语的交际功能研究 1 5."浅谈英汉身势语的表意功能之差异 16."目标语文化的理解与跨文化交际 1 7."中西文化差异对中国学生英语学生的影响 18."跨文化交际中的文化误读
9."浅析文化差异对商务谈判的影响 20."英语禁忌语的文化内涵异同研究 21."英语学习中的文化习得 2 2."英汉思维模式的差异对跨文化交际的影响 23."外语学习者的思辨能力与跨文化交际之成效 24."培养英语学习者跨文化交际能力之策略 25."英汉道歉语差异及原因 26."中西跨文化礼貌语差异探析 27."英汉语言中礼貌表达法之比较 28."英汉习惯用语的文化内涵探源 29."英语称赞语及其回应的异同研究 3 0."中美（西）家庭教育理念的差异及其对孩子的影响 31."中国英语学习者跨文化交际中的主要障碍研究 32."试析跨文化交际中角色互动的作用 3 3."本土文化与异国文化的冲突对跨文化交际的影响 34."跨文化交际中的时间观差异 35."论跨文化交际中的中西餐桌礼仪
6."关于提升英语专业学生跨文化交际能力的培养 37."涉外婚姻中的中西文化冲突 38."论跨文化广告传播中食品商标的翻译439."多媒体教学与跨文化交际能力的培养40."中西方儿童文学的差异 4 1."中西体育文化的差异及其受全球化发展的影响 42."中西传统休闲文化及其价值观的对比分析 43."简爱与林黛玉不同命运的文化透析 44."国际商务活动中礼貌原则的应用 4 5."论文化背景知识在外语阅读教学中的作用 46."国际商务交际活动中的非语言交际 47."浅析英汉汽车商标的特点及其翻译 48."英汉隐喻差异的文化阐释 49."文化语境下的英汉植物词 50."文化语境下的英汉动物词 51."从体态语探析中西文化差异 52."浅析英汉颜色词的文化内涵 53."文化视野下英语谚语的比较
《跨文化交际》 课程教学大纲 课程名称：英语教学论 课程类别：专业必修课 考核类别：考试 适用对象：本科 适用专业：英语 总学时、学分：36学时2学分 一、课程教学目的 该课程旨在扩大学生的知识面，对西方文化的不同层面有所了解,以提高学生的交际能力。在传统的外语教学中, 人们往往忽视文化的重要作用, 只注重语言能力的培养而未能顾及交际能力的提高。近年来国内学者认识到外语教学必须引进文化知识的对比，训练学生灵活运用语言知识, 更好地与外国人沟通, 减少和避免误解。 1
二、课程教学要求 该课程教学要求学生提高对文化差异的敏感性, 更有效地与外国人进行交际，为英语专业课程的学习和翻译实践能力的提高奠定基础。 三、先修课程 跨文化交际是英语专业的必修课, 是在完成了精读、泛读、综合英语、写作等基本技能训练后开设的，旨在增强文化差异的敏感性，增强跨文化交际意识，有助于英语专业课程的学习和翻译实践能力的提高。因此，学生先期完成英语听说读写等技能训练基本课程，如《基础英语》、《英国文学选读》等课程。 四、课程教学重、难点 该课程教学重点在于培养学生对英语国家文化的 2
了解及跨文化交际意识, 提高驾驭英语语言的能力, 从而使其能得体地运用语言与操英语的外国人士进行交流。教师的讲授重点是帮助学生认识中西文化的异同，分析文化差异的根源, 帮助学生深化对西方文化的理解。中西文化的差异在表层上很容易识别,但对造成差异的原因却需追根溯源。东西方在历史,思维方式以及哲学等方面的差异则是造成中国学生对西方文化不解的主要原因,也是该课程的难点。 五、课程教学方法（或手段） 教学方法：以课堂讲授为主，适当组织课堂讨论，鼓励学生充分利用课外资源进行探索性、研究性学习。 六、课程教学内容 Unit 1 Communication Across Cultures（4学时） 3
Case 1 Girl-ness As a visiting professor in an American university, Zhang Hua was invited to give a lecture to a group of American students. He talked about university students in China. During the question-and-answer period after the lecture, one female student asked a question that surprised Zhang Hua. “When you talked about female students, you referred to them as girls. Why?” “Because they are girls. That’s what they are called,” Zhang Hua tried to answer, but he knew he did not really understand the intent of the question. “ I don’t quite understand your question, I’m afraid.” “In the States, we call ourselves ‘ women’ if we’re old enough to go to the university. Calling us ‘girls’ is insulting.” Do Chinese female college students prefer to be called women? Case 2 Many years ago, a Chinese man showed a photo of his wife to some American visitors. Out of courtesy, they all said,” She is very beautiful.” Also out of courtesy, the man replied with what he would have done in Chinese under the circumstance,” Where! Where!” Quite taken aback, nobody said anything for a moment, until the most ingenious one among the visitors, taking another look at the photo, said, “Oh, everywhere!” What did the Chinese intend to mean by replying with “ Where! Where!”? Case 1 Girl-ness As a visiting professor in an American university, Zhang Hua was invited to give a
浅谈跨文化交际 【摘要】在中西跨文化交际中，文化冲突的事例屡见不鲜，严重影响了交往的顺利进行，因此我们很有必要找出其深层次的原因，并采取一定的措施来培养跨文化交际的能力，避免文化冲突。 【关键词】跨文化交际、文化差异、文化冲突 随着中国对外开放程度的逐渐深入，西方社会的人和事物越来越多地走进了我们的视野，在这种情况下，跨国域、跨民族、跨文化的经济和社会交往将会与日俱增，这就为我们提供了许多与西方人接触和交往的机会，这对于加深我们的西方社会的理解是一件好事，但这并不是一件简单的事情，因为我们所面对的是来自陌生的文化和国家，思维方式、生活习惯和行为方式与我们迥然不同的人，在与之交往的过程中不可避免的会出现文化冲突的现象。 一．中西跨文化交际中经常出现的文化冲突 在中西跨文化交际中会出现的文化冲突有很多种，在这里我们不可能一一叙述，只能列出比较常见的几种。 1.隐私方面的冲突 中国人的隐私观念比较薄弱，认为个人要归属于集体，在一起讲究团结友爱，互相关心，故而中国人往往很愿意了解别人的酸甜苦辣，对方也愿意坦诚相告。而西方人则非常注重个人隐私，讲究个人空间，不愿意向别人过多提及自己的事情，更不愿意让别人干预。因此在隐私问题上中西双方经常发生冲突，例如：中国人第一次见面往往会
询问对方的年龄，婚姻状况，儿女，职业，甚至收入，在中国人的眼里这是一种礼貌，但在西方人眼里则认为这些问题侵犯了他们的隐私。 2.时间观方面的冲突 西方人的时间观和金钱观是联系在一起的，时间就是金钱的观念根深蒂固，所以它们非常珍惜时间，在生活中往往对时间都做了精心的安排和计划，并养成了按时赴约的好习惯。在西方，要拜访某人，必须事先通知或约定，并说明拜访的目的、时间和地点，经商定后方可进行。而中国人则属于多向时间习惯的国家，在时间的使用上具有很大的随意性，一般不会像西方人那样严格的按照计划进行，西方人对此往往感到不适应。 3.客套语方面的冲突 中国人注重谦虚，在与人交际时，讲求“卑己尊人”，把这看作一种美德，这是一种富有中国文化特色的礼貌现象。在别人赞扬我们时，我们往往会自贬一番，以表谦虚有礼。西方国家却没有这样的文化习惯，当他们受到赞扬时，总会很高兴地说一声“Thank you”表示接受。由于中西文化差异，我们认为西方人过于自信，毫不谦虚；而当西方人听到中国人这样否定别人对自己的赞扬或者听到他们自己否定自己的成就，甚至把自己贬得一文不值时，会感到非常惊讶，认为中国人不诚实。 4.餐饮习俗方面的冲突 中华民族素有热情好客的优良传统。在交际场合和酒席上，热情的
摘要：谚语是一个民族吸取自己优秀文化的成果，其言简意赅、内涵丰富并在民间广泛使用。本文通过对英汉谚语文化差异的分析，力求加深对英汉谚语的理解，提高对英汉谚语的运用和翻译能力。 关键词：谚语文化差异翻译 1. 引言 谚语（proverb or saying）是人民群众在生产生活中提炼出来的智慧结晶，是一个民族的语言和文化的重要组成部分。《辞海》（2000年版，491页）是这样定义的：谚语是?流传于民间的简练通俗而富于意义的语句?。《朗文当代高级辞典》给谚语下的定义是：?a short well-known supposedly wise saying in simple language?。谚语和一个民族的历史背景、生活习惯、地理环境、民族心理、意识形态等是密切相连的。 2. 英汉谚语的文化差异基于不同的文化背景而形成的谚语有着较大的差别，以下将从审美角度、自然环境、宗教信仰、思想观念等几个方面对英汉谚语的差异进行分析。 2.1 审美差异在诸多英汉谚语差异中，最为典型的要属对待动物的态度了，其中，龙的例子最为人所熟知，在中国，龙代表帝王，象征吉利的动物，有不可思议的力量。因此有谚语?龙眼识珠，凤眼识宅?、?龙投大海，虎奔高山?。而英美却认为?dragon?是邪恶的象征，如sow dragon’s teeth等等。在汉语中习惯用老虎来形容勇敢、凶猛、威严，在西方，狮子常被尊为百兽之王。因此，我们在翻译含?lion?（狮子）的习语和谚语时不妨用?虎?取而代之则更符合中国人的认同感。如：come in like a lion and go out like a lam b 虎头蛇尾；like a key in a lion' s hide狐假虎威等。 2.2 自然差异中英两国所处的地域不同，自然环境、山川物产、气候差异与历史发展轨迹千差万别。英国乃岛国，英民族生活在四面临海的岛上，擅长航海，所以英语里有很多与?航海?有关的谚语:A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner 平静的大海练不出好水手，To keep one’s head above water奋力图存；而汉民族生活在以农业经济为主的广袤大陆上，谚语很多和农业生产有关. 民以食为天；瑞雪兆丰年；四体不勤，五谷不分等。 2.3 宗教信仰差异宗教信仰是人们精神活动的一个方面，是民族文化的重要组成部分。基督教是英美国家的主要宗教信仰，而中国人受佛教和道家思想影响较大，由此产生了许多独具宗教特色的谚语，如佛教?不看僧面看佛面?、?放下屠刀，立地成佛?、?善有善报，恶有恶报?。再如道教?八仙过海各显神通?、?道高一尺，魔高一丈?、?福兮祸之所伏，祸兮福之所倚?、等等。而英国的典故主要来自《圣经》、古希腊神话等西方经典著作，如God helps those who help themselves.天助自助者。Whom God would ruin he first sends mad.上帝欲毁灭之，必先使其疯狂。 2.4 思想观念差异英民族强调众生平等，Human blood is all of a color. 人类血的颜色是一样的。 A cat may look at a king人人平等；而汉民族却有较强的等级观念，家族讲家法，讲辈分；社会讲宗法，将尊卑。谚语中有?父母在，不远游?、?千里烧香，不如在家敬爹娘?。西方道德中，比较注重子女自己独立的人格，这一点体现在如?Children are not to be blamed for the faults of their parents.?的谚语中。还有?All stratagems are fair in love?、?Love is without reason?等就体现了男女平等 ,自由恋爱。英民族有着开拓进取、永争第一的勇气，?Keep up with the Jones. ?赶上富邻居，争比阔绰。而深受儒家?中庸?之道影响的汉民族则怕出头，?枪打出头鸟、出头的椽子先烂?等。 3. 翻译策略 正如刘宓庆说的：?文化翻译的任务不是翻译文化，而是翻译容载或含蕴着文化信息的意义。意义始终是我们关注的中心：它既是我们的出发点，又是我们的落脚点。?[1](p83)本着抛砖引玉的想法，笔者试从以下几方面谈谈英汉谚语的翻译策略。
Differences between Chinese and Western cultural communication By Yu Li Na Under the supervision of Yang Dong Min A THESIS Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of BACHELOR OF ART Intercultural communication 错误！未找到引用源。 Shaanxi Normal University June,2013
Differences between Chinese and Western cultural communication Abstract： What is culture？ Simple to say, culture is one of those you don't know why but also willing to accept, rules and knowledge from the start, in practice most people can experience the benefits, or that can bring benefits, so that these rules and knowledge has become the most people choose, this constitutes the main content of culture. But if this rule or understanding has been completely objective practice proves impossible do not insist, renewal ability is also culture has. So the culture is the difficult to give the rules and knowledge about (belonging to the values and Philosophy), and has some subjectivity, continuity, group, beneficial four characteristics. Key words： culture；subjectivity；continuity, group, beneficial four characteristics. 1 Introduction For example, the Spring Festival, everyone should think over the Spring Festival, but get used to it, it is difficult to say. We must have the spring festival what necessity, but can tell some benefits, so naturally continue down. But is this kind of natural inertia, has a powerful social force, unless the social upheaval, or completely oppressed the erosion of alien culture. The process for China's traditional culture is not more than once, but they were conquered by the Chinese culture has its own rationality and strong cohesion. Here the two Chinese cultural characteristics, reason and cohesion. To give credit to the acts of such a phenomenon exists in every society groups in society, exist in a variety of language and culture, the different levels and in different degrees, reflecting the people's social activity, it can not only shorten the distance between communication, and can contact feelings, to consolidate and strengthen the communication between United, played the role of social lubricant. Pomerantz American linguists point out that language is a kind of support to give credit to the sexual behavior (supportive action), is also a sexual evaluation (assessment action), that is to say, there is praise, not only praised the language of nature, there is also the nature of the evaluation. Let us explore the Chinese and English culture in the praise of the
《英语跨文化交际》课程教学大纲 课程编号：1233201 课程名称：英语跨文化交际 总学时：16学时 试验或上机学时：无 先修课及后续课：先修课：涉外礼仪 一、课程说明 1.课程性质：本课程是继《涉外礼仪》之后的专业必修课。 2.教学目标及意义： 本课程是与专业基础课同时开设的专业课，旨在通过学习跨文化交际基础理论，结合涉外礼仪实践，分析跨文化交际案例，提高跨文化交际意识，并在语言学习的同时，更多关注相关国家的文化，特别是通过与本族文化的对比，提高跨文化交际能力。 3. 教学内容与教学要求： 英语专业教学大纲强调，在语言学习过程中要培养学生的跨文化交际意识，增强对文化差异的敏感性和宽容性，提高处理跨文化交际冲突的灵活性，即跨文化交际能力。 跨文化交际能力包括语言运用能力，相关国家文化知识以及相关专业的能力和交流能力。通常认为语言运用能力特指外语知识和外语技能，忽视了学习者对目的语国家的文化知识的要求，特别是灵活运用已有的本国和目的国的相同之处，相似之处和差异进行跨文化交流的能力。 交际的主要媒介是语言但语言并非唯一的媒介。诸多非语言手段，如手势，面部表情，时间和空间的使用等，都具有重要的交际功能。而任何交际，无论是语言的还是非语言的，都是在特定文化环境中进行的，必然受到该文化中价值观念、思维方式、传统习惯、交往规约等的影响和制约。因此，这些文化内涵也是交际能力的重要组成部分。 不同文化之间，在方方面面都存在明显的差异。实践证明，文化背景不同的人进行交际时，这些差异常常成为障碍。要减少此类交际障碍，促成有效交流，跨文化意识与跨文化交际能力必不可少。 任何人都生活在特定的文化之中，思想、语言、行为等都受到该文化的影响与支配。 文化意识即指对此有清醒的认识。跨文化意识首先涉及对文化多元的认识。对文化而言，既有国别文化的不同，一国之内亦有主流文化与种种亚文化之分，同时个体间的差异也不容忽视。因此，不能理所当然地以本文化的规则来评价不同文化背景人的交际行为。 其次，不同文化间既有异（个性），也有同（共性），要辩证的看待文化。另外，应该树立文化平等观。文化没有高低优劣之分，跨文化交际目的是理解和沟通，促进各民族间的长期友谊和共同发展，在培养文化意识和跨文化意识的同时，还要认真思考汉语与英语文化在主要方面的异同之处，分析跨文化交际中可能出现的问题及其对应策略。 本课程以语言学习为前提，强调在语言学习的过程中提高利用外语进行跨文化交际的能力，通过对交际与语言，语言与文化，文化与价值观的学习和讨论，提高跨文化交际意识；通过对文化现象的思考和讨论，反思语言学习过程，增加对文化差异的敏感性； 通过课堂活动和案例学习，提高跨文化交际意识和能力，达到有效交流的目的。 4. 教学重点和难点： 本课程内容包括：交际与文化，语言与文化，文化与价值观，语言交际和非语言交际，
Analysis of Deferent V iews on “Filial P iety” Between China and American from Movie Guasha Abstract:“While one’s parents are alive, one should not travel to distant places.”“The gentleman works hard on the basic principles, thereafter comes morality; filial piety is the basic principle of a human being.”These are our Chinese traditional filial piety. But are these standards or rules suitable for every nation? The movie Guasha shows us many about the differences of filial piety between China and American. There are many misunderstanding and coincidence in this movie and those are the cause of the circuitous of the characters’fate. All of these are rooted in the cultural differences between China and American. In this assay, I made the differences of filial piety as the point of entry to analyze the reason why the differences come and their similarity. Key words: Guasha, the culture in china and America, piety, filial piety, object The movie Guasha tells a story that a Chinese couple who lived in American for 8 years took the hero’s father in American after they think they had realized their American dream. But a few days later, their son got ill; the old father used Guasha to treat the little boy for he didn’t know how to read English. The bruises were noticed by the child welfare bureau, and all the rough broke out after that. Finally, they had a universal satisfactory ending. The end of the story is to the satisfaction of all, but a variety of cultural conflict is the apparent. What we see is the initial irreconcilable to accept, understand. Many people will think that Chinese and Western have cultural differences, I think so, but I also think that behind these differences, there are many similarities. The following, I will be on the film to talk something about filial piety plot makes concrete analysis, and explore how cultural differences reflected in the filial piety? Why is it? What are the similarities? But before that, we will first do a general understanding of filial piety. In the ancient clan and tribal society, meaning of "filial piety" is very wide. It refers to the family of the elder respect, love, support and sacrifice. With the family as the basic unit of society and social development in a long time, "filial piety" changes from the family elder respect to parental care, and become an important ethical rule to do with family relations. Today, "filial piety" to living gets more attention. We often say that the parents contribute to our
西南大学本科生课程论文 论文题目：An Understanding of “Language-and-Culture, Two Sides of the Same Coin in the Perspective of Intercultural Communication” 课程名称：跨文化交际 任课教师：杨杰 专业：英语（师范） 班级：200级11班 学号：222009310011324 姓名：王小青 2011 年12 月23 日 西南大学外国语学院制
An Understanding of “Language-and-Culture, Two Sides of the Same Coin in the Perspective of Intercultural C ommunication” WANG Xiaoqing Abstract:As we all know, we express our thoughts by means of language. However, while we using language, we convey culture at the same time. As for color, it’s a part of language, so it including culture, too. There are differences in the use of colors and color words between Chinese and English cultures. The different cultures bring different attitudes toward the same color because of different culture background, they reveal wide connotation of cultures. We should pay attention to observing not only their basic meanings, but also the deep and broad symbolic meanings. The symbolic meanings of color words often have different features in different language cultures. And some of them even have become taboos and adornments since the meanings of the color words are extended and transferred. Meanwhile, the cultural exchanges and the color views have similar phenomenon and coincidence in the languages. Key W ords: Color words; cultural differences; symbolic meanings; comparison I. Introduction Color is an important part of our life. Color words help us to understand the world around, like our sense of taste and smell. The basic color words in English such as red, yellow, white, black, not only express the colors of objective things, but also the obstruct things. The color words have specified semantic meanings in different cultures. Without understanding of them, we will probably run into obstacles or make a fun of ourselves in communication. Therefore learning and grasping the symbolic meanings of color words are important. Good understanding of the symbolic meanings of color words can help us communicate effectively among people from different countries. This paper tries to illustrate the different symbolic meanings of color words in Chinese and English cultures by comparison and analysis of them. II. Color and Culture Color words, in whatever languages, are used for describing different things. The statistics show that there are more than 7 million kinds of colors can be recognized in the nature. However, the color names are very limited in the languages because there are only dozens of colors