ORIGINAL PAPER
New Evidence of Genetic Factors In?uencing Sexual Orientation
in Men:Female Fecundity Increase in the Maternal Line
Francesca Iemmola ?Andrea Camperio Ciani
Received:18April 2007/Revised:11March 2008/Accepted:6April 2008/Published online:17June 2008
óSpringer Science+Business Media,LLC 2008
Abstract There is a long-standing debate on the role of gen-
etic factors in?uencing homosexuality because the presence of
these factors contradicts the Darwinian prediction according
to which natural selection should progressively eliminate the
factors that reduce individual fecundity and ?tness.Recently,
however,Camperio Ciani,Corna,and Capiluppi (Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London,Series B:Biological Sciences,
271,2217–2221,2004),comparing the family trees of homo-
sexuals with heterosexuals,reported a signi?cant increase in
fecundity in the females related to the homosexual probands
from the maternal line but not in those related from the paternal
one.This suggested that genetic factors that are partly linked to
the X-chromosome and that in?uence homosexual orientation
in males are not selected against because they increase fecun-
dity in female carriers,thus offering a solution to the Dar-
winian paradox and an explanation of why natural selection
does not progressively eliminate homosexuals.Since then,
new data have emerged suggesting not only an increase in mat-
ernal fecundity but also larger paternal family sizes for homo-
sexuals.These results are partly con?icting and indicate the
need for a replication on a wider sample with a larger geo-
graphic distribution.This study examined the family trees of
250male probands,of which 152were homosexuals.The
results con?rmed the study of Camperio Ciani et al.(2004).
We observed a signi?cant fecundity increase even in primip-
arous mothers,which was not evident in the previous study.
No evidence of increased paternal fecundity was found;thus,
our data con?rmed a sexually antagonistic inheritance partly
linked to the X-chromosome that promotes fecundity in fem-
ales and a homosexual sexual orientation in males.
Keywords Male homosexuality áFecundity áEvolution áSexually antagonistic genetic model áBirth order Introduction At present,various research avenues suggest the presence of genetic factors as partly associated with male homosexuality.One line of evidence comes from the familiality of homo-sexuality.Family studies of biological brothers,adoptive brothers,and monozygotic twins have found that homosexu-ality is more common in brothers of homosexual probands (Bailey &Pillard,1991).Hamer,Hu,Magnuson,Hu,and Pattattucci (1993)studying homosexual brothers with DNA linkage analysis found an increased rate of homosexuality in the maternal line.Hamer et al.(1993)hypothesized a putative genetic factor located on the long arm of the X-chromosome in the q28region (Hu et al.,1995).This ?nding has been dif?cult to replicate,but new genetic ?ndings have been suggested (Bailey et al.,1999;DuPree,Mustanski,Bocklandt,Niever-gelt,&Hamer,2004;Rice,Anderson,Risch,&Ebers,1999).A second independent avenue of research,not incompatible with genetic hypotheses,comes from studies that suggest a role of maternal immune reactions when the fetus is male.This hypothesis suggests that the immune system of the mother could activate an immune reaction against the H-Y antigen produced by the male fetus at an early stage during pregnan-cies,acting against a male differentiation of the brain.This response would increase in the mother with every subsequent pregnancy with a male fetus.Thus,the immunological con?ict between mother and male offspring increases the probability of developing a homosexual orientation in later-born boys with older brothers (Blanchard &Klassen,1997).This happens only in biological brothers,con?rming prenatal causes rather than postnatal ones (Bogaert,2006).
F.Iemmola áA.Camperio Ciani (&)
Department of General Psychology (LIRIPAC),University
of Padova,via Belzoni 80,35121Padova,Italy
e-mail:andrea.camperio@unipd.it 123
Arch Sex Behav (2009)38:393–399
DOI 10.1007/s10508-008-9381-6
In the evolutionary literature,there is a long debate on the role of genetic factors in?uencing homosexuality,because the presence of these factors contradicts the Darwinian prediction that natural selection should progressively eliminate the factors that reduce individual fecundity and?tness,and there is unani-mous agreement that homosexuals reproduce signi?cantly less than heterosexuals(Bell&Weinberg,1978;Moran,1972). This Darwinian paradox has been the central theme of several studies.An intriguing hypothesis suggests that male-male bonds might help survival in social-living non-human primates (Vasey,1995),but this has never been shown in humans.
Wilson(1975),in an effort to solve the Darwinian paradox, suggested a hypothesis based on kin selection.He suggested that homosexuals would have an adaptive role as helpers in their families,through affectionate or economic means or both, promoting the?tness in their close kin,and thus balancing their own direct?tness loss.Recently,however,various researchers have failed to con?rm the kin selection hypothesis.In fact,they found that homosexuals do not contribute in presence or in eco-nomic and affective terms more than heterosexuals(Bobrow& Bailey,2001;Muscarella,2000;Rahman&Hull,2005;Vasey, Pocock,&VanderLaan,2007).
Lastly,in a recent study,Camperio Ciani,Corna,and Capi-luppi(2004)found that ascending females in the maternal line of homosexual probands were signi?cantly more fecund(they produced approximately33%more offspring)than females in the maternal line of heterosexuals.(The term‘‘ascending fem-ales’’is used here to denote females born in generations before the subject’s generation).Camperio Ciani et al.(2004)could not?nd signi?cant differences,however,when comparing ascending females from the paternal line.This effect applied both to homosexuals and bisexuals in the same way(Camperio Ciani,Iemmola,&Blecher,2008).The results of this research strongly con?rm the existence of biological factors previously suggested to partly explain male homosexuality.These results, if con?rmed,would provide the?nal solution to the Darwinian paradox by showing that there are reproductive advantages that balance the?tness loss of male homosexuals.The idea is a sexually antagonistic genetic model that promotes fecundity in females and homosexual orientation in males.
The?rst indirect con?rmations are coming.An interesting study con?rmed that homosexual families are signi?cantly larger,compared with those of heterosexuals,but this applies only in white families and not black families(Q.Rahman,per-sonal communication,2006;Rahman et al.,2008).King et al. (2005)showed that homosexuals have larger families com-pared with heterosexuals irrespective of the paternal line and maternal line.The fecundity increase of homosexual’s mothers is further con?rmed in a non-Western society(Vasey& VanderLaan2007).Furthermore,a number of studies have found that homosexuals have more older brothers than het-erosexuals(Blanchard,2004;Blanchard&Klassen,1997).
As suggested by the results of Blanchard and Lippa(2007), the study by Camperio Ciani et al.(2004)needs replication on a wider sample with a larger geographic distribution to?nd if the higher fecundity in homosexual’s female relatives really exists and if it is unique to the maternal line,or is found in both lines,as hypothesized by King et al.(2005).
Method
Participants
We recruited250probands,according to the following inclu-sion criteria:male sex,age over18years,and not adopted.In this study,we used the same sampling method and the same questionnaires and data analysis as in the previous study by Camperio Ciani et al.(2004).There were98heterosexual probands and152homosexual probands.
Participants were recruited in the following locations:of the152homosexual probands,40were recruited at beaches and seaside resorts,25among working hotel employees and vacationers,39in bars and night clubs,28in gay clubs,15at university institutes,and5in gyms;of the98heterosexual participants,20were recruited in beaches and seaside resorts, 15among working hotel employees and vacationers,11in bars and night clubs,25in football clubs,25at university institutes,and2in gyms.Since many participants were rec-ruited in holiday locations,the participants came from all over Italy,although with a majority from Northern Italy.
All social and demographic variables in the two groups had very similar values:the minimum age was18and maximum age was63years old for both groups.The98heterosexual probands had an average age of32.51years(SD=8.85), and the152homosexual probands had an average age of 32.34years(SD=9.56).
Homosexuals were more frequently not married(90%) compared with heterosexuals(58%).Most participants from both groups came from central north Italy:Veneto(44%), Toscana(13%),Lombardia(10%),and Liguria(9%).The most common academic degree was high school(heterosexuals, 62%;homosexuals,56%),followed by college(heterosexuals, 23%;homosexuals,32%).Most participants in both groups were either students or employed workers.
Procedure
Considering the locations of recruitment and in order to reduce the probability of refusal,in beaches and seaside resorts,in bars and night clubs,university,and gyms,the approach was generally made towards participants caught in moments of temporary inactivity and relaxation.
Once the availability of the participant was con?rmed, the questionnaire and a pen were personally handed over
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with the instruction to complete every part of it within approximately ten minutes(time estimated to be suf?cient for its completion),at the end of which the questionnaire was collected.The same procedure was used for participants contacted in clubs or recruited at work(employees,etc.). Responses from probands were considered reliable for the following reasons.Questions were identical to the previous study by Camperio Ciani et al.(2004),which was validated through a pre-test.All questions were simple,only regarding close relatives(parents,grandparents,number of brothers, sisters,uncles,aunts,and cousins)and questions were again tested for their intelligibility through a pre-test in the present study.To further increase comprehension,researchers expl-ained personally all the details of the questionnaire and were always present nearby ready to clarify any doubt. Measure
The investigation tool used was the self-administrated ques-tionnaire.This included a cover letter with general informa-tion on the purposes of the research and a brief presentation of the following sections of the questionnaire.There were three sections:
1.Biographical information(seven questions):age,region
of birth,region of actual domicile,highest academic degree,profession,marital status,and birth order.
2.The Kinsey scale(Kinsey,Pomeroy,&Martin,1948),to
record the self-identi?cation of the proband on a7-point scale(0=exclusively heterosexual to6=exclusively homosexual),and all four other classic sexual orienta-tion questions on a7-point scale,included in the Kinsey questionnaire(Table1).
3.In the last section,we investigated fecundity as number of
live-born offspring ever produced.There were?ve ques-tions that investigated quantitatively the number and fecundity of the maternal and paternal relatives of the pro-band as parents,grandparents,uncles,aunts,brothers, sisters,and cousins.Half of the probands were asked information?rst about the maternal line and the other half were asked?rst about paternal lineage,in order to avoid sequential systematic errors.
Classi?cation of Probands
Each proband answered each of four questionnaire items about their sexual orientation by endorsing one of seven ordered response options(maximally heterosexual to max-imally homosexual)modelled on the Kinsey scale(Kinsey et al.,1948).Each proband was rated according to the score obtained by averaging his responses to these four items. Sexual orientation is a continuum;however,for our research purposes we had to classify probands into two classes, homosexuals and heterosexuals.We de?ned as heterosex-uals all those probands with average Kinsey scores between 0and1.We de?ned as homosexuals all those probands with average Kinsey scores between2and6(in this study,we did not differentiate between possible bisexuals and exclusive homosexual).These two classes were then subject to sta-tistical analysis.After determining that the two groups did not differ on any social or demographic variable,we then calculated the average fecundity of all classes of relatives included in three ascending generations for each proband. Results
Fecundity
When we compared fecundity between the heterosexual and homosexual probands,a signi?cant difference appeared. The heterosexuals had an average of0.58children(SD= 0.91)and the homosexuals had an average of0.12children (SD=0.49),p\.01,Mann–Whitney test.
Table2presents the results of this study.It shows that the increase of fecundity in the maternal line of the homosexual males was con?rmed.The p-values reported in this table were computed with the Mann–Whitney test,in order to make the Table1Kinsey scale de?nitions and related key questions
0Completely heterosexual
1Predominantly heterosexual but occasionally(rarely)attracted to other men
2Heterosexual but also attracted by men more than occasionally
3Completely bisexual,interested both in men and women
4Homosexual but also attracted by women more than occasionally 5Predominantly homosexual but occasionally(rarely)attracted to women
6Completely homosexual
(1)How would you de?ne yourself
according to the Kinsey scale,
shown above
0123456
Answer the following questions by choosing a score between0and6 where0is‘‘always and only women’’and6is‘‘always and only men’’
(2)If,at a party,you were to desire
a sexual relationship,which sex
of partner would you choose?
0123456
(3)When you fantasize sexual
intercourse,what is the sex of
your partner?
0123456
(4)In the last year,what was the sex
of your sexual partners?
0123456
(5)In the last?ve years of your life,
what was the sex of your sexual
partners?
0123456
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present results directly comparable to those of Camperio Ciani et al.(2004).Our data showed that the fecundity of mothers, including?rstborn mothers,maternal aunts,and also the cumulated fecundity(of mothers,aunts and uncles in the maternal line)was signi?cantly greater than that found for the corresponding maternal heterosexual classes.The fecundity of the father was excluded from the paternal line because it overlaps with that of the mother.This protocol replicates the previous one where Camperio Ciani et al.(2004)were searching for possible fecundity effects of the X-chromosome. In sons,this chromosome is transmitted by the mother and not by the father.The difference in fecundity in maternal grand-parents in this study was marginally signi?cant(p=.09). Most importantly,the signi?cant fecundity increase was found again only in the maternal line.All paternal line dif-ferences between homosexuals and heterosexuals were not signi?cant,except for the fecundity of uncles,which was opposite in direction to the general trend,being lower in homosexuals than in heterosexuals,p\.05.
Birth Order
In this study,we once again con?rmed an excess of older brothers compared with older sisters in the sibships of homo-sexual men[observed:97older brothers,69older sisters; expected(based on the known human sex ratio of106males for every100females born):85.4older brothers and80.6 older sisters,p\.04,one-tailed binomial test].
Furthermore,the homosexuals had a signi?cant greater number of older brothers(M=0.64,SD=0.85)compared with the heterosexuals(M=0.27,SD=0.55),t(248)= 3.82,p\.001,two-tailed.Mean numbers of older sisters,younger brothers,and younger sisters did not differ between the homosexuals and the heterosexuals.
Discussion
This study used a new,larger,and more representative sample.The probands had a nationwide distribution,and not a regional one like the previous study by Camperio Ciani et al.(2004).Furthermore,the probands were recruited in more diverse locations and situations,allowing a much larger variety of homosexuals to be recruited.
The results recon?rmed the thesis of genetic factors that,in terms of inclusive?tness,would produce a balance between the low direct?tness of male homosexuals and the increase of ?tness in their maternal female relatives,as expected in a partially sexually antagonistic genetic model of inheritance.
Our data showed that the homosexuals had sired,at this stage of their reproductive lives,about one?fth of the off-spring produced by the heterosexuals,thus con?rming a strongly reduced?tness as previous described by Moran (1972)and Bell and Weinberg(1978).It should be noted this result was particularly signi?cant because our heterosexual sample was especially low in fertility.One reason is that the heterosexuals were still young(although the homosexuals had the same average age).The second and most important reason is the constraint imposed by our sampling strategy.We needed to recruit the heterosexual controls in exactly the same manner as the homosexual probands;we never recruited homosexuals in family environments;therefore,we never recruited het-erosexuals in family environments either.Thus,we over-sampled not yet married heterosexuals.
Table2Maternal line and paternal line fecundity comparison between the two sexual orientation groups
Class of relatives Likelihood of sharing
X-chromosome Homosexuals Heterosexuals
N Average
fecundity
SD N Average
fecundity
SD p
Mothers1152 2.73 1.4698 2.07 1.08.001 Mothers of?rst borns155 1.780.6956 1.540.81.02 Maternal aunts0.75121 1.96 1.0662 1.430.98.001 Maternal uncles0.2588 1.900.9866 1.770.78n.s. Maternal grandparents0.5149 3.62 1.5797 3.28 1.65.09 Sons and daughters of maternal grandparents a0.25–1361 2.190.91226 1.720.69.001 Paternal aunts096 1.860.9359 1.74 1.06n.s Paternal uncles085 1.75 1.2049 2.000.93.05 Paternal grandparents0146 3.16 1.5295 2.85 1.25n.s. Sons and daughters of paternal grandparents
(excluding father)b
0181 1.780.85108 1.840.84n.s.
a Cumulated fecundity of mothers,maternal aunts,and maternal uncles
b Cumulated fecundity of paternal aunts and paternal uncles
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In this study,a clear difference emerged in the average fecundity of the female relatives in the maternal line of homo-sexuals,a difference that was even more marked and signi?-cant than in the previous one.In particular,we found not only differences in mothers and maternal aunts,but also in the cumu-lated fecundity of maternal females and in the mothers of?rst-borns.These?ndings in Camperio Ciani et al.(2004)were not so clear.
These results con?rm once again that fecundity was sig-ni?cantly higher only in the maternal line.This is somehow in con?ict with the study of King et al.(2005),who found larger family size in homosexuals,irrespective of the paternal or maternal line.This requires some comment.The results of King et al.(2005)were based on a rather large sample;how-ever,sampling procedures are particularly delicate and need special attention.We have discussed elsewhere the possibility that homosexuals might appear more frequently in large families,as a sampling artefact(Camperio Ciani et al.,2004). That is because the families included in sexual orientation studies derive from selected probands,in this case with the homosexual trait,and homosexuality is a relatively rare trait compared to heterosexuality.This might favor the overrepre-sentation of large families for the rarest trait population(homo-sexuals).This phenomenon is referred to as‘‘small population sampling bias.’’This bias is avoided by comparing groups who face equal obstacles in entering the study(Camperio Ciani et al.,2004;Spreen&Marius,1992;Watters&Biernacki, 1989).However,this bias does not account for why the high fecundity was limited to the maternal line and not in the pat-ernal one,as in our case.
In our study,the paternal relatives of homosexuals and heterosexuals showed no differences in fecundity with only one exception(the lower fecundity in the paternal uncles of the homosexual group),and that result was contrary to the?ndings of King et al.(2005).A possible reason why the pattern of results obtained by King et al.(2005)differs from that obta-ined by the present writers relates to how paternal and maternal family size was calculated in King et al.(2005).Furthermore, in our work we followed the protocol of tracking fecundity effects linked to the X-chromosome by limiting comparisons to classes of relatives who were homogeneous in their prob-ability of sharing the X-chromosome with the proband.In con-trast,King et al.(2005)compared classes of relatives of mixed sexes without distinguishing the X-chromosome provenance. As an example,King et al.(2005)included brothers and sisters both in paternal and maternal family sizes.These classes how-ever,received the X-chromosome only from the maternal line and not from the paternal one.Hence,these classes should not be included in the paternal line,otherwise they might overes-timate paternal contribution.Excluding family size,King et al.(2005)reported just a marginally higher number of pater-nal cousins of homosexuals compared with heterosexuals(M= 6.0,SD=6.3vs.M=5.1,SD=6.0)and a signi?cantly higher number of paternal uncles and aunts of homosexuals (M=3.0,SD=2.3vs.M=2.6,SD=2.3).
Neither of these results,which would falsify our hypothe-sis,was con?rmed in our completed studies(Camperio Ciani et al.,2004;the present study)or in forthcoming studies (Camperio Ciani,Cermelli,&Zanzotto,2008;Camperio Ciani,Iemmola,&Lombardi,2008).Further studies will de?nitively clarify this crucial point,because our data support a sexually antagonistic hypothesis partly connected to the X-chromosome,whereas the data of King et al.(2005)sug-gest an over-dominance hypothesis,whereby autosomal factors that promote fecundity might result in promoting homosexuality if overrepresented(Gavrilets&Rice,2006). Only testing the prediction of the two different genetic models against the empirical data collected to date will de?nitively resolve who gave the correct interpretation.
A higher fecundity in homosexuals’mothers is also indi-rectly suggested by the immunological hypothesis of Blan-chard,which predicts a higher number of older brothers in the sibships of homosexuals.Indirectly,because Blanchard never suggested it,but in an extremely low fecundity population such as the Italian one the fact of having at least an older brother is already an indication of having a larger family than average(Blanchard,1997,2004;Blanchard&Lippa,2007). Blanchard’s predictions were also con?rmed in our study:we found that the homosexuals had an excess of older brothers compared with their own number of older sisters and com-pared with the heterosexuals’number of older brothers.The homosexual and heterosexual groups did not differ with regard to the other three classes of siblings.
Our study found something more,however,because Blan-chard’s hypothesis predicts neither an increase of fecundity in maternal aunts of homosexual probands(who,by the way,only occasionally have homosexual sons;Camperio Ciani et al., 2004)nor an increased fecundity in mothers who have a homosexual son as their?rstborn child(and who,by de?nition, can produce only younger brothers and younger sisters of the homosexual son).These facts can be explained only by the hypothesis of genetic factors transmitted in the maternal line (at least partly through the X-chromosome).These factors show different effects in their carriers:when present in a female,they would promote fecundity;when present in a male, they would in?uence sexual orientation toward homosexual-ity.However,homosexuality is not only in?uenced by these, yet unidenti?ed,factors that promote fecundity in mothers and maternal aunts,but it is also de?nitely facilitated by the birth of older brothers,as found by Blanchard(1997,2004).
Gavrilets and Rice(2006)analyzed a number of genetic models to understand the location of candidate genes pro-moting homosexuality.They compared single locus models based on sexually antagonistic selection,over-dominance, maternal effect,and genomic imprinting with a series of empirical researches(Blanchard,2004;Camperio Ciani et al.,
123
2004;King et al.,2005;Mustansky et al.,2005).The results showed that under the random mating assumption a few single locus models are virtually possible,but highly unstable.This means that with small variation of female or male fecundity, the genetic factors promoting male homosexuality can rapidly disappear or reach complete?xation in the population.Such results were reviewed by Savolainen and Lehmann(2007)and widely quoted in the press,which suggested that in the near future male bisexuality might rapidly grow in the population. We believe,on the contrary,that these single locus models are inadequate,and the instability they show is the consequence of this fact.Homosexuality has always been present in practically all human populations,under extremely variable fecundity and social conditions,always at relative low frequency.We do not see why it should just now explode or disappear.We hence believe that a multilocus model might be much more adequate to explain the transmission of male homosexuality,and our laboratory is working on this(Camperio Ciani et al.,2008).
In conclusion,if these results can be replicated elsewhere, perhaps in a non-Italian sample,this will suggest the existence of genetic factors transmitted through the maternal line that both increase the probability of becoming homosexual in males and promote fecundity in females(sexually antago-nistic selection).
The genetic one is not,however,the only explanation for sexual orientation variety;other physiological and environ-mental effects contribute.As in most aspects of human nature, the behavioral phenotype of homosexual orientation should be the result of the interactions of innate factors and experience before and during the lifetime(Churchill,1967;Enquist, Ghirlanda,Wachtmeister,&Lundqvist,2002). Acknowledgments We are grateful to the participants of our study for sharing with us their most personal information.We thank Luca Carniello for his support and help in data analysis.This work was not funded by any public funds and has been supported only by the interests of the authors in the scienti?c progress of this?eld.
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学会用法语表达数 1 un, une 2 deux 3 trois 4 quatre 5 cinq 6 six 7 sept 8 huit 9 neuf 10 dix 11 onze 12 douze 13 treize 14 quatorze 15 quinze 16 seize 17 dix-sept 18 dix-huit 19 dix-neuf 20 vingt 21 vingt et un(une) 22 vingt-deux 23 vingt-trois
24 vingt-quatre 25 vingt-cinq 26 vingt-six 27 vingt-sept 28 vingt-huit 29 vingt-neuf 30 trente 40 quarante 50 cinquante 60 soixante 70 soixante-dix 80 quatre-vingts 90 quatre-vingt-dix 100 cent 1000 mille 10000 dix mille 注意： 1. 法语的数字中，除了onze（11），soixante-onze（71），quatre-vingt-onze（91）没有性的变化，其它带“1”的数词在遇到阴性名词前均要配合。如果是阴性，要用“une”，例如： trente et une cartes 31张卡片 quatre-vingt-une filles 81个女孩 mille et une Nuits 一千零一夜，天方夜谭
2. 一般来说，quatre-vingts后面要加上“s”（因为是4个20，是复数）。但如果后面还有其它数词，就不用加“s”，例如，quatre-vingt-trois （83） 3. cent的配合方法原则上和vingt（20）相同，在复数时要加“s”，但如果后面还有其它数字，就不用加“s”。例如： cinq cents （500） neuf cent cinquante （950） cent un (une)（101），deux cents（200） neuf cent quatre-vingt-dix-neuf （999） 4. mille是不变数词，在任何情况下都不用加“s”。 5. 法语中的1100到1900可以说“mille cent，mille neuf cents”，也可以说“onze c ents”（11个100，1100）“dix neuf cents”（19个100，1900）
液晶屏驱动板的原理与维修代换方法 1、液晶屏驱动板的原理介绍 液晶屏驱动板常被称为A/D<模拟/数字）板，这从某种意义上反应出驱动板实现的主要功能所在。液晶屏要显示图像需要数字化过的视频信号，液晶屏驱动板正是完成从模拟信号到数字信号<或者从一种数字信号到另外一种数字信号）转换的功能模块，并同时在图像控制单元的控制下去驱动液晶屏显示图像。液晶显示器的驱动板如图1、图2所示。 图1 品牌液晶显示器采用的驱动板 图2部分液晶显示器采用的是通用驱动板 如图3所示，液晶屏驱动板上通常包含主控芯片、MCU微控制器、ROM存储器、电源模块、电源接口、VGA视频信号输入接口、OSD按键板接口、高压板接口、LVDS/TTL驱屏信号接口等部分。 液晶屏驱动板的原理框图如图4所示，从计算机主机显示卡送来的视频信
号，通过驱动板上的VGA视频信号输入接口送入驱动板的主控芯片，主控芯片根据MCU微控制器中有关液晶屏的资料控制液晶屏呈现图像。同时，MCU微控制器实现对整机的电源控制、功能操作等。因此，液晶屏驱动板又被称为液晶显示器的主板。 图3 驱动板上的芯片和接口 液晶屏驱动板损坏，可能造成无法开机、开机黑屏、白屏、花屏、纹波干扰、按键失效等故障现象，在液晶显示器故障中占有较大的比例。 液晶屏驱动板广泛采用了大规模的集成电路和贴片器件，电路元器件布局
紧凑，给查找具体元器件或跑线都造成了很大的困难。在非工厂条件下，它的可修性较小，若驱动板因为供电部分、VGA视频输入接口电路部分损坏等造成的故障，只要有电路知识我们可以轻松解决，对于那些因为MCU微控制器内部的数据损坏造成无法正常工作的驱动板，在拥有数据文件<驱动程序）的前提下，我们可以用液晶显示器编程器对MCU微控制器进行数据烧写，以修复固件损坏引起的故障。早期的驱动板，需要把MCU微控制器拆卸下来进行操作，有一定的难度。目前的驱动板已经普遍开始采用支持ISP<在线编程）的MCU微控制器，这样我们就可以通过ISP工具在线对MCU微控制器内部的数据进行烧写。比如我们使用的EP1112最新液晶显示器编程器就可以完成这样的工作。 图4 驱动板原理框图 在液晶显示器的维修工作中，当驱动板出现故障时，若液晶显示器原本就使用的是通用驱动板，就可以直接找到相应主板代换处理，当然，仍需要在其MCU中写入与液晶屏对应的驱动程序；若驱动板是品牌机主板，我们一般采用市场上常见的“通用驱动板”进行代换方法进行维修； “通用驱动板”也称“万能驱动板”。目前，市场上常见的“通用驱动板”有乐华、鼎科、凯旋、悦康等品牌，如图5所示，尽管这种“通用驱动板”所用元器件与“原装驱动板”不一致，但只要用液晶显示器编程器向“通用驱动板”写入液晶屏对应的驱动程序<购买编程器时会随机送液晶屏驱动程序光盘），再通过简单地改接线路，即可驱动不同的液晶屏，通用性很强，而且维修成本也不高，用户容易接受。
基数词： 0 = zéro 1 = un（e） 2 = deux 3 = trois 4 = quatre 5 = cinq 6 = six 7 = sept 8 = huit 9 = neuf 10 = dix 11 = onze 12 = douze 13 = treize 14 = quatorze 15 = quinze 16 = seize 17 = dix-sept 18 = dix-huit 19 = dix-neuf 20 = vingt 21 = vingt et un 22 = vingt-deux 23 = vingt-trois 30 = trente 31 = trente et un 32 = trente-deux 33 = trente-trois 40 = quarante 41 = quarante et un 42 = quarante-deux 43 = quarante-trois 50 = cinquante 51 = cinquante et un
60 = soixante 61 = soixante et un 62 = soixante-deux 70 = soixante-dix 71 = soixante et onze 72 = soixante-douze 73 = soixante-treize 80 = quatre-vingts 81 = quatre-vingt-un 82 = quatre-vingt-deux 83 = quatre-vingt-trois 90 = quatre-vingt-dix 91 = quatre-vingt-onze 92 = quatre-vingt-douze 93 = quatre-vingt-treize 99 = quatre-vingt-dix-neuf 100 = cent 101 = cent un 102 = cent deux 110 = cent dix 150 = cent cinquante 182 = cent quatre-vingt-deux 200 = deux cents 201=deux cent un 300 = trois cents 400 = quatre cents 500 = cinq cents 600 = six cents 700 = sept cents 800 = huit cents 900 = neuf cents 1.000 = mille 1.001 = mille un 1.500 = mille cinq cents 2.000 = deux mille 10.000 = dix mille 100.000 = cent mille 200.000 = deux cents mille
TFT LCD液晶显示器的驱动原理 我们针对feed through电压,以及二阶驱动的原理来做介绍.简单来说Feed through电压主要是由于面板上的寄生电容而产生的,而所谓三阶驱动的原理就是为了解决此一问题而发展出来的解决方式,不过我们这次只介绍二阶驱动,至于三阶驱动甚至是四阶驱动则留到下一次再介绍.在介绍feed through电压之前,我们先解释驱动系统中gate driver所送出波形的timing图. SVGA分辨率的二阶驱动波形 我们常见的1024*768分辨率的屏幕,就是我们通常称之为SVGA分辨率的屏幕.它的组成顾名思义就是以1024*768=786432个pixel来组成一个画面的数据.以液晶显示器来说,共需要1024*768*3个点(乘3是因为一个pixel需要蓝色,绿色,红色三个点来组成.)来显示一个画面.通常在面板的规划,把一个平面分成X-Y轴来说,在X轴上会有1024*3=3072列.这3072列就由8颗384输出channel的source driver 来负责推动.而在Y轴上,会有768行.这768行,就由3颗256输出channel的gate driver来负责驱动.图1就是SVGA分辨率的gate driver输出波形的timing图.图中gate 1 ~ 768分别代表着768个gate
driver的输出.以SVGA的分辨率,60Hz的画面更新频率来计算,一个frame的周期约为16.67 ms.对gate 1来说,它的启动时间周期一样为16.67ms.而在这16.67 ms之间,分别需要让gate 1 ~ 768共768条输出线,依序打开再关闭.所以分配到每条线打开的时间仅有16.67ms/768=21.7us而已.所以每一条gate d river打开的时间相对于整个frame是很短的,而在这短短的打开时间之内,source driver再将相对应的显示电极充电到所需的电压. 而所谓的二阶驱动就是指gate driver的输出电压仅有两种数值,一为打开电压,一为关闭电压.而对于common电压不变的驱动方式,不管何时何地,电压都是固定不动的.但是对于common电压变动的驱动方式,在每一个frame开始的第一条gate 1打开之前,就必须把电压改变一次.为什么要将这些输出电压的t iming介绍过一次呢?因为我们接下来要讨论的feed through电压,它的成因主要是因为面板上其它电压的变化,经由寄生电容或是储存电容,影响到显示电极电压的正确性.在LCD面板上主要的电压变化来源有3个,分别是gate driver电压变化,source driver电压变化,以及common电压变化.而这其中影响最大的就是gate driver电压变化(经由Cgd或是Cs),以及common电压变化(经由Clc或是Cs+Clc). Cs on common架构且common电压固定不动的feed through电压 我们刚才提到,造成有feed through电压的主因有两个.而在common电压固定不动的架构下,造成f eed through电压的主因就只有gate driver的电压变化了.在图2中,就是显示电极电压因为feed thro ugh电压影响,而造成电压变化的波形图.在图中,请注意到gate driver打开的时间,相对于每个frame 的时间比例是不正确的.在此我们是为了能仔细解释每个frame的动作,所以将gate driver打开的时间画的比较大.请记住,正确的gate driver打开时间是如同图1所示,需要在一个frame的时间内,依序将7
心之所向，所向披靡 0802字符型液晶显示模块 外形尺寸：PCB外形：40*30.5毫米液晶屏金属黑框：38*23.5毫米 0802采用标准的16脚接口，其中: 第1脚：VSS为地电源 第2脚：VDD接5V正电源 第3脚：V0为液晶显示器对比度调整端，接正电源时对比度最弱，接地电源时对比度最高，对比度过高时会产生“鬼影”，使用时可以通过一个10K的电位器调整对比度 第4脚：RS为寄存器选择，高电平时选择数据寄存器、低电平时选择指令寄存器。 第5脚：RW为读写信号线，高电平时进行读操作，低电平时进行写操作。当RS和RW共同为低电平时可以写入指令或者显示地址，当RS为低电平RW为高电平时可以读忙信号，当RS为高电平RW为低电平时可以写入数据。 第6脚：E端为使能端，当E端由高电平跳变成低电平时，液晶模块执行命令。 第7～14脚：D0～D7为8位双向数据线。 第15～16脚：空脚（背光）
0802液晶模块内部的字符发生存储器（CGROM)已经存储了160个不同的点阵字符图形，如表1所示，这些字符有：阿拉伯数字、英文字母的大小写、常用的符号、和日文假名等，每一个字符都有一个固定的代码，比如大写的英文字母“A”的代码是01000001B（41H），显示时模块把地址41H中的点阵字符图形显示出来，我们就能看到字母“A” 1602液晶模块内部的控制器共有11条控制指令，如表2所示， 它的读写操作、屏幕和光标的操作都是通过指令编程来实现的。（说明：1为高电平、0为低电平）指令1：清显示，指令码01H,光标复位到地址00H位置 指令2：光标复位，光标返回到地址00H 指令3：光标和显示模式设置 I/D：光标移动方向，高电平右移，低电平左移S:屏幕上所有文字是否左移或者右移。高电平表示有效，低电平则无效 指令4：显示开关控制。D：控制整体显示的开与关，高电平表示开显示，低电平表示关显示 C：控制光标的开与关，高电平表示有光标，低电平表示无光标B：控制光标是否闪烁，高电平闪烁，低电平不闪烁 指令5：光标或显示移位S/C：高电平时移动显示的文字，低电平时移动光标 指令6：功能设置命令DL：高电平时为4位总线，低电平时为8位总线 N：低电平时为单行显示，高电平时双行显示 F:低电平时显示5x7的点阵字符，高电平时显示5x10的点阵字符（有些模块是DL：高电平时为8位总线，低电平时为4位总线） 指令7：字符发生器RAM地址设置 指令8：DDRAM地址设置 指令9：读忙信号和光标地址BF：为忙标志位，高电平表示忙，此时模块不能接收命令或者数据，如果为低电平表示不忙。 指令10：写数据 指令11：读数据 0802液晶显示模块可以和单片机AT89C51直接接口，电路如图1所示。 液晶显示模块是一个慢显示器件，所以在执行每条指令之前一定要确认模块的忙标志为低电平，表示不忙，否则此指令失效。要显示字符时要先输入显示字符地址，也就是告诉模块在哪里显示字符，表3是0802的内部显示地址. 比如第二行第一个字符的地址是40H，那么是否直接写入40H就可以将光标定位在第二行第一个字符的位置呢？这样不行，因为写入显示地址时要求最高位D7恒定为高电平1所以实际写入的数据应该是01000000B（40H)+10000000B(80H)=11000000B(C0H) 以下是在液晶模块的第二行第一个字符的位置显示字母“A”的程序： ORG 0000H RS EQU P3.7;确定具体硬件的连接方式 RW EQU P3.6 ;确定具体硬件的连接方式 E EQU P3.5 ;确定具体硬件的连接方式 MOV P1,#00000001B；清屏并光标复位 ACALL ENABLE;调用写入命令子程序 MOV P1,#00111000B ；设置显示模式:8位2行5x7点阵 ACALL ENABLE ;调用写入命令子程序 MOV P1,#00001111B；显示器开、光标开、光标允许闪烁 ACALL ENABLE ;调用写入命令子程序 MOV P1,#00000110B；文字不动，光标自动右移 ACALL ENABLE ;调用写入命令子程序 MOV P1,#0C0H；写入显示起始地址（第二行第一个位置） ACALL ENABLE ;调用写入命令子程序 MOV P1,＃01000001B ；字母A的代码
法语数字表达形式 -----长沙艾法语言培训学校整理法语中，1-16是特殊的表达，17以后就有规律了，即10+几，20+几，30+几等等，另外要注意的是，法语中经常有阴阳性的区别，那么数字也是一样，除了onze（11），soixante-onze （71），quatre-vingt-onze（91）没有性的变化，其它带“1”的数词在遇到阴性名词前均要配合。如果是阴性，要用“une”，例如 trente et une cartes 31张卡片。 1 un, une 2 deux 3 trois 4 quatre 5 cinq 6 six 7 sept 8 huit 9 neuf 10 dix 11 onze 12 douze 13 treize 14 quatorze 15 quinze 16 seize 17 dix-sept 18 dix-huit 19 dix-neuf 20 vingt 21 vingt et un(une) 22 vingt-deux
23 vingt-trois 24 vingt-quatre 25 vingt-cinq 26 vingt-six 27 vingt-sept 28 vingt-huit 29 vingt-neuf 30 trente 40 quarante 50 cinquante 60 soixante 70 soixante-dix 80 quatre-vingts 90 quatre-vingt-dix 100 cent 1000 mille 10000 dix mille 注意：30-40之间的数字可以参照20几的写法,依此类推几十几，100以后的数字都是类似的表达。 法语数字的表达记住了吗？在实际运用时，千万别忘记它的阴阳性哦~
led液晶显示器的驱动原理 LED液晶显示器的驱动原理 艾布纳科技有限公司 前两次跟大家介绍有关液晶显示器操作的基本原理, 那是针对液晶本身的特性,与 TFT LCD 本身结构上的操作原理来做介绍. 这次我们针对 TFT LCD 的整体系统面来做介绍, 也就是对其驱动原理来做介绍, 而其驱动原理仍然因为一些架构上差异的关系, 而有所不同. 首先我们来介绍由于 Cs(storage capacitor)储存 电容架构不同, 所形成不同驱动系统架构的原理. Cs(storage capacitor)储存电容的架构 一般最常见的储存电容架构有两种, 分别是Cs on gate与Cs on common这两种. 这两种顾名思义就可以知道, 它的主要差别就在于储存电容是利用gate走线或是common走线来完成的. 在上一篇文章中, 我曾提到, 储存电容主要是为了让充好电的电压,能保持到下一次更新画面的时候之用. 所以我们就必须像在 CMOS 的制程之中, 利用不同层的走线, 来形成平行板电容. 而在TFT LCD的制程之中, 则是利用显示电极与gate走线或是common走线,所形成的平行板电容,来制作出储存电容Cs.
图1就是这两种储存电容架构, 从图中我们可以很明显的知道, Cs on gate由于不必像Cs on common一样, 需要增加一条额外的common走线, 所以它的开口率(Aperture ratio)会比较大. 而开口率的大小, 是影响面板的亮度与设计的重要因素. 所以现今面板的设计大多使用Cs on gate的方式. 但是由于Cs on gate的方式, 它的储存电容是由下一条的gate走线与显示电极之间形成的.(请见图2的Cs on gate与Cs on common的等效电路) 而gate走线, 顾名思义就是接到每一个TFT 的gate端的走线, 主要就是作为gate driver送出信号, 来打开TFT, 好让TFT对显示电极作充放电的动作. 所以当下一条gate走线, 送出电压要打开下一个TFT时 , 便会影响到储存电容上储存电压的大小. 不过由于下一条gate走线打开到关闭的时间很短,(以1024*768分辨率, 60Hz更新频率的面板来说. 一条gate走线打开的时间约为20us, 而显示画面更新的时间约为16ms, 所以相对而言, 影响有限.) 所以当下一条gate走线关闭, 回复到原先的电压, 则Cs储存电容的电压, 也会随之恢复到正常. 这也是为什么, 大多数的储存电容设计都是采用Cs on gate的方式的原因.
TFT LCD液晶显示器的驱动原理(一) 前两次跟大家介绍有关液晶显示器操作的基本原理，那是针对液晶本身的特性，与TFT LCD本身结构上的操作原理来做介绍。这次我们针对TFT LCD的整体系统面来做介绍，也就是对其驱动原理来做介绍，而其驱动原理仍然因为一些架构上差异的关系，而有所不同。首先我们来介绍由于 Cs(storage capacitor)储存电容架构不同，所形成不同驱动系统架构的原理。 Cs(storage capacitor)储存电容的架构 一般最常见的储存电容架构有两种，分别是Cs on gate与Cs on common这两种。这两种顾名思义就可以知道，它的主要差别就在于储存电容是利用gate走线或是common走线来完成的。在上一篇文章中提到，储存电容主要是为了让充好电的电压，能保持到下一次更新画面的时候之用。所以我们就必须像在CMOS的制程之中，利用不同层的走线，来形成平行板电容。而在TFT LCD的制程之中，则是利用显示电极与gate走线或是common走线，所形成的平行板电容，来制作出储存电容Cs。
图1就是这两种储存电容架构，从图中我们可以很明显的知道，Cs on gate由于不必像Cs on co mmon一样，需要增加一条额外的common走线，所以它的开口率(Aperture ratio)会比较大。而开口率的大小，是影响面板的亮度与设计的重要因素。所以现今面板的设计大多使用Cs on gate的方式。但是由于Cs on gate的方式，它的储存电容是由下一条的gate走线与显示电极之间形成的。(请见图2的Cs on gate与Cs on common的等效电路) 而gate走线，顾名思义就是接到每一个TFT的gate 端的走线，主要就是作为gate driver送出信号，来打开TFT，好让TFT对显示电极作充放电的动作。所以当下一条gate走线，送出电压要打开下一个TFT时，便会影响到储存电容上储存电压的大小。不过由于下一条gate走线打开到关闭的时间很短，(以1024×768分辨率，60Hz更新频率的面板来说.
比较 Et： Quant à la zone euro, sa croissance culminerait à 1,3 % en 2008 et à 1 % en 2009. alors que (tandis que): Le Japon continue de stagner et le PIB sud-coréen a perdu 0,7 % au premier trimestre 2003, alors que la Corée du Sud affichait la plus forte e xpansion de tous les pays de l’OCDE en 2002 86% des Chinois se disent satisfaits de la fa?on dont leur pays est dirigé, alors qu'ils n'étaient que 48% en 2002. Après : Après + 1,8 % en 2001, + 1,3 % en 2002, les exportations fran?aises ont baissé de 1,8 %. par rapport à (comparant à) : En 2008, les profits ont perdu 43. 8% par rapport à l’année précédente. Le chiffre d’affaires s’inscrit à 48 417 M€, en recul de 10,9 % par rapport aux 54 356 M€ de 2008. A la différence de : A la différence de la croissance remarquable de la Chine, l’Europe a souffert une chute économique inquiétante. Etre supérieur / inférieur à : En 1996 le salaire horaire moyen d’un Allemand était supérieur au salaire fran?ais. contre 82% des Chinois pensent que la situation économique de leur pays est bonne, contre 52% il y a 6 ans. 247 millions en ont étédécomptées sur les quatre premiers mois de l'année, contre 269
LED电子显示屏常见驱动方式介绍 目前市场上LED显示屏的驱动方式有静态扫描和动态扫描两种，静态扫描又分为静态实像素和静态虚拟，动态扫描也分为动态实像和动态虚拟。下面由明新源科技为大家介绍下LED电子显示屏常见的驱动方式吧。 河南明新源相关负责人介绍说，在一定的显示区域内，同时点亮的行数与整个区域行数的比例，称扫描方式;室内单双色一般为1/16扫描，室内全彩LED显示屏一般是1/8 扫描，室外单双色一般是1/4扫描，室外全彩显示屏一般是静态扫描。驱动IC一般用国产HC595，台湾MBI5026，日本东芝TB62726，一般有1/2 扫，1/4扫，1/8扫，1/16扫。 举列说明：一个常用的全彩模组像素为16*8 (2R1G1B)，模组总共使用的LED灯是：16*8(2+1+1)=512个，如果用MBI5026 驱动，MBI5026 为16位芯片，512/16=32 (1)如果用8个MBI5026芯片，是动态1/4扫虚拟。 (2)如果用16个MBI5026芯片，是动态1/2扫虚拟。 (3)如果用32 个MBI5026芯片，是静态虚拟。 (4)用6个MBI5026芯片，是动态1/4扫实像素。 (5)用12个MBI5026芯片，是动态1/2扫实像素。 (6)如果板子上两个红灯串连，用个MBI5026芯片，是静态实像素。 在LED单元板，扫描方式有1/16，1/8，1/4，1/2，静态。LED电子显示屏常见驱动方式介绍还有哪些，该如何区分呢?一个最简单的办法就是数一下单元板的LED灯数目和74HC595的数量。计算方法：LED的数目除以74HC595的数目再除以8 =几分之一扫描。 实像素与虚拟是相对应的简单来说，实像素屏就是指构成显示屏的红绿蓝三种发光管中的每一种发光管最终只参与一个像素的成像使用，以获得足够的亮度。虚拟像素是利用软件算法控制每种颜色的发光管最终参与到多个相邻像素的成像当中，从而使得用较少的灯管实现较大的分辨率，能够使显示分辨率提高四倍。
法语y的基本用法 一．作副词用解释为：这儿、那儿 * Allons-y . 我们去（那儿）。我们走。 * Vas ( restes ) -y . 去（呆在）那儿。 （命令式中为使语音协调，在动词第二人称单数词尾加s ） * Aimez-vous cet endroit? --- Oui, on y est bien .您喜欢这个地方吗? 我喜欢，这儿很好。 * Je suis passé chez lui , mais il n'y était pas .我到他家去拜访，但他不在。* Je l'y ai vu . 我曾在那儿见到他。 * Ah ! j'y suis . ( 转) 啊，我懂了！明白了。 * Je n'y suis pour rien . 我与此无关。 二．作副代词用 一般放在有关动词前，代替以à, dans, sur 等介词引导的地点状语 * M. Wang est-il dans le bureau ? --- Oui, il y est , je pense . 王先生在办公室里吗？--- 是，我想他在。 * Elle va au cinéma , je veux y aller, moi aussi. 她去看电影，我也想去。 三．作人称代词用 1．代替à及由à引出的动词间接宾语或形容词补语 * （指事物）对这个，对这些 L'état y relatif . 与此有关的情况 * （指人）对他，对她，对他们，对她们
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TFT液晶屏：https://www.doczj.com/doc/613315921.html, 段码LCD液晶屏驱动方法 段码LCD液晶屏驱动方法 首先，不要以为用单片机来驱动就以为段码屏是直流驱动的，其实，段码屏是交流驱动，什么是交流？矩形波，正弦波等。大家可能会经常用驱动芯片来玩，例如HT1621等，但是有些段式屏IO口比较少，或者说IO口充足的情况下，也可以省去写控制器的驱动了。与单片机接口方便，而后者驱动电流小，功耗低、寿命长、字形美观、显示清晰、视角大、驱动方式灵活、应用广泛。但在控制上LCD较复杂，因为LCD 电极之间的相对电压直流平均值必须为0，否则易引起LCD氧化，因此LCD不能简单地用电平信号控制，而要用一定波形的方波序列来控制。 LCD显示有静态和时分割两种方式，前者简单，但是需要较多的口线；后者复杂，但所需口线较少，这两种方式由电极引线的选择方式确定。下面以电子表的液晶显示为例，小时的高位同时灭或亮，分钟的高位在显示数码1～5时，其顶部和底部也是同时灭或亮，两个dot点也是同时亮或灭，其驱动方式是偏置比为1/2的时分割驱动，共有11个段电极和两个公共电极。但是，IO模拟驱动段式液晶有一个前提条件，就是IO必须是三态，为什么？ 下面我们一起细细道来： 第一步，段码式液晶屏的重要参数：工作电压，占空比，偏压比。这三个参数非常重要，必须都要满足。 第二步，驱动方式：根据LCD的驱动原理可知，LCD像素点上只能加上AC电压，LCD显示器的对比度由COM脚上的电压值减去SEG脚上的电压值决定，当这个电压差大于LCD的饱和电压就能打开像素点，小于LCD阈值电压就能关闭像素点，LCD型MCU已经由内建的LCD驱动电路自动产生LCD驱动信号，因此只要I/O口能仿真输出该驱动信号，就能完成LCD的驱动。 段码式液晶屏幕主要有两种引脚，COM，SEG，跟数码管很像，但是，压差必须是交替变化，例如第一时刻是正向的3V，那么第二时刻必须是反向的3V，注意一点，如果给段码式液晶屏通直流电，不用多久屏幕就会废了，所以千万注意。下面我们来考虑如何模拟COM口的波形，以1/4D，1/2B为例子：
TFT-LCD液晶显示器的驱动原理 LCD显示器在近年逐渐加快了替代CRT显示器的步伐，你打算购买一台LCD吗？你了解LCD吗？液晶显示器和传统的CRT显示器，在其发光的技术原理上有什么不同？传统的CRT 显示器主要是依靠显象管内的电子枪发射的电子束射击显示屏内侧的荧光粉来发光，在显示器内部人造磁场的有意干扰下，电子束会发生一定角度的偏转，扫描目标单元格的荧光粉而显示不同的色彩。而TFT-LCD却是采用“背光（backlight）”原理，使用灯管作为背光光源，通过辅助光学模组和液晶层对光线的控制来达到较为理想的显示效果。 液晶是一种规则性排列的有机化合物，它是一种介于固体和液体之间的物质，目前一般采用的是分子排列最适合用于制造液晶显示器的nematic细柱型液晶。液晶本身并不能构发光，它主要是通过因为电压的更改产生电场而使液晶分子排列产生变化来显示图像。 液晶面板主要是由两块无钠玻璃夹着一个由偏光板、液晶层和彩色滤光片构成的夹层所组成。偏光板、彩色滤光片决定了有多少光可以通过以及生成何种颜色的光线。液晶被灌在两个制作精良的平面之间构成液晶层，这两个平面上列有许多沟槽，单独平面上的沟槽都是平行的，但是这两个平行的平面上的沟槽却是互相垂直的。简单的说就是后面的平面上的沟槽是纵向
排列的话，那么前面的平面就是横向排列的。位于两个平面间液晶分子的排列会形成一个Z轴向90度的逐渐扭曲状态。背光光源即灯管发出的光线通过液晶显示屏背面的背光板和反光膜，产生均匀的背光光线，这些光线通过后层会被液晶进行Z 轴向的扭曲，从而能够通过前层平面。如果给液晶层加电压将会产生一个电场，液晶分子就会重新排列，光线无法扭转从而不能通过前层平面，以此来阻断光线。 LCD由两块玻璃板构成，厚约1mm，其间由包含有液晶(LC)材料的5μm均匀间隔隔开。因为液晶材料本身并不发光，所以在显示屏两边都设有作为光源的灯管，而在液晶显示屏背面有一块背光板（或称匀光板）和反光膜，背光板是由荧光物质组成的可以发射光线，其作用主要是提供均匀的背景光源。背光板发出的光线在穿过第一层偏振过滤层之后进入包含成千上万水晶液滴的液晶层。液晶层中的水晶液滴都被包含在细小的单元格结构中，一个或多个单元格构成屏幕上的一个像素。在玻璃板与液晶材料之间是透明的电极，电极分为行和列，在行与列的交叉点上，通过改变电压而改变液晶的旋光状态，液晶材料的作用类似于一个个小的光阀。在液晶材料周边是控制电路部分和驱动电路部分。当LCD中的电极产生电场时，液晶分子就会产生扭曲，从而将穿越其中的光线进行有规则的折射，然后经过第二层过滤层的过滤在屏幕上显示出来。 液晶显示器的缺点在于亮度、画面均匀度、可视角度和反应
液晶显示器常用通用驱动板 2009-12-31 18:22 1．常用“通用驱动板”介绍 目前，市场上常见的驱动板主要有乐华、鼎科、凯旋、华升等品牌。驱动板配上不同的程序，就驱动不同的液晶面板，维修代换十分方便。常见的驱动板主要有以下几种类型： （1） 2023 B-L驱动板 2023B－L驱动板的主控芯片为RTD2023B，主要针对LVDS接口设计，实物如图1所示。 图1 2023B-L驱动板实物 该驱动板的主要特点是：支持LVDS接口液晶面板，体积较小，价格便宜。主要参数如下： 输入接口类型：VGA模拟RGB输入； 输出接口类型：LVDS； 显示模式：640×350／70Hz～1600×1200／75Hz； 即插即用：符合VESA DDC1／2B规范； 工作电压：DC 12V±1.0V，2～3A； 适用范围：适用于维修代换19in以下液晶显示器驱动板。 2023B－L驱动板上的VGA输入接口各引脚功能见表2，TXD、RXD脚一般不用。
表2 VGA插座引脚功能 2023B-L驱动板上的按键接口可以接五个按键、两个LED指示灯，各引脚功能见表3。 表3 2023B-L驱动板上的按键接口引脚功能 2023B-L驱动板上的LVDS输出接口（30脚）引脚功能见表4。 表4 2023B-L驱动板LVDS输出接口各引脚功能 2023B-L驱动板上的高压板接口引脚功能见表5。
表5 2023B-L驱动板上的高压板接口引脚功能 （2）203B-L驱动板 2023B-L主要针对TTL接口设计，其上的LVDS接口为插孔，需要重新接上插针后才能插LVDS插头。2023B-T驱动板实物如图6所示。 图6 2023B-T驱动板实物图 2023B-T驱动板体积比2023B-L稍大，价格也相对高一些，其主要参数如下： 输入接口类型：VGA模拟RGB输入； 输出接口类型：TTL； 显示模式：640×350／70Hz～1280×1024／75 Hz： 即插即用：符合VESA DDC1／2B规范； 工作电压：DC 12V±1.0V，2～3A； 适用范围：适用于维修代换20in以下液晶显示器的驱动板。 2023B-T驱动板的VCA输入接口、按键接口、LVDS输出接口、高压板接口引脚功能与前面介绍的2023B-L驱动板基本一致。
1. un 2. deux 3. trios 4. quatre 5. cinq 6. six 7. sept 8. huit 9. neuf 10. d ix 11. o nze 12. d ouze 13. t reize 14. q uatorze 15. q uinze 16. s eize 17. d ix-sept 18. d ix-huit 19. d ix-neuf 20. v ingt 21. v ingt et un 22. v ingt-deux 23. v ingt-trois 24. v ingt-quatre 25. v ingt-cinq 26. v ingt-six 27. v ingt-sept 28. v ingt-huit 29. v ingt-neuf 30. t rente 31. t rente et un 32. t rente-deux 33. t rente-trois 34. t rente-quatre 35. t rente-cinq 36. t rente-six 37. t rente-sept 38. t rente-huit 39. t rente-neuf 40. q uarante 41. q uarante et un 42. q uarante-deux 43. q uarante-trois 44. q uarante-quatre 45. q uarante-cinq 46. q uarante-six 47. q uarante-sept 48. q uarante-huit 49. q uarante-neuf 50. c inquante 51. c inquante et un 52. c inquante-deux 53. c inquante-trois 54. c inquante-quatre 55. c inquante-cinq 56. c inquante-six 57. c inquante-sept 58. c inquante-huit 59. c inquante-neuf 60. s oixante 61. s oixante et un 62. s oixante-deux 63. s oixante-trois 64. s oixante-quatre 65. s oixante-cinq 66. s oixante-six 67. s oixante-sept 68. s oixante-huit 69. s oixante-neuf 70. s oixante-dix 71. s oixante et onze 72. s oixante-douze 73. s oixante-treize 74. s oixante-quatorze 75. s oixante-quinze 76. s oixante-seize 77. s oixante-dix-sept 78. s oixante-dix-huit 79. s oixante-dix-neuf 80. q uatre-vingts 81. q uatre-vingt-un 82. q uatre-vingt-deux 83. q uatre-vingt-trois 84. q uatre-vingt-quatre 85. q uatre-vingt-cinq 86. q uatre-vingt-six 87. q uatre-vingt-sept 88. q uatre-vingt-huit 89. q uatre-vingt-neuf 90. q uatre-vingt-dix 91. q uatre-vingt-onze 92. q uatre-vingt-douze 93. q uatre-vingt-treize 94. quatre-vingt-quatorze 95. q uatre-vingt-quinze 96. q uatre-vingt-seize 97. q uatre-vingt-dix-sept 98. q uatre-vingt-dix-huit 99. q uatre-vingt-dix-neuf 100. cent
I主语人称代词 1．1．1．词形 如同英语中人称代词主格，用作主语。 1）1）1）tu 用作家人、好友间；vous（您）礼貌、尊重。 2）2）2）第三人称也可用作（它，它们） II冠词 * 抽象名词前，一般用定冠词Je n’aime pas le café. * 名词作表语，表身份、职业、国籍时，可省冠词Je suis étudiant. * 定冠词le les前有介词à, de 时，要缩合au(à + le) , aux (à + les) , du ( de + le ) , des ( de + les )。Nous allons au magasin. III名词 1．1．1．阴阳性人与动物的自然性别或固定用法un étudiant/ une étudiante le frère/ la so e ur une valise mon bureau 某些行业无阴性，但可用于女性un professeur 2．2．2．复数词尾加s 但不发音；un stylo/des stylos, une chaise / des chaises；-s –x –z 单复数相同un cours / des cours；-eau, -au, -eu结尾复数加x 但不发音un tableau / des tableaux；-al结尾复数改为-aux un journal/ des journaux 3．3．3．种类月份、星期、语种在法语中不属于专用名词，词首不用大写décembre, fran?ais IV动词变位 法语按动词变位分为三组：
第一组-er结尾；第二组-ir结尾；第三组-re, -oir, -ir结尾 直陈式现在时（英语中的现在进行时和一般现在时）中，第一组动词变位如下： parler je parle vous parlez tu parles nous parlons il parle ils parlent V一般疑问句 1．陈述句型，语调上升Vous parlez anglais ? 2．主谓倒置，中加- Etes-vous médecins ? 第三人称单数不以t, d结尾时A-t-il un manuel de fran?ais ? 3．疑问词放前Est-ce qu’elle a un manuel de fran?ais ? GRAMMAIRE I主有形容词 3．3．1．词形 mon amie。 4．4．2．用法 1）1）1）主有形容词的性、数与所限名词的性数一致，与所有者性别无关。son livre 2）2）2）所有者为复数，所有物是每人一件时，一般用单数主有形容词。 Ouvrez votre livre à la page 20. (Open your books at page 20.) II两个名词间的de