On the Criminal Procedure in the United States
What is criminal procedure?
Criminal procedures deals with the set of rules governing the series of proceedings through which the government enforces substantive criminal law. Municipalities, states, and the federal government each have their criminal codes, defining types of conduct that constitute crimes. Titles 18 of the U.S. Code outlines all federal crimes. Typically, federal crimes deal with activities that either extend beyond state boundaries or directly impact federal interests.
The U.S. Supreme Court, pursuant to its authority under the Rules Enabling Act, first promulgated the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, which congress, in turn, passed. The Federal Rules outline the procedure for conducting federal criminal trials. The Federal Rules incorporate and expound upon all guarantees included within the U.S. Constitution’s Bill of Rights. A few of the rights are guaranteed to criminal defendants by the constitution.
1. Investigatory and accusatory police procedure
The U.S. Constitution, the Federal Rules and the federal court system’s interpretations of both provide guidance and procedural canons that law enforcement must follow. Failure to follow such procedure may result in the suppression of evidence of the release of arrested suspect. Substantive due process requires police to make criminal defendants aware of their rights prior to the defendant making any statements if the government intends to use those statements as evidence against the defendant. For example, law enforcement must ensure that the defendant understands the right to remain silent and the right to have an attorney present, as the Fifth and Sixth Amendments respectively provide. The defendant must knowingly, intelligently, and voluntarily waive those rights in order for the government to use any statement as evidence against the defendant. Law enforcement also must abide by the confines of the Forth Amendment, which prohibits the government from performing unreasonable searches and seizures. Courts ordinarily suppress evidence obtained during an unreasonable search or seizure and offered against the accused. In order to avoid illegally searching or seizing the property of a suspect, law enforcement personnel
typically obtain search warrants. To obtain a search warrant, law enforcement must show probable cause, must support the showing by oath or affirmation, and must describe in particular the place they will search and the items they will seize. A judge can find probable cause only be examining the totality of the circumstances. Exceptions to the warrant requirement exist, however. These exceptions include searches made at or near the border ; a search following a lawful arrest; a stop-and-frisk arrest; where the seized items are in plain view; where the articles are in an automobile; where the private individual makes the search; and under exigent circumstances, where the officer has probable cause for a search to find a crime or evidence relating to a crime. The Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution applies all substantive due process rights to state criminal defendants.
About the procedures, we must speak of Miranda V. Arizona Case. Miranda V. Arizona,384 U.S. 436, was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court. The Court held that both inculpatory and exculpatory statements made in response to interrogation by a defendant in police custody will be admissible at trial only if the prosecution can show that the defendant was informed of the right to consult with an attorney before and during questioning and of the right against self-incrimination prior to questioning by police, and that the defendant not only understood these rights, but voluntarily waived them.
This had a significant impact on law enforcement in the United States, by making what became known as the Miranda rights part of routine police procedure to ensure that suspects were informed of their rights. Its purpose is to ensure the accused are aware of, these rights under the U.S. Constitution, and that they know they can invoke them at any time during the interview.
Many people believe that if they are arrested and not read their rights, they can escape punishment. Not true. But if the police fail to read a suspect his or her Miranda rights, the prosecutor cannot use anything the suspect says as evidence against the suspect at trail.
2. Pre-Trail Procedure
2.1 Post a Bail
After law enforcement arrests a suspect,a judge will set the suspect’s initial bail, which is a specified amount of cash that allows the defendants to get out of jail after the initial arrest. If the defendant shows up for the proper court dates, the court refunds the bail, but if the defendant skips the date, then the court keeps the bail and issues a warrant for the individual’s arrest.
2.1.1 How Bail Is Set
Judges are responsible for setting bail. Because many people want to get out of jail immediately, most jails have bail schedules that specify bail amounts for common crimes. If a suspect wants to post a bail but cannot afford the amount required by the bail schedule, the suspect can ask a judge to lower it.
The purpose of bail is to allow the arrested person to remain free until convicted of a crime, and the amount of bail must be no more than is reasonably necessary to keep the suspect from fleeing before a case is over. This means that bail should not be used to raise money for the government or to punish a person for being suspected of committing a crime.
2.1.2 Condition of Bail
Bailed-out suspects commonly must comply with conditions of release. Some bail conditions, such as a requirement that a suspect obey all laws, are common. Other conditions may reflect the crime for which a suspect was arrested. For example, a condition may order a domestic violence suspect not to contact the complaining witness.
2.1.3 Paying Bail
Bail can take any of the following forms:
. Cash or check for the full amount of the bail
. Property worth the full amount of the bail
. A bound
. a waive of payment on the condition that the defendant appear in court at the required time.
2.2 Arraignment
The arraignment comes next. During an arraignment, a judge calls the person
charged and takes the following actions: reading the criminal charges against the accused, asking the accused whether the accused has access to an attorney or needs the assistance of a court-appointed attorney, asking the accused to plead, deciding whether to amend the initial bail amount, and setting the dates of future proceedings.
2.3 Preliminary Hearing
The preliminary hearing follows the arraignment. At the preliminary hearing, the judge determines whether enough evidence exists for the prosecution to meet its burden of persuasion. The defense has the right to cross examine the government witness during this proceeding. Under federal law, a grand jury, rather than a judge, makes this determination when the defendant faces capital or infamous crimes pursuant to the U.S. Constitution’s Fifth Amendment.
2.4 Pre-Trial Hearing
A pre-trial hearing is the next step in the process. The prosecution and the defense team use the pre-trail to file motions before a judge. These motions usually concern whether the court should suppress certain evidence, whether certain individual can testify, or whether the judge should dismiss all charges for lack of evidence.
After all these preliminary stages, the defendant stands trial.
3.Criminal Trial Procedure
Once a trial begins, the U.S. Constitution affords further right to criminal defendants. Trying to avoid convicting an innocent defendant at all costs, the law only permits the prosecution to overcome the defendant’s presumption of innocence if they can show the defendant’s guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. One such right includes the right to cross-examine the prosecution’s witness. Defendants derive this right from the Sixth Amendment’s Right to Confront Clause. The Sixth Amendment guarantees a defendant the right to assistance of counsel during trial. If a defendant cannot afford an attorney, the government is required to provide the defendant an attorney. However, if a defendant voluntarily and intelligently chooses to waive assistance of counsel and self-represent, the defendant may do so.
At the times during the trial, the defendant enjoys a right of not having to provide self-incriminating testimony.
3.1 Fruit of the poisonous Tree
This doctrine holds that evidence gathered with the assistance of illegally obtained information must be excluded from trial. Thus, if an illegal interrogation leads to the discovery of physical evidence, both the interrogation and the physical evidence may be excluded, the interrogation because of the exclusionary rule, and the physical evidence because it is the fruit of the illegal interrogation.
3.2 Sentencing
Sentencing usually occurs immediately for infractions and misdemeanors. For such minor infractions, penalties may include probation; short-term incarceration; long-term incarceration; suspended sentence, which only takes effect if the convict fails to meet certain conditions; payment of restitution to the victim; community service; or drug and alcohol rehabilitation. During a sentencing trial, the prosecution presents evidence of aggravating factors, and the defense presents evidence of mitigating factors. The U.S. Supreme Court has interpreted the U.S. Constitution to protect the right to a jury sentencing trial for all defendants facing the death penalty. Before the judge announces the sentence, a defendant is entitled to allocution. Allocution is the right of the defendant to directly address the judge without the help of counsel. During this direct address, the defendant may offer a personal explanation of any unknown facts, may ask for mercy, or may offer an apology for the criminal behavior.
3.3 Appeals
After sentencing, the case enters the post conviction phase. Usually the defendant begins serving the sentence immediately after the sentence is issued. The defendant may appeal the outcome of his trial to higher court. American appellate courts do not retry the case. These courts only examine the record of the proceedings of the lower court to determine if errors were made that require a new trial, resentencing, or a complete dismissal of the charges.
On the Criminal Procedure in the United States
学生姓名：刘鹏飞
专业班级：F1204
学号：201222010413
School of Law
Henan University of Technology
Supervisor: Du Qiaoge
December 31, 2014
法律英语翻译技巧（二）法学语言与法学语言翻译 例1：The law holds that the individual is responsible for his acts. The law also indicates what is good and right, and what may and should be done. It also indicates what is evil and wrong, and should not and may not be done. The law further holds that what is evil and wrong is a crime and may not be done, and if done, renders the doer liable to punishment. The law also recognizes the principle that man has free will and that, with certain exceptions, he exercises free will in commission of any crime that he may commit. 译文1：法律认为公民应对自己的行为负责。法律还规定什么是美好的和正确的，规范了哪些事是允许做或应该做的。同样，法律规范了什么是邪恶的和错误的。法律还进一步明确规定哪些邪恶的错误的事是不能做的犯罪行为看，如果某人做了这样的事，那么该行为就要受到惩罚。同样，法律还承认这样一个原则，每个公民除犯罪自由外都具有自由意志，如果某人在各种违法活动中实施其自由意志，那么他就可能触犯法律。 译文2：法律规定人人应对自己的行为承担责任，分清善良和正义，规范了人们的行为准则；法律还认为，作孽枉法即是犯罪，法不可恕，
一、律师部分 案件受理费 court acceptance fee 案情重大、复杂 important and complicated case 案由 cause of action 案子 case 包揽诉讼 monopolize lawsuits 被告defendant(用于民事、行政案件) 被诉人 respondent; defendant 本地律师 local counsel 毕业证 diploma; graduation certificate 辩护词 defense; pleadings 辩护律师 defense lawyer 辩护要点 point of defense 辩护意见 submission 财产租赁 property tenancy 裁定书 order; ruling; determination（指终审裁定） 裁决书 award（用于仲裁） 裁决书 verdict（用于陪审团） 采信的证据 admitted evidence; established evidence 草拟股权转让协议 drafting agreement of assignment of equityinterests 查阅法条 source legal provisions 出差 go on errand; go on a business trip
出具律师意见书 providing legal opinion 出示的证据 exhibit 出庭 appear in court 传票 summons; subpoena 答辩状 answer; reply 代理词 representation 代理房地产买卖与转让 agency for sale and transfer of real estate 代理公证、商标、专利、版权、房地产、工商登记agency for notarization,trademark, patent, copyright, and registration of real estate andincorporations 代理仲裁 agency for arbitration 代写文书 drafting of legal instruments 待决案件pending case 当事人陈述 statement of the parties 第三人 third party 吊销执业证 revocation of lawyer license 调查笔录investigative record 调查取证 investigation and gathering for evidence 调解 mediation 调解书 mediation 二审案件 case of trial of second instance 发送电子邮件 send e-mail 法律顾问legal consultants 法律意见书 legal opinions
法律英语词源的三个主渠道英语词汇的来源最具开放性,法律英语词汇亦是如此。在英语发展的历史长河中,法语和拉丁语构成了法律英语词汇来源的主渠道,另外,古英语复合副词及其它常用古词语构成另一主渠道。 1. 法语对法律英语词汇的形成产生过直接的巨大作用。如果追究法律英语的词源便会发现几乎所有的词均来自法语,而这一特征具有深刻的历史根源。1066年英国历史上的“诺曼底人的征服”(theNor-manConquest)使英国第一次实现了法的统一,严格意义的英国法——普通法雏型便产生了,同时,精通普通法的律师以及从中产生的法官集团也开始出现。然而,英国人的祖先盎格鲁撒克逊人的法大多是原始部族的习惯法,当时影响很小,流传下来的也很少。除了在法律方面所实行的侵略政策外,法国人还在语言方面实行了隔离政策,结果法语成为英国的官方语言,而英语则被视为粗陋的登不上大雅之堂的语言,只作为口头语言在平民老百姓中继续使用。当时,法院审判均使用法语而不使用英语。然而,这并未使法语的法律词汇侵入到英语中去,因为,当时的语言隔离政策使得法语和英语成为不同社会阶层分别独立使用的语言,两者并未有机地溶合在一起。法语法律词汇与英语的溶合实际在于英语本身地位的提高。中古英语时期,英法之间的“百年战争”(1337—1454)和当时的“黑死病”的蔓延结果使英语的地位出现复苏局面,英语开始用于法律领域。这时虽然法语仍为官方语言,但是在这次语言大冲突中,由于法律英语词汇的贫乏及方便法律概念表达的现实需要,法律英语词汇和法语法律词汇明显溶合,几乎全盘接受。以下例词便可深刻地说明法律英语词汇受法语影响的深度:justice(正义),judgement(审判),crime(罪行),plea(抗辩),suit(诉讼),plaintiff(原告),defendant(被告),attorney(律师),complaint(控告),summons(传票),verdict(裁决),sen-tence(判决),punishment(刑罚),prison(监狱),bill(法案),inquest(审讯),evidence(证据),slander(诽谤),libel(诽谤罪),innocence(无罪)等。这些单词现在看来无论在发音还是在拼写上完全和英语同化了,有些已成为全民的词汇,如果不追究其词源,根本不会感到它们源自法语。在现代英语时期,法语词汇一直源源不断进入英语,尤其是在18世纪初至19世纪其数量为最多,但是法律词汇并不多,例如parole(假释),regime(政权),police(警察),attaché(使馆馆员)等就是在这一时期进入英语的。法语法律词汇在英国法真正产生的背景之下大量涌入英语并逐渐与其同化是在上述中古英语时期。那时的法语对英语在各方面产生的影响是任何时期都无法比拟的。 2.法律英语词汇另一个重要来源就是拉丁语。在“诺曼底人的征服”期间,拉丁语和法语一样占绝对统治地位。虽然其词汇进入英语的数量远不及法语,但是,大量的法律英语术语显然在中古英语时期和随后的文艺复兴时期直接源自拉丁语。例如:custody(拘留),homicide(杀人),legal(法律上的),legitimate(合法的),malefactor(犯罪分子),mediator(调停者),minor(未成年人),notary(公证人),prosecute(对…起诉),testimony(证词),dec-laration(申诉),advocate(辩护人),appeal(上诉),civil(民事的),jurist(法学理家)等等。和法语一样,拉丁语法律词汇进入法律英语之后也与英语完全溶合同化了,从以上例词就可看出许多词已全民化而广泛应用,而且很难根据其词形判断其词源。此外,相当一部分法语和拉丁语法律术语虽然发音有所同化,但词形却保持着原有形式,未被同化。例如源自法语的法律术语:estoppel(禁止发言),feesimple(不限制具有一定身份的人才能继承的土地),laches(长期不行使权利),quash(撤销)等;源自拉丁语的法律术语:alias(再发令状),amicuscuriae(法庭之友),nolleprose-qui(撤回诉讼),resjudicata(定案)等。可能由于难读难记难懂的缘故,有人认为这类术语很少使用。实际上作为法律英语专门术语的一个组成部分,由于语义稳定,没有引伸寓意,文体效果突出,这类术语仍发挥着重要作用。另外,这类术语的词义经过演变扩大也有可能成为一般词语,进入日常生活。例如上述alias现在可用来指“别名,化名”;quash已有了“镇压”词义。 3.法律英语词汇本族语的来源主要是古词语。古词语在现代英语中已不再广泛应用了,而且逐渐在消亡,但是在法律英语中古词语的应用却十分普遍。正如DavidCrystal和DerekDavy言:It
Lesson one 1、a cause of action案由 2、social norms 社会标准 3、substantive law实体法 4、procedural law程序法 5、resolve disputes解决纠纷 6、provide for规定 7、be entitled to 有权······ 8、law of contracts合同法 9、private law私法 10、public law公法 11、constitution law宪法 12、administration law行政法 13、criminal law刑法 14、the law of torts 侵权法 15、the civil law system大陆法体系 16、the common law普通法 17、the operation of the judicial processes司法程序的运作 18、the United States Congress美国国会 19、judge-made law判例法 20、judicial decision 司法决定 Lesson two multi-state transactions 多重性 choice of law 法律的选择 substantive rights实体权利 conflicts of law 法律冲突 choice of forum 法院的选择 courts of limited jurisdiction 有限管辖权法院 courts of general jurisdiction 一般管辖权法院 trial courts初审法院 inferior court低级法院 superior court 高级法院 supreme court最高法院 circuit court 巡回法院 district court区法院 appellate court上诉法院 intermediate appellate court中级宪法 at the discretion of 由······自由裁量 court of limited subject matter jurisdiction 有限对事管辖权法院the amount in controversy争议数额 diversity jurisdiction多元管辖 federal question联邦问题
人为环境artificial environment 三段教学法three formal lesson-steps; three formal steps 口述作文oral composition 口授oral instruction; oral teaching; verbal instruction 口算oral arithmetic 口语表达oral expression 口头报告法oral report method 小学学科primary subject 工作单元unit of work; work unit 中文点字法Chinese Braille method 五段教学法five formal lesson-steps; five formal steps 分析教学analytic instruction 分科教学departmental teaching 分级；分班class grouping 分组制group system 分组教学group instruction 分组实验法brigade-laboratory method 少年文学juvenile literature 幻灯片lantern slide 心算mental arithmetic 户外作业out-door study; out-door work 户外运动out-door sport 手工训练manual training 手工教室manual-training room 手语法sign language 手语术chirology; dactylogy 文化学科culture subject 文学科目literary course 方案课程project curriculum 日志法diary method 日课表daily program; daily schedule; programme; time schedule 主科major subject 主学习primary learning 出席attendance 出席簿attendance book 可教性educability 必修学科required subject 本土知识native knowledge 正反例证法method of positive and negative cases 正式学科formal subject 正误例证法method of right and wrong cases 示范demonstration 示范法demonstration method; method of demonstration 示范教学demonstration teaching
法律文件严谨，采取各种语言手段防止误解或歧义；其内容必须字面化、外部化，说一是一，说二是二。含蓄的表达、深层的蕴涵在法律文件中无施展的余地。 在用词方面，法律文件除了专门术语外，还常用一部分古词、旧词。特别是here，there，where加介词构成的复合副词，如：hereto，herein，hereunder，hereinabove，thereon，therein，thereof，thereat，therethrough，wherein，whereby，whereof，wherefor等等。古体副词的大量使用提高法律文件的正式程度，也形成了法律文件特有的稳定性和保守性。 在句法方面，法律文件长句多，几十字、上百字的长句司空见惯。为
了把话说得天衣无缝，不惜运用各种附加语、修饰语、说明语，以致句法成分前后编插、枝权横生，句子结构膨胀，语法关系复杂，读来不畅。行文中少用代词，宁可重复名词。 在篇章结构方面，有的甚至通篇不用逗号表示停顿。但是，为了突出内容要点和逻辑程序，法律文件也采用一定的版面手段，如大小写，变换字体、序列和布局等。 根据法律文件的特征，翻译上有如下要求： Legal Document Translation From stylistic point of view, the legal document is rigorous, so it adopts every language method to prevent misunderstanding or ambiguity. Its content must be literally clear and outspoken. The
法律英语词汇大全完美 版 文档编制序号：[KKIDT-LLE0828-LLETD298-POI08]
法律渊源s o u r c e o f l a w 制定法 statute 判例法 case law; precedent 普通法 common law 特别法 special law 固有法 native law; indigenous law 继受法 adopted law 实体法 substantial law 程序法 procedural law 原则法 fundamental law 例外法 exception law 司法解释 judicial interpretation 习惯法 customary law 公序良俗 public order and moral 自然法 natural law 罗马法 Roman Law 私法 private law 公法 public law 市民法 jus civile 万民法 jus gentium 民法法系 civil law system 英美法系 system of Anglo-American law 大陆法系 civil law system 普通法 common law 大陆法 continental law 罗马法系 Roman law system 衡平法 equity; law of equity 日尔曼法 Germantic law 教会法 ecclesiastical law 寺院法 canon law 伊斯兰法 Islamic law 民法法律规范 norm of civil law 授权规范 authorization norm 禁止规范 forbidding norm 义务性规范 obligatory norm 命令性规范 commanding norm 民法基本原则 fundamental principles of civil law 平等原则 principle of equality 自愿原则 principle of free will 公平原则 principle of justice 等价有偿原则 principle of equal value exchange 诚实信用原则 principle of good faith 行为 act 作为 ac 不作为 omission 合法行为 lawful act 违法行为 unlawful act 民事权利权利能力 civil right 绝对权 absolute right 相对权 relative right 优先权 right of priority 先买权 preemption 原权 antecedent right 救济权 right of relief 支配权 right of dominion 请求权 right of claim 物上请求权 right of claim for real thing 形成权 right of formation 撤销权 right of claiming cancellation
法律英语中的拉丁语词汇Latin Words in Legal English ab initio （自始，例：void ab initio 自始无效）from the beginning ad hoc （特别；特定；为某一目的特设，例：ah hoc committee 特设委员会；临时委员会；专门委员会）for this purpose ad litem （专为某一诉讼目的；例：agent ad litem诉讼代理人）for the lawsuit a fortiori（更加，更不必说） according to Webster: "with greater reason or more convincing force -- used in drawing a conclusion that is inferred to be even more certain than another." Example: If it is a violation of the sending state's rights to arrest its consular official, then a fortiori it would be a violation to arrest its ambassador. a posteriori（经验的；归纳的；后验的） from effect to cause; from particular to general; inductive (based on observation or experience). a priori（先验的；演绎的） from cause to effect; from generalization to particular; deductive; presupposed by or reasoning from self-evident propositions (based on theory rather than practice). amicus curiae（法庭之友） "friend of the court"; a person with a strong interest in or views on the subject matter of a given legal action may petition the court for permission to file a brief, ostensibly on behalf of a party but actually to suggest a rationale consistent with its own views. Such amicus curiae briefs are commonly filed in appeals concerning matters of a broad public interest. Example: NPC of Iran v. M/T Stolt Sheaf case contra legem（违反法律） "against the law" (term used to describe an equitable decision of a court or tribunal that is contrary to the law governing the controversy. Such a decision would not normally be permitted unless the tribunal had been empowered to act ex aequo et bono). As opposed to intra legem. de facto（事实；事实上） in fact (as opposed to in law, de jure) de lege ferenda（根据拟议法） what the law ought to be (as opposed to what the law is, lex lata). de lege lata（根据现行法）what the law is (as opposed to what the law ought to be, de lege ferenda). de jure（法理上；法律上） in law (as opposed to in fact, de facto).
法律英语翻译者基本素养探析 摘要：法律英语翻译在中外经贸往来正中发挥着越来越大的作用，而法律英语内容的复杂性和涵盖面的广泛性对法律英语翻译者提出了较高的素养要求。本文从法律英语翻译者应具备的理解力与表达力、熟练的中英文法律文献资料检索能力、扩大知识范围以确立自己的专业领域等三个方面分析了法律英语翻译者的素养要求和具备这些素养的途径和方法。 关键词：法律翻译者；素养要求；途径 中图分类号：H31 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1009-0118（2012）05-0312-02 一、引言 随着我国加入世界贸易组织，越来越多的中国企业和外国公司进行经济贸易、投资、服务等各个领域的交往，法律英语在其中发挥着越来越大的作用。表现之一是中外企业各种往来的法律文书都必须用英文编制，这就必然涉及到法律英语翻译，以便双方都能理解它们所达成的各项交易条款和意图。法律英语翻译有其特殊的地方，那就是法律英语中专业术语多、概念复杂、差别细微，再加上句式长且复杂、古旧词使用普遍、涉及的领域广泛、套语赘词多，稍有不慎就会给当事人造成难以弥补的损失。（陆文慧，2004）因此，法律翻译与文学翻译乃至科技翻译的最重要区别是它的准确性要求非常高，原文中的意思不得作任何扩大或缩小，而只能等同。同时，从事法律翻译还要求译者必须熟悉有关司法辖区所实施的法律制度、司法程序以及其它法律概念和惯常做法。另外，法律翻译所处理的法律文件也不再局限于合同、协议、遗嘱、公证书、起诉书、答辩状、上诉状等等，还包括其它含有法律意味的文书比如现在常见于网站上的多媒体资料使用规定，一些机构的操守及责任规定，电子商贸交易平台的交易守则，商品的保用及正确使用声明，我国中央或地方颁布的新的重要条例、法规、实施细则等。总之，无论是法律英语运用所处的经贸环境和国际交往还是法律英语本身的特点和使用范围都对法律英语学习者提出了较高的要求。 二、法律翻译者应具有较强的理解力与表达力 对法律文件的理解力涉及两个方面即对语言的理解和对法律概念的理解。对于从事包括翻译在内的文字工作者来说，提升语文水平是终生努力的方向。而要提升对法律概念的理解能力，最好的方法莫过于研读现有的中英文对照法律文件，这可以从一些立法、司法部门的网站上得到中英双语的法律文书。我国主要的涉外法规比如《公司法》、《合同法》以及其它对外贸易、外汇管制、乃至全国人大、国务院各部委制定的许多法律法规都有官方译本。在研读这些中英文对照的法律法规时，应带有一颗批判的心，如发现自己的理解与译者的理解有差别，可以反复研读，必要时与人切磋，并查阅资料看看别人的讨论、评论，这样就会有所增益。
一、 action 诉讼 to bring an action/lawsuit against sb. 向某人提起诉讼，到法院告某人 defendant 被告 appellant 上诉人 appellee 被上诉人 cause of action 案由 transaction 交易 to join sb. as plaintiff/defendant 与某人共同起诉、把某人作为第三人被告合并起诉to make a complete determination of a controversy彻底解决争端 to be liable 负有责任 to rest on 依靠，依赖 adversary 敌手，对手；敌对的 adversary system 抗辩制 advocate 用户，提倡；拥护者，辩护者 produce 拿出，出示 evidence 证据 inquisitorial 纠问的 civil law tradition 大陆法传统 presentation 介绍，陈述 intervene 干涉，介入 safeguard 预防措施，保证条款；保护 prevalence 流行，盛行 manifold 多种多样的 contest 比赛 interested 有利害关系的 resolution 解决 to bear the burden of 承担 to reduce... to 把.....降为，把......归纳为 unbiased 无偏见的 satisfy 满足，符合 critic 批评者 merit 事实真相，是非曲直 phase 阶段 reside 属于，归于 affirmative 肯定的，积极的 join 合并 to be liable to sb. for sth. 因某事对某人负有责任 to rest on 依靠 to reside in/with 属于 二、 allege 声称 allegation 声称
第22卷 第3期 宁 波 大 学 学 报（人 文 科 学 版） Vol. 22 No.3 2009年5月 JOURNAL OF NINGBO UNIVERSITY（LIBERAL ARTS EDITION） May 2009 —————————————— 收稿日期：2008 - 10 - 30 作者简介：徐赛颖（1970 -），男，浙江宁波人，宁波大学外语学院讲师，硕士。 法律英语的历时演变及其翻译标准 徐赛颖 （宁波大学 外语学院，浙江 宁波 315211） 摘要：以案例法为特征的英美法系，其语言特征的形成有其长期的历史演变过程。拉丁语、法语以及盎格 鲁—萨克逊语的共同影响使法律英语成为特别风格的职业语言。虽然现代法律英语有着不断简化的发展 趋势，但它仍旧是高度专业化、具有专门特征的英语文体。文章通过对法律英语历时演变的主体特征的历 史解读，透视其法律语言的规约性、严谨性、专业性以及去个性化特征，这些特征使得法律英语的翻译须 遵循“忠实、精确、统一、简洁”这四个原则。 关键词：法律英语；历时演变；翻译标准 中图分类号：H059 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1001 - 5124（2009）03 - 0061 - 05 语言是法律的媒介，是法律用来调整社会行为而使用的工具。正如Maley 所说，“一旦准则及诉讼记载下来并标准化和制度化，那么一种特殊的法律语言就成形了，它代表着一种专业化的功能模 式” 。［1］法律英语作为一种法律语言具有独特的语言特征，这种特征一方面源于法律英语的职业特殊性，另一方面还来自于其悠久的演变历史。考察法律英语的这种历时演变有助于我们了解法律英语翻译中的特殊性及其独特的评价标准。 一、法律英语的起源及其演变 欧洲大陆的国家基本上属于大陆法系，起源可以追溯到罗马法，精确地说可以追溯到公元6世纪Corpus Juris 所制定的Justinian Code 。［2］ 也就是说，大陆法系的起源是以法典的形式固定下来的。 英美法系与大陆法系的起源有很大的区别，虽然罗马法对英美法系的起源有一定的影响，但英美法的起源在于英国法主要使用于英国、英国的原殖民地以及美国。英美法系的产生不是以法典的形式而是依赖于法官对长期以来不同案件判决的经验的积累，它给予法庭以极大的权力，而且法律的从业者对于这种法系的形成起了很大的作用，因为在英美法系中，是律师而不是法官首先准备上诉的材料、盘问证人，也是律师根据自己的从业经验和法官对以前的案例的判决提出证据，所以在某种程度上，英美法是由法律的从业者发展成形的。英美法最早起源不是书面的，只存在于法律从业者的记忆当中。在11世纪初，法官才开始把各种判决的案例记录下来，这就是为什么英美法有时候也被称之为“案例法”（case law），也就是说可以由法官解释的法律，与“成文法”（statutory law） 相对应。［3］ 英美法的真正发展是在公元1066年诺曼底人征服英国后，那时才开始出现了用英语和拉丁语 书写的法律，但拉丁语起着主导作用，它成为正式的法律文件比如公文和准则的书写语言。到了13世纪，由于法语随着诺曼底征服后在英国地位逐渐加强，也由于13世纪时半数以上的欧洲法庭都使用法语，所以法语代替了拉丁语成为英国法庭的口头使用语言，但那时拉丁语还是英国法律的书面语言。［4］到了14世纪，法语才取代拉丁语成为了英国最早的法律年报和法规的书面使用语言。所以 法律法语在词汇上和形态上对现代法律英语有着巨大的影响，在当时英国，所有的法律以及记录的案例都使用法语。直到15世纪后期，随着1476年专业出版机构的出现，以及对伦敦标准语作为书
《医学英语》课程教学大纲 课程类别: 专业分化课 适用对象: 涉外护理专业分化方向的学生 总学时：56 讲授学时：56 课内实践学时：0 独立实践学时：0 一、课程的性质、任务与基本要求 （一）性质与任务 本课程为涉外护理专业的专业英语考试课，是在学习了大学英语后所开设的课程。本课程的任务是帮助涉外护理专业方向的学生在学习护理专业英语词汇，为有出国就业或国内涉外医院工作意向的学生学习和运用护理专业英语打下良好的基础，以达到培养应用型人才的教学目的。 （二）基本要求 本大钢对学习该课程的学生提出以下要求： 1．语音：学生应能应用国际音标准确拼读新的医学单词， 2．词汇：3000～4500以上的词汇，并具备一些相关的医学、护理词汇。 3．语法：掌握所有基础语法知识，能够正确理解课文和试题。 二、主要教学内容及教学要求 Unit 1 Nursing of the Patients with Blood-System Diseases 主要教学内容 血液系统疾病患者的护理（Part1 & Part3）
教学要求 1、掌握：血液系统常见病，如缺铁性贫血和恶性贫血等的临床表现、治疗、护理及常用药物。 2、熟悉：镰状细胞性贫血和血友病。 Unit 2 Nursing of the Patients with Respiratory-System Diseases 主要教学内容 呼吸系统疾病患者的护理（Part1 & Part3） 教学要求 1、掌握：呼吸系统常见病，如COPD、急性哮喘和肺结核等的临床表现、治疗、护理；气管切开、胸腔闭式引流的护理。 2、熟悉：气管异物的观察和急救处理。 Unit 3 Nursing of the Patients with digestive-System Diseases 主要教学内容 消化系统疾病患者的护理（Part1 & Part3） 教学要求 1、掌握：消化系统常见病，如胆囊炎、肝硬化、消化道溃疡等的临床表现、检查、治疗和护理；三腔两囊管的护理。 2、熟悉：胃镜检查的目的和注意事项。 Unit 4 Nursing of the Patients with Nervous-System Diseases 主要教学内容
《当代法律英语》翻译 第四章公法 在所有的民法法系(civil law) 中所做的基础分辨便是公法(public law) 与私法(private law) 的区分。这种分类方法，对于普通法系(common law)而言 仅仅是潜在的或者默示性质的，但对于民法法系而言却是一种基础性的理解方式。一方面，正如我们所了解的一样，这种分类为民法法系国家提供了法庭组织系统的分辨模板。随着公法领域的争端于19世纪可受法院裁判(justiciable) 开始，独立的特别法庭(tribunal) 被建立起来并约束起公法行为。在今天，除了 刑事案件(criminal matters)这一主要例外，普通法院的管辖权(jurisdiction) 依旧限于私法领域的争端。除了这些司法管辖权的推论以外，公法和私法的分别还产生了一种存在于法律专业中的工作(labor)性质的差别。大量的法学教师倾向于证明他们是“公法专家”(publicist) 或者是“私法专家” (privatist)。课 程和论文(treatise) 倾向于公法或私法的其中一个领域，尽管事实上如今已经考虑到的案由(subject matter) 至少更倾向于许多公法方面。 即使在民法法系世界中公法与私法的分别被广泛承认，但这类法系的法学家(lawyer)对其法系划分的理论基础或者法理正当性仍未达成一致，各国对于这种划分方法的范围和效果也未达成一致。然而，一般来说，公法所关注的是国家机 关之间的关系或者国家与公民之间的关系。公法至少包括宪法(con stitutio nal law)，行政法(administrative law)和刑法(criminal law)。而私法是处理公民 或私人团体之间的关系，它至少包括民法(civil law)和商法(commercial law)。这种分类方法的其他几个领域是争论的主题所在。举个例子，民法程序是包含于 一些主体的私人组织的些许法系之中，并且被其他主体认为包含于公法领域。劳动法(labor law)，农业法(agricultural law) ，社会保障(social security) ， 同时也包括大量的现代规则领域，这些法律有些时候被解释为公法与私法领域的混合，有时又被说成自成一类(拉丁文：sui generis)。 即使公法与私法的划分已经扎根于罗马法系(Roman law)中，然而直到当代 与公法相关的领域仍有一种未开发的因素。这便是对于主权(sovereign)的保护， 法理学家(jurist) 总是谨慎的将其放在一边。正如我们注意到的对于民法法系传 统的历史介绍，几乎所有流传下来并被我们所掌握的罗马法律文献都是关注于私法领域，并且大陆法系(continental legal) 科学的传统也是关注于私法领域。 我们观察到的也是如此：在地方主义(localism)和法律多样化的中世纪，公法的研究余地是很小的。但是当集权化(ce ntralize) 的国家以及它的行政机构(administrative organ)开始出现于欧洲大陆的时候 (与逐步产生影响的法律训 练专业化吻合)，这对行政法的发展产生了有利的条件。在19世纪，由于行政法 开始繁荣昌盛，似乎一般的话用于私人个体或者组织的私法规则并不能简单的维持各主体之间的关系，这是因为国家已被政党所垄断。在法国它似乎也是这样的，普通法院(ordinary court) 不能被委托(entrust)从事牵扯到解决国家争端的任 务。正如我们已经了解到的一样：法国对权利分立学说(separation of powers led)的理解，导致其在行政机构中建立起了一系列独立的公法法院。 在德国就是另外一回事了，该国关心被行政权力压迫的普遍性胜过对于司法裁判的不信任。因此，为了避免当公民与行政机构发生争端时是由后者裁决(adjudicate)，德国建立了存在于司法机构中并独立于行政法院的裁判体系。
法律渊源s o u r c e o f l a w 制定法 statute 判例法 case law; precedent 普通法 common law 特别法 special law 固有法 native law; indigenous law 继受法 adopted law 实体法 substantial law 程序法 procedural law 原则法 fundamental law 例外法 exception law 司法解释 judicial interpretation 习惯法 customary law 公序良俗 public order and moral 自然法 natural law 罗马法 Roman Law 私法 private law 公法 public law 市民法 jus civile 万民法 jus gentium 民法法系 civil law system 英美法系 system of Anglo-American law 大陆法系 civil law system 普通法 common law 大陆法 continental law 罗马法系 Roman law system 衡平法 equity; law of equity 日尔曼法 Germantic law 教会法 ecclesiastical law 寺院法 canon law 伊斯兰法 Islamic law 民法法律规范 norm of civil law 授权规范 authorization norm 禁止规范 forbidding norm 义务性规范 obligatory norm 命令性规范 commanding norm 民法基本原则 fundamental principles of civil law 平等原则 principle of equality 自愿原则 principle of free will 公平原则 principle of justice 等价有偿原则 principle of equal value exchange
Answers: I. 略 II. Choose the most appropriate words to complete the following sentences. 1. C. negligence 2. C. trespass 3. D. slander 4. D. assault 5. D. liability 6. C. blameworthy 7. C. breach 8. D.litigation 9．D. privacy 10. D. punitive III. Fill in the blanks with proper forms of the following words. Each can be used only once. 1. interference 2. statutory 3. antitrust 4. liability 5. plaintiff 6. competition 7. criminal 8. contract 9. victim 10. compensated IV. Translate the following sentences into English. 1.Tort law aspires to an intelligible connection between the existence of a particular controversy and its resolution. 2. The basic tort remedy is to require the tortfeasor to pay the victim the sum of the costs named “compensatory damages”. 3. One of the functions of tort law is to prevent future torts by regulating human behavior. 4. Not all violations of legal duties are torts. 5. Any definition which is sufficiently comprehensive to encompass all torts is so general as to be almost meaningless. V. Translate the follow passage into Chinese. 侵权行为法该理解为内在规则还是约定规则呢？即使我们以前没有注意到这一点，但当我们把侵权行为法视为规制方式时，我们实际上是认为它是内在规则。规制方式的作用就是规制，它规制得越完善，该规制方式的作用就发挥得越好。由于在规制过程中一致性是一个优点，所以各方面特征具有一致性的规制方式要优于各方面特征不具备一致性的规制方式。 对于理解侵权行为法，内在规则较之约定规则有两大优点。第一个优点是易于解释。如果侵权行为法是约定规则，它可以被分解为几部分而不丧失可理解性。因为这几部分没有内在联系，将它们分解开来至少与将它们结合在一起更容易。但问题是：为什么侵权行为法要把它们结合在一起？即使人们能够分别说明每一部分的各自特征，但是将其结合成单一的规制方式仍难以理解。相反，对于内在规则来说，各要素的结合就不会产生分离的问题。由于规则的各个方面相互联系，那么对某一方面的说明就是对整体的说明。