On Formal Semantics of Statecharts as Supported by S TATEMATE.
Erich Mikk,Yassine Lakhnech,Carsta Petersohn
Christian-Albrechts-Universit¨a t zu Kiel
Institut f¨u r Informatik und Praktische Mathematik
Preu?erstr.1-9,D24105Kiel,Germany
e-mail:erm,yl,cp@informatik.uni-kiel.de
Michael Siegel
Weizmann Institute of Science
Departement of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science
76100Rehovot,Israel
email:mis@wisdom.weizmann.ac.il
Abstract
We formalize the rigorous but informal description of the semantics of statecharts given by Harel and Naamad in[3]
which corresponds to the semantics underlying the commercial tool S TATEMATE.We closely follow[3]to increase
con?dence that our semantics actually corresponds to their informal description.
In[3]the semantics is given by a detailed description of the so-called basic step algorithm.Based on a formal-ization of this basic step algorithm we associate to each statechart a transition system which de?nes its computations.
This is the?rst step towards linking the language of statecharts as supported by S TATEMATE with other automatic
veri?cation tools.
Our formalization uses Z notation rather than“standard mathematics”.This allows to structure the de?nition of the formal semantics and to use tools like type-checkers.
1Introduction
S TATEMATE from iLogix is a collection of tools for the speci?cation,analysis,design,and documentation of complex reactive systems.The worldwide more than2000sold licenses are used with almost equal parity in the?elds of aerospace,communications,electronics,and transportation.The graphical language of statecharts as proposed by David Harel[2]serves in S TATEMATE for the description of control,data transformation,and timing issues of the system under development.
In the current paper we give a formal account of the semantics of statecharts as implemented in S TATEMATE and described in[3].
Soon after its invention it turned out that the question of giving a semantics for statecharts was harder than expected. Since then more than20different semantics have been proposed,see,e.g.,[16].But none of these investigations deals with the S TATEMATE variant of statecharts.This semantics is of particular practical interest since it underlines the tools of S TATEMATE and is thus relevant for system designers in industry as well as developers of add-on tools for S TATEMATE.
Statecharts as supported by S TATEMATE comprises a rich graphical language complemented with programming language features like while loops,assignments,etc.As demonstrated in[3]the semantics of statecharts can be given in two steps.First,the graphical language is transformed into a sub-language;then the semantics is de?ned for this sub-language.We follow this approach and provide a formal semantics for this sub-language.In order to increase con?dence that our formalization is indeed what Harel&Naamad intended and what is implemented in the
S TATEMATE tool we closely follow[3].Harel&Naamad use several terms that have been introduced and de?ned in [4];in the case of these terms we consequently follow the latter reference.The con?dence that our formalization is indeed the S TATEMATE semantics of statecharts can not be given by a formal proof because the reference point [3]is informal.However,for validating our formalization we give proof outlines for requirements from[3]that are not formalized as de?nitions in our semantics.Additionally,we validated our investigations by experiments with S TATEMATE tools.
For sake of presentation we consider in this paper a sub-dialect of the language and focus on control issues.This includes de?ning when a transition is enabled,which states are exited,resp.,entered when a transition is taken,which transitions can be taken in parallel,this is how to deal with priorities and non-determinism.We also consider inter-level transitions.We do not consider data transformations,history and timing issues.These aspects are orthogonal to the investigations of this paper in the sense that they do not interfere with basic concepts presented in the following sections.Integration of these issues is work in progress.
The semantics of statecharts is de?ned in[3]on the basis of the basic step algorithm.We formalize the basic step algorithm and associate a transition system to each statechart.This semantics serves as a link to transition system based veri?cation tools.The implementation of a compiler from statecharts to Promela(the input language of the SPIN model checker[6])is work in progress[12].
Our formalization uses Z notation rather than“standard mathematics”.This allows to structure the de?nition of the formal semantics and to check the speci?cation with the FUZZ type checker[14].
The rest of the paper is organized as follows.In Section2we give an introduction to statecharts.The syntax of statecharts is de?ned in Section3,its semantics in Section4.We end with related work and concluding remarks.
2Introduction to Statecharts
The statecharts formalism is an extension of conventional?nite state machines.Ordinary state transition diagrams are ?at,unstructured,and inherently sequential,causing state explosion when modeling systems with parallel threads of control.In statecharts each state consists of a possibly empty hierarchy of statecharts modeling possibly concurrent, communicating state transition diagrams(see Fig.1).
As in the formalism of Mealy machines,output(events in S TATEMATE terminology)can be associated to a tran-sition.Events are the means of communication between parts of a https://www.doczj.com/doc/69269618.html,munication is provided by the in-stantaneous broadcast mechanism.Transition labels in statecharts have the structure where is a boolean combination of events,is a boolean condition,and is an action.All three parameters are optional.
is called the trigger part.If the transition source(or sources)is active,occurs and is true then the transition is taken,resulting in the execution of,unless there is an enabled transition of higher priority or there is a nondeterministic choice.In the latter case one of the possible transitions is chosen nondeterministically.Events and conditions may refer to the current status of the system.The action part of a transition can generate new events and manipulate variables.Timeout events and scheduling actions are available for the speci?cation of timing aspects.We deal with a sub-dialect where transition labels are restricted as follows:
only boolean combinations of predicates in(st)are allowed in expression;informally,predicate in(st)is true iff the system currently resides in state st;
the only effect of actions is the generation of events.
S TATEMATE associates actions with entering and exiting of states.Our sub-dialect is restricted to generation of events in this part.
The operational semantics of statecharts as implemented in S TATEMATE is a maximal parallelism semantics in-spired by the synchrony hypothesis[1].This semantics is implicitly de?ned by that part of the simulation tool that performs stepwise execution of statecharts.The heart of the simulation tool is the basic step algorithm that computes the next possible status([3])(or statuses in case of non-determinism)of the SUD.
Next,we illustrate the main ideas underlying this operational semantics by sketching a pre?x of a computation of the statecharts given in Figure1.
SUD
P1
P2P3
Q1
Q2
R2
T1
T2
R1
S1
S2
C B
A
C G[in(T2)]
D G
/A
en(S2) and en(T2)
A/C
Figure1:Running example.
State hierarchy:States form a state hierarchy:states contained within a state are called sub-states of this surround-ing state;the surrounding state is higher in the hierarchy.In the example SUD is the highest state in the state hierarchy and P1,P2and P3are its sub-states.SUD is an ancestor of P1,P2and P3.
Initial State:Initially,the system resides in a designated initial state which is not depicted in the statechart.In accordance with the S TATEMATE tool this state is called INITIAL-SUD.
Default Connector:Default connectors are depicted as transitions emerging from small circles.The?rst step of the statechart SUD consists in entering state P1,as indicated by the default connector;since this default connector is labeled/A,the event A is generated as result of this transition.
Status and Active States:Computations are sequences of statuses.A status consists of two components:a set of states in which the computation currently resides(also called“active states”)and a set of currently present events.At the moment,in our example SUD and P1are active.Below,we generally mention only subsets of the set of active states;implicitly it is understood that all ancestor states of an active state are also active.The set of present events is .Events provided by the environment are recorded in the event set of the status.
O R-state:State SUD is a so-called O R-state consisting of three sub-states P1,P2,and P3.Sub-states of an OR-state are exclusive:at any moment where SUD is active exactly one of its sub-states is active,too.
Basic State:P1is a so-called basic state.Basic states does not have sub-states.
External Stimuli:A virtual environment generates events which are sensed by the system.Assuming that P1has just been entered(so,event A has been generated)and the environment additionally provides event C a situation of non-determinism occurs.
Non-Determinism:Both transitions from P1to P2and from P1to P3are enabled since the events A and C are present.One of the transitions can be chosen to extend the current execution pre?x.
Con?icting Transitions:Both transitions originate from P1so they are in con?ict,meaning that they can not be performed in the same step.
Duration of Events:Assume we have chosen the transition from P1to P3labeled by A.According to the default connector,state Q1becomes active.Now,the transition from Q1to Q2is not enabled,unless the environment gener-ates another A event.The A event which triggered the transition from P1to P3is no longer present.Events are only available in the step directly succeeding their generation.
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A ND-state:Currently Q1is active.Assuming that the environment provides event A,state Q2is entered and event C is generated.Q2is a so-called A ND-state consisting of the two parallel sub-states R1,R2.When entering Q2both states R1and R2are entered simultaneously,so the states S1and T1become active.The fact that S1(resp.T1) becomes active and not S2(resp.T2)is implied by the fact that the default connector points to S1(resp.T1).Note that only O R-states and basic states occupy space whereas A ND-states are given only by their borderline.
Maximal Parallelism:Assume that the environment provides D directly after entering state Q2.Then,both tran-sitions from S1to S2and from T1to T2are taken simultaneously,resulting in S2and T2being active.In case the environment had not provided event D,only the transition from S1to S2would have been performed.
Implicitly Generated Events:Whenever a state st is entered/exited as the result of executing a transition,implicitly the corresponding events entered(st)/exited(st)(abbreviated en(st)/ex(st))are generated.So,the simultaneous entering of state S2and T2enables the transition from Q2to P2labeled‘en(S2)and en(T2)’in the next step.
Inter-level Transitions:The transition from Q2to P2is a so-called inter-level transition;it crosses the borderlines of the state P3.If this transition is taken then P3is deactivated as well as all other sub-states of P3that were active before taking it.
Transition Priority:Consider the situation where S2and T2are active and the transition from Q2to P2is enabled. Even if the environment provides event G,which enables both transitions from S2to S1(note,condition in(T2) evaluates to true)and the transition from T2to T1,the transition from Q2to P2is performed since it has higher priority(no non-determinism arises).Priority between transitions is determined by comparing the scopes of enabled transitions.
Scope:Paper[3]:“The scope of a transition is the lowest OR-state which is neither exited nor entered by the respective transition.”The scope of transition Q2to P2is state SUD whereas the scope of the transitions from S2to S1is R1and from T2to T1is R2.If more than one transition is enabled,priority is given to that transition whose scope is highest in the state hierarchy.Consequently,priority is given to transition Q2to P2.If scopes of transitions are identical,a situation of non-determinism arises.Note that non-determinism arises if both the transition from P3to P1labeled by B and the transition from Q2to P2are enabled.
Broadcast communication:Assume S2and T2are active and have not been entered in the same step(thus transition Q2to P2is not enabled).In case the environment provides event G both transitions from S2to S1and from T2to T1are taken.So,multiple parallel states can react simultaneously to the same events,i.e.events are broadcasted no matter whether they are generated internally,i.e.by the system itself,or by the environment.
This completes the list of concepts underlying the forthcoming formalization of the statecharts semantics.
3Syntax of Statecharts
A statechart is given by a?nite hierarchy of states,an initial state and a set of transitions.We describe the state hierarchy as a tree of states.Nodes of the tree are typed by elements of the set.Transitions are labeled by a pair consisting of a trigger and an action.
3.1Harel&Naamad’s language for the semantics de?nition
The essential difference between the graphical syntax of statecharts and the language that Harel&Naamad use for the semantics de?nition is in transitions.While in the graphical language as supported by S TATEMATE a transition may consist of several components called transition segments,each of which may carry a label,the language used by Harel&Naamad uses the notion of full compound transitions(full CT’s).This representation has several advantages. First,it leads to a concise description of when a full CT is enabled.Second,it allows for the de?nition of scope of the transition which is used to deal with nondeterminism and to associate priorities to transitions.The Section 2nd BCS-FACS Northern Formal Methods Workshop3
“Compound transitions”in[3]discusses this in full detail.In the current paper we use the notion of full CT without de?ning formally how concrete transitions are transformed into full CT’s.An example of full compound transitions is given in Section3.4.More examples can be found in[3].When working with full CT’s the default connectors vanish from the original statecharts;their labels become part of full CT’s labels.In the following we use the term“syntax of statecharts”for the language that Harel&Naamad use for the semantics de?nition.
3.2States
State names and state types.We postulate a?nite set of state names and denote by the types of states. Initial state.As described in Section2S TATEMATE introduces for every statechart a fresh initial state and an initial transition emerging from.We will see later how this initial transition is de?ned.
Harel&Naamad implicitly assume the existence of a further state which we will refer to as.The purpose of root is to make the scope de?nition of[3]well-de?ned.In accordance with[3]is an O R-state with and the original statechart as direct sub-states.
De?nition of state hierarchy.The state hierarchy consists of the following components:the of the tree,the initial state,the?nite hierarchy function which assigns a(possibly empty)set of direct sub-states to an ancestor state and the?nite typing function which assigns to each state its type.The schema de?nes these objects.
Properties of root.State is the only state that has no ancestor.is an O R-state.
Properties of init.State is a sub-state of.The root state has exactly two sub-states.
Tree properties.Necessary conditions for and to form a tree are:
1.every non-root state must be accessible via from(follows from the?rst and third predicate),
2.every non-root state has only one ancestor(fourth predicate),
3.forms no cyclic paths(third and fourth predicate).
Type consistency.Every state has a type.Only basic states don’t have sub-states.Direct sub-states of an A ND-state must be O R-states.
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3.3Transitions
The main purpose of a full CT is to determine the states to be entered when the transition is taken.We introduce full CT’s in two steps.We?rst give a de?nition of transitions without referring to any state hierarchy.Then,in the next sub-section we give a well-de?nedness condition that allows to compose a state hierarchy and a set of transitions into a well-de?ned statechart.All transitions in the resulting statechart are full CT’s.
We de?ne a?nite set of primitive events.
Event expressions are propositions over event names and constant(which denotes the case where event is omitted in a transition label).
Remark:The reader might?nd the function strange;it performs a type conversion as required by Z.
Conditions are propositions over state references and constant(which denotes the case where condition is omitted in the transition label).
As mentioned earlier we restrict the action part to the generation of events only.The schema de?nes the set of labels.
If contains a state of type O R-state,it must also contain exactly one of’s sub-states.
If contains a state of type A ND-state,it must also contain all of’s sub-states.
The only states that are in are those that are required by the above rules.”
The following de?nition is a direct interpretation of the rules above and de?nes when a set of states forms a con?guration w.r.t.state in a state hierarchy given by.
Sub-states and ancestors We de?ne extensions of:its re?exive,transitive closure and its non-re?exive,transi-tive closure.The ancestor relation is expressed by and the strict ancestor relation by.
Next we de?ne two functions which have been introduced in[4]:the lowest common ancestor()and lowest common O R-ancestor().
As observed by Harel&Naamad con?gurations w.r.t.the root are uniquely determined by their basic states.For the more general notion of con?guration that we address the same property holds as stated in the next lemma. Lemma1Let conf be a con?guration w.r.t.an O R-state anc in a state hierarchy tree.Let bsts conf be the set of all basic states in conf.Then anc is the lowest common O R-ancestor of bsts;and bsts determines con?guration conf w.r.t.anc uniquely:
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Orthogonal states.Orthogonality is a term introduced in[4]to characterize possible sets of source states of full CT’s.Our de?nition is inspired by this reference.Two states are orthogonal in the state hierarchy if their lowest common ancestor is an A ND-state.
The orthogonality relation describes pairs of states that can be simultaneously active.
Scope of a transition.Scope expresses the idea of“in?uence area”of a transition.Paper[3]:“The scope of a CT
is the lowest O R-state in the hierarchy of states that is a proper common ancestor of all the sources and targets of.”
ROOT SUD
P1
P2P3
Q1
Q2
R2
T1
T2
R1
S1
S2
INIT
C B
C G[in(T2)]
D G
en(S2) and en(T2)
A A/C
/A
Figure2:Running example:Well-de?ned statecharts
4.1The basic step de?nition
In order to reason about transitions we investigate the following questions:when is a transition enabled,which states are exited,resp.entered when a transition is taken,when are transitions in con?ict,how to deal with priority of transitions?
Enabledness of transitions.Paper[3]:“A CT is said to be enabled in a step if at the beginning of the step the system is in all states of its source set and its trigger is true.”An event expression labeling a transition is evaluated w.r.t.a set of events.
A condition labeling a transition is evaluated w.r.t.a set of states that form a con?guration.The de?nition is similar to the de?nition of
Enabledness of a transition w.r.t.con?guration and event set is captured in the next de?nition.
Exit and enter states.In contrast to non-hierarchical automata,in statecharts the states which are exited,resp., entered as a result of taking a transition,are not necessary identical to sources,resp.,targets of that transition.Paper [3]:“When the transition is taken,all proper descendants of its scope in which the system resided at the beginning of the step are exited,and all proper descendants of the scope in which the system will reside as a result of executing 2nd BCS-FACS Northern Formal Methods Workshop8
are entered.”We de?ne the function and for transition w.r.t.con?guration and state hierarchy :
Note that is well-de?ned(follows from the de?nition of target states of a transition as in).
Actions associated with states.Generation of events is associated with exiting and entering of states when a tran-sition is taken.We de?ne total injections and that convert states exited and entered,resp.,to the corresponding events.
Initial status.The only active states in the?rst status of every computation are and.The set of events is empty.
The following lemma claims that the de?nition is well-de?ned.
Lemma3Whenever started in a con?guration the algorithm terminates and results in a state where csts forms a con?guration.
The proof of this property relies on the de?nition of full CT’s,the functions and and that transitions taken together in one step are orthogonal(the last property follows from the de?nition of con?ict).
4.2Transition system semantics
Given a statechart we associate with it a transition system,where is the universe of states,is the set of initial states and is the transition relation.
In order to explain how computations are generated by such transition systems we investigate the communication of statecharts with the environment.The paper[3]does this in Section“Two models of time”.There are two com-munication modes:in the synchronous time model the communication with the environment is performed after each basic step whereas in the asynchronous model the communication is performed after several basic steps that constitute a super-step.Hence the communication with the environment depends on the time model used.
We formalize the synchronous time model in the following.We use the notation to denote that the pair of statuses is in relation.
De?nition1A computation is an in?nite sequence of statuses,such that
This de?nition captures the interplay with the environment:environment steps,which possibly provide new events, alternate with basic steps of the system.This de?nition records both internally generated events as well as those events provided by the environment.In order to abstract from the explicit in?uence of the environment we propose the following alternative de?nition.
De?nition2A computation is an in?nite sequence of statuses,such that
This de?nition abstracts from the events generated by the environment needed to perform the step.The sequences record the internally generated events only.
The transitions system behind the asynchronous model is very similar except that the communication with the environment is permitted after a sequence of basic steps that reached a status from where no further transitions are enabled(this sequence of basic steps forms a so called“super-step”).
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5Related Work
The survey[16]lists20different statecharts semantics.The?rst formal semantics appeared in[4].Pnueli&Shalev ([13])and Huizing&de Roever([9,8])were the?rst to discuss which properties statecharts should have and how to design a semantics to obtain them.The?rst compositional semantics was given in[7].
In[15]a translation of statecharts to process algebra is given;this work can be seen as a link from statecharts to process algebra based tools.The variant of semantics they work with is that from[13].
Statecharts-like languages are Argos[11]and RSML[10,5].The syntax of both languages is very much inspired by statecharts but the semantical choices are different.In both cases the compositional semantics and compositional reasoning becomes easier because inter-level transitions are not allowed.Argos is based on the the synchrony hypoth-esis[1].Leveson et all([10,5])does not discuss timing issues of the RSML language and hence we do not know whether the synchrony hypothesis applies.A signi?cant non-syntactical difference is that RSML does not associate priorities to transitions(like statecharts and Argos).
6Conclusion and Further Work
We gave a formal semantics de?nition for statecharts as implemented in S TATEMATE and described in[3].Our semantics provides the link between S TATEMATE and other automatic veri?cation tools.We have implemented an experimental compiler[12]from statecharts to Promela/SPIN([6])based on this semantics.Our compiler uses the same data structures for the state hierarchy,transitions,etc.Hence,on one hand,we have shorter compiler design time;on the other hand,formal veri?cation of the compiler becomes simpler since we do not have to deal with data re?nement.
The choice of Z as speci?cation language of the formalization was in?uenced(amongst other reasons)by the existence of the FUZZ type checker([14])which turned out to be very useful.
Future work is the formalization of transformations for obtaining full CT’s,extension of the sub-dialect(the his-tory concept,time,language of shared variables and while loops)and compositional semantics.Also we will continue the development of the above mentioned compiler.
Acknowledgment.We thank Amir Pnueli and the staff of iLogix Inc.in Israel for discussions and support in early phases of the project.Remarks and discussions with Prof.de Roever on earlier versions of this paper are gratefully acknowledged.The work of E.Mikk is supported by Technologiestiftung Schleswig-Holstein within the CA TI project. The work of C.Petersohn is supported by Deutsche Forschungsgesellschaft(DFG).
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2nd BCS-FACS Northern Formal Methods Workshop13
从语义学角度谈汉语中的歧义现象 摘要：语言学家普遍认为, 歧义现象是指一个句子的含义模棱两可, 可以作两种或多种解释。歧义是一种普遍的语言现象,存在于一切自然语言之中。本文尝试从语义学角度对汉语中的歧义现象进行分析，对引起歧义的各种因素进行剖析，指出歧义在实际的语言应用中的影响，并提出一些消除歧义的手段。 关键词：语义学，汉语歧义，歧义成因，消除歧义 一、文献综述 语义学是研究语言意义以及语言表达之间的意义关系的学科。语义学研究自然语言的语义特征；它把语义作为语言的一个组成部分去研究，探讨它的性质、内部结构及其变异和发展以及语义间的关系等。 “语义学”这一术语是由法国语言学家Michel Breal 在1893 年首先提出来的。1897 年,Breal 编著的《语义学探索》一书问世,标志着今天所理解的语义学开始逐步形成。1900 年,这本书被译成英文,书名为Semantics : Studies in the Science of Meaning。这本书是第一部语言语义学著作,其研究的重点在词义的历史发展方面,兼顾词汇意义和语法意义。随后，语义学的发展经历了一个曲折的过程。语义学在19 世纪末、20 世纪初开始成为一门独立的学科,50 年代逐步显露发展势头,从70 年代起才获得了充分的发展。随着越来越多的语言学家开始关注和研究语义学，发表关于语义学的著作，语义学逐渐成为一个成熟的体系。 近十年来，现代语义学呈现出多学科、跨学科、多纬度和多层次的几个显著的特点。如果说传统的语义学研究主要局限在词汇意义层次的话,现代语义学的最大特点之一是对语言意义的多层次的考察。笔者经过对近十年的文献研究发现，认知语义学和规范语义学是当代国际语义学研究的两大主流取向。认知语义学就是在认知学的框架内研究语义,对心智进行经验性的研究，它对传统形式语义学的外部缺陷有着深刻的认识，是当代一个热门的研究方向。规范语义学的核心概念是形式体系,即一种抽象的模型结构,模型的抽象性意味着广泛的语义空间,进而彰显出语义自身的自由度。从蒙塔古最初建立规范语义学到后来克里普克等人的继续发展,出现了诸如类型理论,模态理论范畴语法,博弈语义学等新的学说,特别是后来帕蒂等人对蒙塔古语义学的不断完善,充分表明了规范语义学具有极强的生命力。 而国内近十年的语义学研究也遍布了语言研究的各个方面。主要有以下几个方向：对认知语义学的研究，例如张辉的《认知语义学述评》；对框架语义学的研究，例如陶明忠、马玉蕾合著的《框架语义学———格语法的第三阶段》；语义学在对隐喻的研究中的应用，例如于莹的《认知语义学框架下的隐喻研究》；对语义学与语用学之间的关系的研究，例如康灿辉的《试论语义学与语用学的互补性》；对语义学的实际应用的研究，例如王向君的《浅谈语义学与语法教学》。而对于歧义现象的语义学研究主要是对英语中的歧义现象进行研究，例如高桂莲、陈颖、王海岩合著的《对英语歧义现象的语义分析》，却鲜有对汉语中歧义现象的语义分析。所以本文尝试从语义学角度对汉语中的歧义现象进行分析，对引起歧义的各种因素进行剖析，指出歧义在实际的语言应用中的影响，并提出一些消除歧义的手段。 二、歧义的成因 语言学家普遍认为, 歧义现象是指一个句子的含义模棱两可, 可以作两种或多种解释。语言是一种约定俗成的社会现象, 而不是人们根据科学规律创造出来的, 因此, 不论哪种语言都存在大量的歧义现象。引起歧义的原因有很多，下面笔者将对歧义的主要成因进行分类和剖析。 （一）、语音歧义 汉语中的语音歧义多是由于汉语的一个音节可以对应多个不同的语素引起的，一般存在于口语中。语音歧义主要可以分成以下三种情况。 1、同音字引起的歧义 例句：甲：“请问您贵姓？” 乙：“免贵姓zhang。” 在这个例句中，zhang既可以是“张”，也可以是“章”。在汉语中，有很多读音相同但拼写和意义不同的汉字，因此容易产生语音歧义。 2、一词多音引起的歧义
一、语言和语言学 1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language 任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系 二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成 创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造 移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点 2、语言的功能（不是很重要） 信息功能informative 人际功能interpersonal 施为功能performative 感情功能emotive function 寒暄功能phatic communication 娱乐功能recreational function 元语言功能metalingual function 3、语言学主要分支 语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音 音位学phonology研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列 形态学morphology研究词的内部结构和构词规则 句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则 语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。如语素和句子的意义 语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义 4、宏观语言学macrolingustics 心理语言学psycholinguistics社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学anthropological linguistics计算机语言学computational linguistics 5语言学中的重要区别 规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的 描写式：descriptive说明事情本来是怎么样的 共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic研究某个特定时期语言 历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律 语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体 言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言 语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出) 能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备 运用：performance真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用 二、语音学 1、语音学分支 发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生 声学语言学acoustic phonetics研究语音的物理属性 听觉语音学auditory phonetics研究语言怎样被感知 2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的 三、音位学 1、最小对立体minimal pairs 2、音位phoneme
北语汉语国际教育学部考研复试经验 北语汉语国际教育学部考研复试公共课的复习 对于公共课的复习，我想最重要的是要控制自己的贪欲，不要在海量的资料中迷失。时间有限你不会看完所有的资料，即便它们看上去都很美很真实。选择被时间验证过的经典书目可以有效避免浪费宝贵时间，最好的方式是向前辈咨询而不是听信各种宣传。 无论英语政治还是专业课，最基础的教材都是第一位的，任何技巧都是在基础知识之上的。技巧并非投机取巧，它可以让你用最短的时间掌握对考试最有价值的东西，而努力仍是必须的。课本和历年真题是基础，其他的资料只是帮助你更好的理解考点。 （一）北语汉语国际教育学部考研复试英语 在英语方面我不是牛人，但近两年的学习自己也深得体会。不论你之前的英语功底有多好，考研英语都不能怠慢。因为考研英语是几位灭绝师太凑在一起将一篇浅显的文章修改地千疮百孔之后拿来考我们，所以有时是不能用正常的思维顺序去思考的。读懂文章是一方面，做对题是另一方面。而对考研单词的熟悉程度、阅读速度和对真题逻辑的研读是应对一切的法宝。首先，单词是重中之重。 考研阅读本身就包含大量生词，需要联系上下文猜测，试想，如果你连最基本的单词都不认识，还怎么猜测。我习惯背小一点的单词书，总觉得大的单词书虽然每个词的意义概括的很全面，但是不方便记忆，常常是看了半天才翻过去一页，效果不好，也没有成就感。如果你不放心，可以买两种，小的用来记忆，大的当字典用来查阅。我当时买了星火的便携本。每天用一小时的时间记两三单元，前几遍先记基本意思和自己原本知道的偏义，因为考研英语虽然很少考基本意思，但考察的引申义从语境中也能根据基本义进行推断。这样反复过多次之后，我用书签盖住意思，然后看单词想它的意思，开始反应有点慢，反复过几次后逐渐快了。我觉得这个过程很重要，因为对单词的反应程度会决定阅读的速度。这之后仍有一些顽固的单词记不住，我把他们写在五颜六色的小卡片上，正面是单词，背面是意思，前前后后整理了近二十摞。 每天快下自习的前几分钟就拿出来看一小摞，感觉效果很不错。对于真题中的单词我也是用这种方法记，不知道单词书和小卡片被我翻了多少遍，到最后一两周，为了节省时间背政治，我只看自己小卡片上不熟的单词，直到考研的前一天我还在背单词，不是因为还没记住，只是想保持看到单词的灵敏度和熟悉度。这种记单词的方法真得很受用。
Vol.28No.3 M ar.2012 赤峰学院学报（自然科学版）Journal of Chifeng University （Natural Science Edition ）第28卷第3期（下） 2012年3月英语习语凝聚了英语民族人民的勤劳和智慧，是英语语言国家历史文化发展的结晶，体现了英语国家丰富的历史文化背景.学习英语习语可以成为英语专业学生学习和了解英语语言文化的一扇窗.可是，英语习语却因其结构与语义之间的差异，涉及面广泛繁杂，大多与民族历史发展、地理环境、传统习俗、宗教信仰，神话传说有关，而使学生深感习语语义难以理解，难以记忆，用法难以掌握.认知语义学研究表明,语言的意义与人的认知经验密切相关,习语的意义也是在人类在认知世界的过程中，通过一定的认知机制发展起来的，本文拟从认知语义学的角度出发来揭示英语习语的本质,并运用概念隐喻、转喻与常规知识等主要认知机制分析英语习语的语义.1 传统语义学对习语语义的阐释 传统语义学认为，习语是具有固定的结构，在语义和语法上能独立运用的词组.它的意义一般不能由各组成部分推断出来（王宗炎，1988）.习语是独立于大脑理性思维和人类认知经验之外的抽象符号，它的本质是词汇，是语言系统的一个部分，而不是概念性的. 习语语义具有完整性，我们必须把习语作为一个整体来理解，构成习语的各个词汇失去了它们独立的语义，正如构成单词的每一个字母一般，分开以后毫无意义可言.习语的意义不是构成它的各个单词的意义的相加；如果将其拆分开，尽管可以理解每个单词的意义，但是仍然无法理解这个习语的意义.比如，“I am under the weather ”一句中，un-der the weather 意指“unhappy ”，单从字面意思来理解，毫无无法解释，一个人怎么能“在天气之下”呢？这也正是传统语言学家从习语的语义整体性来研究习语的原因. 习语具有结构的固定性，一般不能用别的词来代替，即使是同义词也不可以，比如，have an axe to grind (另有打算),不能换成“have a hatchet to grind ”.还有，习语中冠词的用法，名词单复数的用法，动词的主动或被动形式等都是固定的，大部分都不能随便进行句法转换.传统语义学认为，习语是一种约定俗成的习惯用法，是一种死喻，对于习语的学习就是死记硬背，模仿和记忆.2认知语义学视角下的习语意义阐释 2.1 习语是概念化的产物 针对传统的客观主义语义学观点，Lakoff &Johnson （1999）提出了基于体验哲学的认知语义观.他们认为人类的知识结构并非符号结构，也不能与客观世界直接对应，人类的知识结构，是概念结构，是人客观世界互动过程中逐渐获得.意义是基于体验的心智现象，是主客观互动的结果.意义需依靠原型范畴，概念化、意象图示来限定的.范畴、概念、推理和心智并不是外部现实客观的、镜像的反映，也不是先天就有的，而是人们在对客观外界感知和体验的基础上认知加工而形成的.完全可以想象，我们的祖先是从认识空间和自身开始认识世界的.人们在经验和行为中形成了范畴和概念，与此同时也就形成了意义（王寅，2007）. 从这个意义上来看，习语也是人类认知和体验的结果.因此，我们可以这样认为，在语言和现实之间存在思维和认知这一中间层次，如果不依赖范畴知识、概念结构和认知方式，就无法接近现实.习语是人类概念体系的产物,不仅仅属于语言本身的问题.习语确实有它的特殊意义,我们应看到这些特殊意义正是来源于人类对客观物质世界的认识,而我们的概念体系正体现了这种认识. 在日常生活中，人们往往参照他们熟知的，有形的，具体的概念来认识、思维、经历、对待无形的、难以定义的概念，形成了一个不同概念之间相互关联的认知方式.以head 一词为例，the head of deparment,head of state,head of government,head of page,head of queue,head of a flower,head of stairs,head of a bed,head of a tape recorder,head of syntactic construction …在head 的所有例子中，所表达的概念都与“头”这一概念紧密联系，表达“the front part of …”或“the vitally important part ”. 比如，在英语中有大量这样以身体词汇概念，产生的习语,play it by ear(随机应变，见机行事),rack your brains （绞尽脑汁想）,turn a blind eye （熟视无睹）,a stiff upper lip （泰然自若，坚定不移）,keep your mouth shut and your eyes open （多看少说）,从这些习语的语义，可以看出人类的认知 英语习语解析———认知语义学视角 李红珍 （孝感学院外国语学院，湖北孝感432000） 摘要：认知语义学为我们提供了探索习语语义的新视角。传统的习语意义观认为习语是不可分析、任意的.认知语义学则认为习语是概念体系的产物,其意义有理据和可分析性.在英语教学中运用认知语义学理论解释和分析英语习语的语义，可以提高学生准确运用习语的能力. 关键词：习语；认知语义学；认知机制中图分类号：G642.3 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1673-260X （2012）03-0250-02 250--
1 学方法、转换生成语言学方法和综合性的方法。指出了语言研究应由“表层结构”向“深层结构”转换, 通过循序渐进的层次对比研究,抓住寓于语言深部的综合特征, 从而准确把握对比中的语言特征, 充分发挥对比语言的对策性。 对比语言学(contrastive linguistics. Contrastive analysis) 在1980 年上海辞书出版社的《语言与语言学辞典》中, 将contrastive analysis 只译作“对比分析”, 许多属于对比语言学范畴的我国学者们的论著, 也大都冠以“比较”二字, 归在比较语言学的领域。也就是说, 对于对比语言学这门学科, 人们还缺乏充分认识。然而就方法论而言, 对比语言学是一门共时语言学（synchronic）, 它只是共时地对两种或两种以上语言进行考查分析, 指出它们之间的语音、语法、词汇等各个部门里的同异点, 并努力运用哲学、心理学、民族学等各学科的知识与理论去说明这些同异点之所以产生的根源。 一、对比语言学的历史演变 虽然对比语言学的研究经历了较长的孕育期, 但真正的研究史只有短短的五十多年。如果要讨论对比语言学的雏形, 我们可以追溯到非常久远的年代。公元初年,佛教开始传入我国; 接着, 我们中华民族光辉灿烂的古代文化传播到日本、朝鲜等国, 形成了举世瞩目的汉字文化圈。在这种吸收消化异族文化与学习吸取异邦文明的过程中, 无疑将首先对其运载工具—— 语言进行研究, 而这种研究也只能是建立在同民族的语言比较对比的基础上。因此, 从这个意义上来说, 我国古代的先哲们译释佛教经典, 五六世纪的日本人“训读”我们的古文的工作都可以认为是对比性的。不过, 事实告诉我们, 这种译释或“训读”远远不是一种建立在严格的语言科学基础上的成体系的工作, 因此, 我们无从把它划入对比语言学的范畴。 而真正的对比语言学诞生于20 世纪50 年代, 它是结构主义语言理论和外国语教育发展的联合产物。19世纪末, 索绪尔树立起语言学史上第一座划时代的丰碑, 他的语言理论影响了包括布龙菲尔德在内的众多的语言学家。
Semantics 1. What is Semantics? Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科 2．Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型: ①Conceptual meaning概念意义 ②Connotative meaning内涵意义 ③Social meaning社会意义 ④Affective meaning 感情意义Associative Meaning联想意义（②——⑥） ⑤Reflected meaning反射意义 ⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义 ⑦Thematic meaning主位意义 3.Conceptual meaning(概念意义)is also called “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系 Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary. 4.Associative meaning (联想意义) is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the word Associative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies. 5.Thematic meaning (主位意义) is “what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的 6. The Referential Theory（指称理论）： ① The Referential Theory ② The Semantic Triangle ③ Sense and Reference 7.The referential theory指称理论 is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论 8. The semantic triangle语意三角 is the indirect relation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的 9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name. 10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object. 11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it represents Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference. 12. Sense Relations涵义关系 ①Synonymy（同义关系） ②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、Complementary、Converse） ③Hyponymy（上下义关系） 13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.
从词汇语义学角度对比分析《呼啸山庄》的中译 【摘要】滋生于欧美的当代比较语言学，并不一定能成功解决所有语言教学难题，但其重要性却不容忽视。文章从词汇层次，特别是从语义学角度的词义分类和动机方面对《呼啸山庄》的中译进行对比分析。此外，这项研究的局限性可为进一步作这方面的研究起一定的铺垫作用。 【关键词】对比分析《呼啸山庄》语义学动机词义分类 词汇的对比研究包括分析词态学和语义学。本文从后者，即语义学的角度出发，对《呼啸山庄》的中译进行对比分析。语义学是法国语言学家Michel Breal 1984年在美国举行的一 次研讨会上提出来的，六年后英文本《语言学》出版。Breal 在书中首次对语义学的研究从目标和方法角度作出了系统 分析。语义学被确立为一门分支学科后，经历了四个发展阶段，即早期语义学、语源学、结构语义学和多元语义系统研究。与传统语义学不同，现代语义学注重对词汇语义学和句法语义学的研究。本文把重点放在词汇语义学上,这对于从词汇角度对比研究《呼啸山庄》的中译很重要。 许余龙曾对比较语言学这样下定义：比较语言学是一门针对两种（或两种以上）语言进行有系统的共时描述，旨在为与语言相关的活动确定它们之间的相似和相异之处，并找
出这种相似和相异含义的语言学分支。这为一些语言学家所接受，比较语言学也在语言教学过程中开始起到了一定的作用。因此，国内外的语言学家们关注过或一直重视着比较研究这一课题，如赵元任、吕淑湘、刘糜庆、王宗言、许国璋和B.L.Worf,Robert Lado(1957), Catford, Holmes, Hatim。《呼啸山庄》(Wuthering Heights)英文原版是英国文学史上的一位杰出人物艾米莉?q勃朗特的作品，艾米莉?q勃朗特因所写小说的独特而被英国著名小说家和评论家William Somerset Maugham 称为十大杰出人物之一,中国大陆上出现了三种中译版本，其中以杨苡和张玲、张扬两种译本最为流行，本文选这两种译本作为对比研究的对象。 一、文献回顾 1、词义的分类 毋庸置疑，现代语义学的研究目标是词汇意义，而词义是难以定义和分类的。根据现代朗文英语词典，“meaning”(意义)一词指的是：①意思；含义。②重要性；价值；意义。 ③意味深长的。[1]684本文在此采用第一种定义。一般而言，西方语言学界对词义有三种典型的分类。Grice从应用语言的角度把语义分为四种类型：永恒意义、应用永恒意义、场景意义和说话场景意义。而Kitty则在Grice的研究基础上把句
2008-01-06 14:24 许国璋先生在《中国大百科全书》（语言文字卷）对语言作了这样的解释：“语言是人类特有的一种符号系统。当作用于人与人的关系的时候，它就表达相互反映的中介；当作用于人与客观事件的关系的时候，它是认知事物的工具；当作用于文化的时候，它是文化作息的载体。”在这个定义之后，许先生从自己所定义的语言特色、语言的功能、语言的发生、语言的模式等四个方面作了较为详细的论证。传统语言观受到了来自各个方面的挑战。其中一个最为重要的挑战就是语言和思维到底是一种什么样的关系。 语言与思维的关系问题是多种学科，如哲学、心理学、病理学、生物学、人类学和信息科学等都密切关注和长期争论的重大理论问题，当然更是心理语言学或语言心理学的一个重要课题。沈阳说要讨论语言和思维的关系，先要搞清楚两个问题：一是什么是“思维”；二是“语言与思维的关系”是一个什么样的问题。
那么什么是“思维”呢？沈阳在《语言学常识十五讲》中总结说：“狭义的‘思维’可以说就只是‘思考’，即只包括‘想的活动’，但是较广义的‘思维’可以说是包括‘思考’和‘思想’两个方面，即不但指不同程度或不同阶段‘想的活动’，也指不同程度或不同阶段‘想的结果’。”（1） 那么“语言与思维的关系”又是一个什么样的问题呢？这实际上就是要搞清楚人是怎么“想问题”的，或者说是人们在进行“想的活动”和了解“想的结果”的时候，到底主要靠的是什么。其实语言就是思维的工具，思维的各个方面，即“想的活动”和“想的结果”，实际上都离不开语言。人们正是靠了语言才能够知道大家都想了些什么，同时也才能把思维的结果固定起来和传递下去。（2） 不过仅仅说语言是思维的工具，思维离不开语言，这还比较笼统。因为从地位和作用上说，我们还不知道语言和思维是相互作用
Semantics Semantics Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. Semantics = Theory of Meaning Its goal is to reveal how language are matched with their proper meanings by the speakers of that language. Lexical semantics—the study of word meanings. it deals not only with the meanings of individual words but also the relationship between the meanings of different words. Compositional semantics—is concerned exclusively with the meanings of phrases and sentences. History of Semantics 1893 - French linguist Breal coined ―semantique‖. 1897 – Breal first use it as the science of meaning. 1900 – Its English version came out. 1980s – semantics began to be introduced into China. One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning(1923). Semantic Triangle 语义三角 Concept（meaning） refers to symbolizes Symbol Thing （word）（referent） stands for The Referential Theory 指称论 Concept (Meaning): the mental image, the abstraction or generalization of objects of the same kind. Referent (Thing): the physical entity or actual object, event, idea or whatever if denoted by a word, phrase or expression. Concept VS. Referent (Thing) A referent may exist in the physical world. The concept is abstracted from the referent and labeled by a word. Sense 语义 Sense is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form independent of situational context. It’s abstract and de-contextualized. Sense Relations Sense relations between words
从语义学角度分析英语中的词汇歧义现象 摘要：歧义是存在于古今中外所有语言中的一种常见的语言学现象，是语言结构形式与其意义之间的一种特殊关系。语言学家认为一个词或一个句子的含义模糊现象，或者存在两种或多种意义解释的现象称之为语言歧义。由于英语的词汇量很大，语法又比较灵活，语言歧义现象在英语中表现得尤为突出。因此本文从语义学角度对英语中的词汇歧义现象进行分类讨论，分析引起歧义的各种因素，具有很重要的理论和现实意义。 一、引言 语义学，也可以称为“语意学”，是涉及计算机科学、自然语言处理、语言学、心理学、逻辑学以及认知科学等诸多领域的学科专用术语，以自然语言涵义为对象，以对语言的结构、性质以及相互间的关系进行分析、研究为主要内容。歧义的“歧”是指“不一致”，“义”指的是意义。语言学家认为：“语言歧义现象是指在语言交流过程中对一个词或一个句子的意思有不同的理解，可以作两种或多种解释”①。歧义在语言运用中是不可避免的，正如美国语言学家Kaplan曾说：“歧义是语言中反常的通病”②。因此，研究语言中的歧义现象，不仅能促进语言学理论的发展，还能有效避免语言歧义在交流中造成的误解和障碍，从而提高语言交际的准确性、严密性。因此，从语义学角度深入探讨歧义现象具有极大研究价值和现实指导意义。
二、词汇歧义现象分析 2.1 多义词歧义 多义词指具有二个或二个以上意义的词。在句子中，多义词的出现往往使句子产生歧义。美国语言学家G.L.Brook曾说：“一词多义是歧义的语言基础”③。把一个多义词用在特定的语境中，通常情况下它不会产生歧义。但是，如果一个多义词的几种意义在同一个句子中都能成立，那么，此句就有了歧义。例如“Are you engaged？”一句既可以理解成“你忙吗？”又可以理解成“你定婚了吗？”。 2.2 同形异义词歧义 同形异义词是指那些拼写相同而意义不同的词。同形异义词并不是同一个词，它不同于多义词，而是有着不同词源的两个或两个以上形式相同，但是意义不同的一种语言现象。同形异义词又可以分为：同音异义词、同形同音异义词及同形异义词三种形式。例如：Im More satisfied.Ask for more.这是摩尔牌香烟广告，该商标的同音同形异义词是英语中一个常用的与数量有关的形容词。 为什么我们能同时处理多个意义而不产生混乱呢？认知语义学中的家族相似性理论能够说明其原因，“家族成员中具有某种相似特征：体态、相貌、眼睛的颜色、步态和气质都有一些相似和重叠地方”④。人们凭直觉既可准确判断某人属于某一家族，又可识别其家族成员之间的细微差别。世界是由无限种类
对比语言学的定义、起源与发展 对比语言学(Contrastive Linguistics的定义 1、语言学中的比较与对比 比较是人类认识事物、研究事物的一种基本方法，也是语言学研究的一种基本方法。如果说，语言学的根本任务是对语言的某种现象加以阐述的话，那么要对某一语言现象作出阐述，总是需要对这一现象的种种表现加以比较和分析(Harlmann1980:22。因而，按其本质来说，对比语言学也是一种比较,不过是一种具有特定含义的语言学中的比较。下面，先让我们来看看对比语言学的比较，与语言学中其他分支的比较有什么不同，从而使我们能够确定对比语言学在整个语言学中的位置，及其与其他语言学研究的联系。 在进行语言学比较时，根据比较对象的不同，可以沿两条轴线来进行。一方面，可以选择共时或历时的语言现象来进行比较;另一方面，可以选择在某一语言内部或各种语言之间的语言现象来进行比较。这两条轴线的互相交叉，便形成了如下四个象限，这四个象限将语言学研究分成四大类性质和目的不同的比较。
象限I代表了同一语言内部的共时比较。这类比较是对某一语言在其历史发展的某一阶段(特别是现时阶段的语音、语法和词汇等系统的内部构成成分及组织结构的比较。 在共时语言学研究中，要对某一语言的某一结构系统进行描述，就必须对这一结构系统里的各种语言现象加以比较分析。例如，如果我们要研究一种语言的语音系统，我们就要比较这个系统里的各个音素的发音部位和方法有什么不同，它们的声学物理属性有什么不同，在音节中的分布又有什么不同的规律，我们就必须比较这个语言中各类词的语法作用有什么不同，组合搭配有什么特点，等等。而且，要确定一个语言中的词可以区分为哪几个词类，这本身就要进行大量的形态、语义、语法特征等方面的比较。因此可以说，同一语言内的共时比较是语音学、语法学、词汇学等构成当代语言学主流的各个分支学科的一种主要研究方法。 象限Ⅱ代表了同一语言内部的历时比较。这类比较是对某一语言在其历史演变的不同阶段的语音、语法和词汇等系统加以比较，从而使我们了解这一语言的发展历史，找出其基本发展演变规律。例如，通过对英语的历时比较，语言学家一般认为，英语的演变经历了古英语、中古英语、早期现代英语和现代英语等四个阶段。其语法演变的总趋势表现为从一个综合型的语言逐步向一个分析型的语言发展，即词的屈折变化逐渐减少，语法意义的表达越来越多地依赖语序以及介词等语法作用词的运用。这类比较是对某一语言的语言史及其分科(如词源学、古今比较语法学等研究的主要方法。 象限Ⅲ代表了不同语言之间的历时比较。这类比较是对不同语言(一般是亲属语言在各个历史发展阶段的语音、语法和词汇等系统进行比较，其目的主要是探讨语言之间的历史联系，并据此对世界上的语言进行谱系分类，重建或构拟某一组亲属语的共同原始语(proto-language，找出它们之间的某些共同发展规律. 例如，语言学家通过对印欧语系诸语言之向的历时比较研究，使我们能够大致了解这些语言在历史演变过程中的关系，推断出原始印欧语的大致形式。不同语言之间的历时比较往往
汉语国际教育硕士必读书目及相关论文 对外汉语教学基础理论 书目： 赵金铭主编《对外汉语教学概论》，商务印书馆，2004 周小兵等主编《对外汉语教学入门》，中山大学出版社，2004 刘询《对外汉语教育学引论》，北京语言文化大学出版社，2000 刘询主编《对外汉语教学概论》，北京语言文化大学出版社，1997 吕必松《华语教学讲习》，北京语言学院出版社，1992 吕必松《对外汉语教学研究》，北京语言学院出版社，1993 吕必松《对外汉语教学概论（讲义）》，1996 盛炎《语言教学原理》，重庆出版社，1990 李泉主编《对外汉语教学理论》，商务印书馆，2006 程棠《对外汉语教学目的原则方法》，华语教学出版社，2000 徐子亮、吴仁甫《实用对外汉语教学法》，北京大学出版社，2006 鲁健骥《对外汉语教学思考集》，北京语言文化大学出版社，1999 李扬《中高级对外汉语教学论》，北京大学出版社，1993 李扬《对外汉语本科教育研究》，北京语言文化大学出版社，1999 国家汉办汉语水平考试部《汉语水平词汇与汉字等级大纲》，北京语言学院出版社，1992 国家汉办《高等学校外国留学生汉语言专业教学大纲》，北京语言文化大学出版社，2001 国家汉办《高等学校外国留学生汉语教学大纲（长期进修）》，北京语言文化大学出版社，2001 国家汉办《高等学校外国留学生汉语教学大纲（短期强化）》，北京语言文化大学出版社，2001 论文： 钟梫执笔《15年汉语教学总结》，《语言教学与研究》（试刊）1979年第4集 吕必松《谈谈对外汉语教学的性质和特点》，《语言教学与研究》1983年第3期 吕必松《关于教学内容与教学方法问题的思考》，《语言教学与研究》1990年第2期 吕必松《再论对外汉语教学的性质和特点》，《语言教学与研究》1991年第2期 吕必松《对外汉语教学的理论研究问题刍议》，《语言文字应用》1992年第1期 崔永华《对外汉语教学学科概说》，《中国文化研究》1997年第1期 陆俭明《关于开展对外汉语教学研究之管见》，《语言文字应用》1999年第4期 赵金铭《近十年对外汉语教学研究述评》，《语言教学与研究》1989年第1期 盛炎《对外汉语教学理论研究中几个热门问题的思考》，载《中国对外汉语教学学会第三次学术讨论会论文选》，北京语言学院出版社，1990 中国对外汉语教学学会等《对外汉语教学的定性、定位、定量问题座谈会纪要》，《语言教学与研究》1995年第1期 赵金铭《对外汉语教学与研究的现状与前瞻》，《中国语文》1996年第6期 刑福义《关于对外汉语教学的学科建设》，转引自张德鑫《对外汉语教学五十年》，《语言文字应用》1996年第1期 刑福义《关于对外汉语教学》，载张德鑫主编《对外汉语教学：回眸与思考》，外语教学与研究出版社，2000
5. Semantics 5.1 What is semantics? Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. This definition naturally leads to the question: what is meaning? Meaning is central to the study of communication, but the question of what meaning really is is difficult to answer. Even linguists do not agree among themselves as to what meaning is. And what makes the matter even more complicated is th at philosophers, psychologists, and sociologists all claim a deep interest in the study of meaning, although they differ in their focus of interest. The philosophers are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and what they refer to in the real world, and in evaluating the truth value of linguistic expressions. The psychologists focus their interest on understanding the workings of the human mind through language. This is why it is not surprising to find ten books all bearing the title "Semantics" but talking about different things. In our discussion, we will limit ourselves to the study of meaning from a linguistic point of view. 5.2 Some views concerning the study of meaning 5.2.1 The naming theory One of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also the most primitive one, was the naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things. The limitations of this theory are obvious. First of all, this theory seems applicable to nouns only, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs such as "think", "hard", "slowly" are definitely not labels of objects. Besides, within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all such as "ghost", "dragon", and "unicorn", and also nouns that do not refer to physical objects, but abstract notions such as "j o y", "im pulse ". 5.2.2 The conceptualist view A more sophisticated and seemingly more plausible view than naming is one that relates words and things through the mediation of concepts of the mind. This conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. , between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is best illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested by Ogden and Richards: THOUGHT/REFERENCE SYMBOL/FORM-REFERENT (直线表示两者之间有直接联系，虚线表示两者之间无直接联系。) In the diagram, the SYMBOL or FORM refers to the linguistic elements (words,