On formal semantics of Statecharts as supported by statemate

胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章测试题Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language? —A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB.Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.12. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.16. Only human beings are able to communicate.17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of thediachronic study of language.19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is ________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the __________ theory.25. Linguistics is the __________ study of language.26. Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __________ over writing.28. The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.29. Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Design feature32. Displacement33. Competence34. Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? （南开大学，2004）36. Why is it difficult to define language? （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific? （青岛海洋大学，1999）Key: Chapter 1[In the reference keys, I won’t give examples or further analysis. That seems too much work for me. Therefore, this key is only for reference. In order to answer this kind of question, you need more examples. So you should read the textbook carefully. – icywarmtea]I. 1~5 BACCC 6~10 BACAC II. 11~15 FFTFF 16~20 FFFFFIII. 21. verbal 22. productivity / creativity 23. metalingual function 24. yo-he-ho25. scientific 26. descriptive 27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic 29. langue 30. competence IV. 31. Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.32. Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 33. Competence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generallyunconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.V. 35. Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.36. It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations. VI. 37. It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis – collect data – check against the observable facts – come to a conclusion.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10 What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units largerthan the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merelya different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either _____ or ______, while all vowel sounds are __________22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. ___ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation 32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution 34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog.(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop (2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid (4) velar nasal (5) voiced interdental fricative答案 Chapter 2I. 1~5 ACDAA 6~10 DBABB II. 11~15 TTTFF 16~20 TTTFFIII. 21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction 23. tongue 24. height 25. obstruction 26. minimal pairs 27. diphthongs 28. Co-articulation 29. Phonemes 30. air streamIV .31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone. 33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V. 35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI. 37.Omit.Chapter 3 LexicoI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1 Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an _______ is pronounced as a word22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with __________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: _______, _______ and __________24. All words may be said to contain a root __________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a __________, and a word formed by compounding is called a __________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending 32. Allomorph 33. Closed-class word 34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? （厦门36. What are the main features of the English compounds?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II （武汉I II(1) acronym a. foe (2) free morpheme b. subconscious(3)derivational morpheme c. UNESCO (4) inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed (5) prefix e. calculationKey: Chapter 3I. 1~5 AACBB 6~10 BCADB II. 11~15 FTFTT 16~20 FTFFF III. 21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary 23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme25. close, open 26. back-formation 27. conversion 28. morpheme29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound rootIV. 31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch) 32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.V. Omit. VI. 37.(1) c (2) a (3) e (4) d (5) bChapter 4 SyntaxI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati¬cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.8. The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a __________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguisticcompetence.12. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.13. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.14. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.15. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.16. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.17. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.18. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.19. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.20. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.22. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.23. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.24. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.25. A __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.26. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________ clause.27. Major lexical categories are __________ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.28. __________ condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.29. __________ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.30. The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Syntax 32. IC analysis 33. Hierarchical structure 34. Trace theoryV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉大学，2004）36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis. （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.Key: Chapter4 I. 1~5 DCDDD 6~10 ADDBA II. 11~15 TTTTF 16~20 FTFTTIII.21. simple 22. sentence23. subject 24. predicate 25. complex 26. embedded 27. open 28. Adjacency29. Parameters 30. CaseIV. 31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure.E.g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.V. 35.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36.(1) more | beautiful flowers (2) more beautiful | flowersChapter 5 Meaning I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The naming theory is advancedby ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represeA. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theorD. behaviorism3. Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaningcomponents, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6. “Alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7._________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8.___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms10. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic features II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.12. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.13. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.14. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.15. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.16. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.17. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.18. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.19. “It is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.20. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis ofa sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. __________ can be defined as the study of meaning.22. The conceptualist view holds that there is no __________ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.23. __________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.24. Words that are close in meaning are called __________.25. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called __________.26. __________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.27. __________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human__________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is__________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sor rowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB.Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.12. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communicationsystems.14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.16. Only human beings are able to communicate.17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the __________ theory.25. Linguistics is the __________ study of language.26. Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __________ over writing.28. The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.29. Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30. Linguistic potential i s similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Design feature32. Displacement33. Competence34. Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? （南开大学，2004）36. Why is it difficult to define language? （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific? （青岛海洋大学，1999）Key:[In the reference keys, I won’t give examples or further analysis. That seems too much work for me. Therefore, this key is only for reference. In order to answer this kind of question, you need more examples. So you should read the textbook carefully. – icywarmtea]I.1~5 BACCC 6~10 BACACII.11~15 FFTFF 16~20 FFFFFIII.21. verbal 22. productivity / creativity 23. metalingual function 24. yo-he-ho25. scientific 26. descriptive27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic29. langue 30. competenceIV.31. Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.32. Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33. Competence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.V.35.Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.36.It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.VI.37.It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis –collect data –check against the observable facts – come to a conclusion.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as__________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of unitslarger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative答案I.1~5 ACDAA 6~10 DBABBII.11~15 TTTFF 16~20 TTTFFIII.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height25. obstruction 26. minimal pairs27. diphthongs 28. Co-articulation29. Phonemes 30. air streamIV.31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V.35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36.When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI.37.Omit.Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with __________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and __________.24. All words may be said to contain a root __________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a __________, and a word formed by compounding is called a __________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they?（厦门大学，2003）36. What are the main features of the English compounds?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II （武汉大学，2004）I II(1) acronym a. foe(2) free morpheme b. subconscious(3) derivational morpheme c. UNESCO(4) inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed(5) prefix e. calculation Key:I.1~5 AACBB 6~10 BCADBII.11~15 FTFTT 16~20 FTFFFIII.21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme25. close, open 26. back-formation27. conversion 28. morpheme29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound rootIV.31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch) 32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.V.Omit.VI.37.(1) c (2) a (3) e (4) d (5) bChapter 4 SyntaxI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati¬cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.8. The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. The phrase “on the shelf” belon gs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a __________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.12. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.13. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.14. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.15. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.16. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.17. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.18. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.19. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.20. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.22. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.23. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.24. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.25. A __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.26. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________ clause.27. Major lexical categories are __________ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.28. __________ condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.29. __________ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.30. The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Syntax32. IC analysis33. Hierarchical structure34. Trace theoryV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉大学，2004）36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis. （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.Key:I.1~5 DCDDD 6~10 ADDBAII.11~15 TTTTF 16~20 FTFTTIII.21. simple 22. sentence23. subject 24. predicate25. complex 26. embedded27. open 28. Adjacency29. Parameters 30. CaseIV.31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. E.g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.V.35.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36.(1) more | beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful | flowersChapter 5 Meaning[Mainly taken from lxm1000w’s exercises. – icywarmtea]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviorism3. Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6. “Alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms10. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic featuresII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.12. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the。

semantics知识点总结Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It is concerned with how words and sentences are interpreted, how meaning is assigned to linguistic expressions, and how meaning is inferred from language. In this summary, we will explore some key concepts and topics in semantics, including the following:1. Meaning and reference2. Sense and reference3. Truth-conditional semantics4. Lexical semantics5. Compositional semantics6. Pragmatics and semantics7. Ambiguity and vagueness8. Semantic changeMeaning and referenceMeaning is a fundamental concept in semantics. It refers to the content or interpretation that is associated with a linguistic expression. The study of meaning in linguistics is concerned with understanding how meaning is established and conveyed in language. Reference, on the other hand, is the relationship between a linguistic expression and the real world entities to which it refers. For example, the word "dog" refers to the concept of a four-legged animal that is commonly kept as a pet. The study of reference in semantics is concerned with understanding how words and sentences refer to objects and entities in the world.Sense and referenceThe distinction between sense and reference is an important concept in semantics. Sense refers to the meaning or concept associated with a linguistic expression, while reference refers to the real world entities to which a linguistic expression refers. For example, the words "morning star" and "evening star" have the same reference - the planet Venus - but different senses, as they are used to describe the planet at different times of the day. Frege, a prominent philosopher of language, introduced this important distinction in his work on semantics.Truth-conditional semanticsTruth-conditional semantics is an approach to semantics that seeks to understand meaning in terms of truth conditions. According to this view, the meaning of a sentence isdetermined by the conditions under which it would be true or false. For example, the meaning of the sentence "The cat is on the mat" is determined by the conditions under which this statement would be true - i.e. if there is a cat on the mat. Truth-conditional semantics has been influential in the development of formal semantics, and it provides a formal framework for analyzing meaning in natural language.Lexical semanticsLexical semantics is the study of meaning at the level of words and lexical items. It is concerned with understanding the meanings of individual words, as well as the relationships between words in a language. Lexical semantics examines how words are related to each other in terms of synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and other semantic relationships. It also explores the different senses and meanings that a word can have, and how these meanings are related to each other. Lexical semantics plays a crucial role in understanding the meaning of sentences and discourse.Compositional semanticsCompositional semantics is the study of how the meanings of words and sentences are combined to create complex meanings. It seeks to understand how the meanings of individual words are combined in sentences to produce the overall meaning of a sentence or utterance. Compositional semantics is concerned with understanding the rules and principles that govern the composition of meaning in natural language. It also explores the relationship between syntax and semantics, and how the structure of sentences contributes to the interpretation of meaning.Pragmatics and semanticsPragmatics is the study of how language is used in context, and how meaning is influenced by the context of language use. Pragmatics is closely related to semantics, but it focuses on the use of language in communication, and how meaning is affected by factors such as the speaker's intentions, the hearer's inferences, and the context in which the language is used. While semantics is concerned with the literal meaning of linguistic expressions, pragmatics is concerned with the implied meaning that arises from the use of language in context.Ambiguity and vaguenessAmbiguity and vagueness are common phenomena in natural language, and they pose challenges for semantic analysis. Ambiguity refers to situations where a linguistic expression has multiple possible meanings, and it is unclear which meaning is intended. For example, the word "bank" can refer to a financial institution or the edge of a river. Vagueness, on the other hand, refers to situations where the boundaries of a linguistic expression are unclear or indistinct. For example, the word "tall" is vague because it is not always clear what height qualifies as "tall". Semantics seeks to understand how ambiguity and vagueness arise in language, and how they can be resolved or managed in communication.Semantic changeSemantic change refers to the process by which the meanings of words and linguistic expressions evolve over time. Over the course of history, languages undergo semantic change, as words acquire new meanings, lose old meanings, or change in their semantic associations. Semantic change can occur through processes such as metaphor, metonymy, broadening, narrowing, and generalization. Understanding semantic change is important for the study of historical linguistics and the diachronic analysis of language.ConclusionSemantics is a rich and complex area of study that plays a fundamental role in understanding the meaning of language. It encompasses a wide range of topics and concepts, and it has important implications for fields such as philosophy of language, cognitive science, and natural language processing. By exploring the key concepts and topics in semantics, we can gain valuable insights into how meaning is established and conveyed in language, and how we can analyze and understand the rich complexity of linguistic expressions.。

Ž.Computer Standards&Interfaces191998325–334The UML as a formal modeling notationR.France a,A.Evans b,no c,B.Rumpe d,)a Computer Science Department,Colorado State UniÕersity,Fort Collins,CO,USAb Department of Computer Science,UniÕersity of York,Heslington,York,UKc Department of Computing,Imperial College,London,UKd Department of Computer Science,Munich UniÕersity of Technology,Munich,GermanyAbstractŽ.Ž.Ž.The Unified Modeling Language UML is an Object Management Group OMG object-oriented OO modeling notation standard.It consists of a set of notations for modeling systems from a variety of views and at varying levels of abstraction.While the UML reflects some of the best OO modeling experiences available,it suffers from a lack of precise semantics that is necessary if one is to use the notations to precisely model systems and to rigorously reason about the models.In this paper we discuss some of the problems with the current UML semantic document and present the approach Ž.that the precise UML group pUML group is using to develop a precise semantics for the UML.The approach utilizes mathematical techniques to explore and gain insights into appropriate semantics for UML modeling concepts.The insights and formal expressions will then be used to develop a UML semantics document written in natural language that defines the semantics in a precise,consistent,and understandable manner.q1998Published by Elsevier Science B.V.All rights reserved.Keywords:UML;Formal methods;Graphical notations1.IntroductionThe popularity of object-oriented methods Ž.w xOOMs such as OMT16and the Fusion Method w x5,stems primarily from their use of intuitively-ap-pealing modeling constructs,rich structuring mecha-nisms,and ready availability of expertise in the form of training courses and books.Despite their strengths, the use of OOMs on nontrivial development projects can be problematic.A significant source of problems is the lack of semantics for the modeling notations)Corresponding author used by these methods.This can lead to the follow-ing problems:ØUnderstanding of models can be more apparent than real.A stated strength of OO modeling nota-tions is their intuitive appeal,reducing the effort required to read and understand the models.The lack of precise semantics for OO notations can result in situations where a reader’s interpretation is not the Ž.same or is not consistent with the model creator’sŽ. interpretation.Unless the reader e.g.,a customer Ž.and creator e.g.,a software analyst explicitly com-municate their interpretations there is the danger that both will walk away with inconsistent views of the0920-5489r98r$-see front matter q1998Published by Elsevier Science B.V.All rights reserved.Ž.PII:S0920-54899800020-8()R.France et al.r Computer Standards&Interfaces191998325–334 326modeled structure and r or behavior without realizing it.In the cases where the reader is responsible for implementing the behavior specified in the models the result can be an implementation that is not consistent with the view of the models.To com-pound the problem,it is difficult to rigorously estab-lish consistency of the models and their munication also becomes problematic when the concepts used to explain the modeling constructs have no precise meaning,and are them-selves subject of misinterpretation.ØDevelopers can waste considerable time resolv-ing disputes over usage and interpretation of nota-tion.In practice,the use of OOMs can lead to situations where it is not clear to the users of the methods which of a number of opposing views on interpretation and usage is appropriate.Appeal to textbooks is often not helpful because of the lack of meaningful examples and the informal descriptions provided.Over time developers may develop a more precise variant of the notation tailored to their devel-opment environment.These more precise interpreta-tions are developed by consensus and are based on interpretations provided by the tools used,the experi-ences of the users,and the experiences of others they have come in contact with.This process,if it exists within an organization,is very informal,and often the more precise interpretations are not explicitly available to all engineers,rather they exist primarily in the heads of the more experienced developers. Within a single organization,different teams may develop different variants of the modeling.This can result in communication problems when team mem-bers move from project to project.ØRigorous semantic analysis is difficult.In prac-tice OO models are validated and verified informally Ž.in requirements r design reviews.These informal techniques are often inadequate:they cannot be used to rigorously establish that implementations and models are consistent with each other,and rigorously establish that models capturing different views of the system are consistent with each other.Review meet-ings can be further enhanced if the notations used have a precise semantics.The results of model vali-dations and verifications can be presented in reviews as evidence of the quality of the models.Such formal analysis serves to increase confidence in the creative results of the modeling activity.Rigorous semantic analysis techniques also facilitate the early detection of modeling errors which considerably reduces the cost of error removal.ØTool support limited to syntactic concerns. First generation tools supporting OO modeling nota-tions mainly focused on editing and drawing issues.Ž.As class diagrams object models are based on entity-relationship-diagrams,considerable effort is going into generating code,for example,class frames and SQL tables,from them.Due to the lack of precise semantics there is considerably less support for other modeling notations,usually leading to er-ror-prone hand-made translation into code.Ž.w x The Unified Modeling Language UML12is a set of OO modeling notations that has been standard-Ž. ized by the Object Management Group OMG.It is difficult to dispute that the UML reflects some of the best modeling experiences and that it incorporates notations that have been proven useful in practice. Yet,the UML does not go far enough in addressing problems related to the lack of precision.The archi-tects of the UML have stated that precision of syntax and semantics is a major goal.In the UML semantics Ž.w xdocument version 1.111the authors claim to provide a‘complete semantics’that is expressed in a ‘precise way’using metamodels and a mixture of natural language and an adaptation of formal tech-niques that improves‘precision while maintaining readability’.The meta-models do capture a preciseŽ.notion of the abstract syntax of the UML modeling Žtechniques this is what meta-models are typically .used for,but they do little in the way of answering questions related to the interpretation of non-trivial UML structures.It does not help that the semantic meta-model is expressed in a subset of the notation that one is trying to interpret.The meta-models can serve as precise description of the notation and are therefore useful in implementing editors,and they can be used as a basis to define semantics,but they cannot serve as a precise description of the meaning of UML constructs.The UML architects justify their limited use of formal techniques by claiming that‘the state of the practice in formal specifications does not yet address some of the more difficult language issues that UML introduces’.While this may be true to some extent, we believe that much can be gained by using formal techniques to explore the semantics of UML.On the()R.France et al.r Computer Standards&Interfaces191998325–334327other hand,we do agree that current text-based formal techniques tend to produce models that are difficult to read and interpret,and,as a result,can hinder understanding of UML concepts.This latter problem does not diminish the utility of formal techniques,rather,it obligates one to translate formal expressions of semantics to a form that is digestible by users of the UML notation.In this paper,we discuss how experiences gained by formalizing OO concepts can significantly impact the development of a precise semantics for UML structures.We motivate an approach to formalizing UML concepts in which formal specification tech-Ž.niques FSTs are used primarily to gain insights to the semantics of UML notations.The goal of our proposed UML formalization is to produce a clear, precise expression of the UML notation semantics that can be used by users of the UML notation.In Section2,we give an overview of other works on the formalization of OO modeling concepts and re-late it to our attempts at formalizing UML.In Sec-tion3,we describe the goals of the PUML project and outline and motivate our formalization approach. In Section4,we illustrate our formalization ap-Žproach,discussing the structural view class dia-.grams.We conclude in Section5with a summary and a list of some of the open issues that have to be tackled if our approach is to bear meaningful results.2.Formalizing OO concepts:an overview of inte-grated methodsThree general approaches to formalizing OO modeling concepts can be identified:supplemental, OO-extended formal language,and methods integra-tion approaches.In the supplemental approach parts of the infor-mal models that are expressed in natural language are replaced by more formal statements.The most developed example of the supplemental approach is w xSyntropy6.In Syntropy,OMT-like models are annotated with mathematical expressions.Formal ex-pression of annotations makes models more precise and less ambiguous,but the semantics of graphical constructs are not necessarily precisely defined in these approaches:In Syntropy only the semantics of the static data model is defined.In order to be industrially usable for rigorous OO development,it must be possible to use the formal semantics under-lying the diagrams as the basis for tool-supported transformations,such as refinement steps.In princi-Ž.ple the approach allows much but not all of the complexities of a formal method to be concealed from users.In the OO-extended formal language approach,an existing formal notation is extended with OO fea-tures.Several OO extensions of formal notationsŽhave been proposed in the literature e.g.,Z qq w x w x.15and Object-Z7.Often,the intent of adding OO modeling concepts to formal notations is to enhance the structuring capabilities of the base for-mal language.In this respect these approaches have indeed resulted in richer formal notations.Further-more,incorporating OO concepts into formal nota-tions requires that the OO concepts be formalized. The result is a rich body of work on formal notions of object behavior and some aspects of class struc-tures.From a practical perspective,a problem with the notations developed using this approach,at least initially,is the lack of analysis tools.Also,the models created using these notations are not easy to read,understand and modify because of the large semantic gap between real world concepts and their mathematical representations in the formal notations. Considerable effort is needed to map concepts be-tween the real-world and formal domains.In the methods integration approach informal OO modeling techniques are made more precise and amenable to rigorous analysis by integrating them with a suitable formal specification notation.A num-ber of integrated OO and formal notations have been Žw x.proposed e.g.,see Refs.2,8,13.Most works focus on the generation of formal specifications from less formal OO models.The act of formalizing an infor-mal model can reveal significant problems that are easily missed in less formal analyses of the models. Furthermore,the formal specifications produced can be rigorously analyzed,providing another opportu-nity for uncovering problems.In an integrated method the formal specifications generated from informal models are intended to re-flect the formal interpretations associated with the informal models.In fact,the generation of formal specifications from informal models is only possible if there is a mapping from syntactie structures in the()R.France et al.r Computer Standards&Interfaces191998325–334 328informal modeling domain to artifacts in the for-mally defined semantic domain.This mapping is used to build interpretations of the informal models.ŽOften,this mapping is informally described e.g.,.through examples and rarely justified in papers de-scribing particular integrated methods.The question of whether the generated specifications indeed cap-ture the intended interpretations of the informal mod-els is difficult to answer without a more formal description of the mapping rules.Another benefit of formalizing the mapping between graphical and for-mal constructs is that it can uncover problems with the modeling notations.For example,it can help identify ambiguous and inconsistent structures.In addition,a formalized mapping can be used as the basis for defining semantically well-formed informal models.The existence of a mapping does not necessarily mean that the generation of formal specifications from OO models can be completely automated.The OO models often do not contain all the information needed to generate a formal model,and if they do, the information is not expressed in precise terms Ž.hence,their informality.In most integrated meth-ods the generation of formal specifications from OO models requires the developer to supply the addi-tional information in a suitable formal format.Other approaches automatically generate what they can and it is then up to the developer to complete the formal specification.A significant barrier to the practical use of inte-grated methods is the need for users to directlyŽmanipulate the generated formal specifications e.g.,.to complete and analyze the ers of integrated methods must have working knowledge of the formal notations.The gap between the intuitive meaning of graphical OO models and their represen-tations in the formal models is wide.As mentioned previously,this means that considerable effort is needed to comprehend the formal models.Realizing the full benefits of integrated formal methods re-quires users of the methods to have in-depth knowl-edge of both the informal OO and formal specifica-tion techniques.Such a user is currently rare in industry.When a complete semantic mapping from a graphical OO notation into formal semantic domains is possible then the OO notation must itself be treated as a formal notation.This is the basis of the PUML work on formalizing UML.The intent is not to generate formal specifications from UML models, rather,the objective is to develop a more formal version of UML that can be used to build precise and analyzable models.This paves the way for the devel-opment of tools that support semantic analysis of OO models,and does not require developers to have knowledge of another formal notation.3.Towards a precise UMLThe methods integration approaches to formaliz-ing graphical OO modeling techniques outlined in the previous section focus on how traditional text-based formal specification notations can be used in the context of informal,graphical OO modeling tech-niques.Unfortunately,system analysts r developers in industry find it difficult to express their business rules,information structures,software requirements and designs in existing formal notations.This is because much effort is required to transform real-world concepts to the abstract mathematical struc-tures used by most formal notations.For this reason, understanding formal specifications can also be diffi-cult.One of the strengths of the OO techniques in UML is that they provide constructs that allow de-velopers to build models that have a clear connection to real-world concepts.Rather than generate formal specifications from informal OO models and require that developers manipulate these formal representations,a more workable approach is to provide formal semantics for graphical modeling constructs and develop rigor-ous analysis tools that allow developers to directly manipulate the OO models they have created.Formal specification techniques can be used to explore and gain insights into appropriate formal semantics for graphical modeling constructs.Once identified and formally stated,the semantics can be re-expressed in a form that is digestible by users of the OO modelingŽnotation e.g.,natural language,mixture of text and.graphical representations.The UML provides a unique opportunity for us in this respect.It is still very much a notation that can benefit from formalization of its constructs.We are currently embarking on a collaborative project,calledŽ.the Precise UML PUML project,that has as its()R.France et al.r Computer Standards&Interfaces191998325–334329focus the formalization of core UML concepts.A major objective of the project is to develop a formal reference manual for the UML.This will give a precise description of core components of the lan-guage and provide inference rules for analyzing their properties.In developing the reference manual we will build upon the semantics given in the UMLw xsemantics document11by using formal techniques to explore the described semantic base.Such formal-ization is very likely to uncover problems related to inconsistent,incomplete,and ambiguous descriptions of the UML semantics.The insights we gain through formalization will be used to develop precise de-scriptions of the semantics that will be presented in the reference manual in a readable form.In this section we motivate and give the objectives of theŽ.Precise UML PUML project.3.1.PUML objectiÕesGiven its role as a standard modeling notation,it is imperative that the UML have a well-defined, fully explored semantics.A formal semantics would make the UML a formal modeling notation and paves the way for its use in rigorous OO system development.Exploring the semantic base of UML with formal techniques can be beneficial for the following reasons.ØFormalization allows one to derive and explore consequences of particular interpretations.Such ex-ploration can yield insights that can help determine the appropriateness of interpretations.Problems re-lated to incomplete,inconsistent,and ambiguous in-terpretations can be unmasked through rigorous anal-ysis.Similarly,formal characterizations of semantic domains and semantic mappings can be analyzed to uncover problems and yield insights.ØVariants of the semantics can be obtained by relaxing and r or tightening constraints on semantic models.This paves the way for the development of a variety of semantic models for UML constructs that can be used in various modeling contexts.ØOverall,the formalization of UML constructs can lead to a deeper understanding of OO concepts, which,in turn,can lead to the development of more sophisticated semantic analysis tools,and to the more mature use of OO technologies.A primary object of the PUML project is to develop a formal characterization of core UML con-cepts.The intent is that the semantics we provide for the core concepts will provide a base for developingŽsemantic variations of the UML e.g.,semantics. tailored to system and product modeling contexts. As pointed out above,such variants can be obtained by modifying the characterizations of the semantic domains and mappings.For example,there are many forms of aggregation,most of which are applicable only to specific modeling contexts.In the UML two forms of aggregation are distinguished:the strong form called composite aggregation and the weak form simply called shared aggregation.In our for-malization of the core concepts we will formalize these two forms:semantic variations of aggregation can be obtained by modifying these formal character-izations.Some of the concepts identified as core in the UML include:types,values,operations,behaviours, associations,hierarchy and inheritance.However, other concepts such as collaborations,refinement and design patterns will also be considered in due course. At present,a draft denotational semantics of some ofw xthe above concepts has been developed4using the w xZ-notation18.Already,the task of producing this specification has identified some interesting and sub-tle ambiguities in the UML meta-model.The appropriateness of identified semantics for UML constructs cannot be determined by formal analysis only.It is necessary to gain feedback from expert OO modelers and industrial users of the nota-tions.The current UML documents reflect a signifi-cant amount of OO modeling expertise.Formaliza-tion builds upon the expertise as discussed above. The results of formalization can also benefit from expert feedback.Such feedback is necessary at least to determine the significance of the insights gained and the appropriateness of the semantic mappings.In order to achieve the PUML objectives,it is necessary to collaborate with industrial users of the UML and expert OO modelers.The PUML group will utilize mechanisms that facilitate expert feedback on theŽformalization results e.g.,publishing results and so-Žliciting feedback on the PUML web site http:rr.. r and on relevant listservers.The semantics obtained through formalization will be described in a precise and readable form in a reference manual.The reference manual will also provide descriptions of useful semantic variants of()R.France et al.r Computer Standards&Interfaces191998325–334 330constructs.A particular objective of the project is to ensure that the reference manual is accessible to mainstream software engineers.As mentioned above, we hope to achieve this by re-expressing the formal semantics in terms of a suitably expressive language. This could be achieved,for example,by using a mixture of notations such as an enhanced version of the UML meta-model,the Object Constraint Lan-Ž.w xguage OCL10,and precise natural language Žstatements precise in the sense that they are read-able re-expressions of more formally represented .concepts.3.2.Roadmap to formalizationIn this subsection,we give an overview of the formalization approach and discuss some of the is-sues that have to be tackled.In the introduction we discussed why a formaliza-tion of UML description techniques is useful.From that discussion we can derive the following two requirements for a formalization:1.A formalization must be complete,and as abstractŽ.but meaningful and understandable as is possi-ble.2.The formalization of a heterogeneous set of de-scription techniques has to be integrated to allow the definition of dependencies between them.This does not mean that every syntactical state-ment must have a formal meaning.Annotations or descriptions in prose are always necessary for docu-mentation,although they do not have a formal trans-lation.A clear and precise notion of what constitutes a system and how it should be denoted in OO terms is needed.Such a characterization provides a firm base for subsequent formalization activity.For this rea-son,the first step in our formalization approach is to formalize the notion of a system in terms of its constituent parts,interactions,and static and behav-ioral properties.This activity requires the formaliza-tion of modeling concepts that are independent of specific modeling notations and techniques.In the OO modeling realm this is possible because objects have certain properties that are independent from the modeling techniques,and are thus intrinsic to‘being an object’.Examples of such properties include hav-ing attributes or having sequentially invocable meth-w xods.In Refs.14,17,a system model is defined,andw x used,as described in papers such as Refs.3,17,as a basis for formalizing OO diagrams.Such a system model can also be viewed as the semantic domain,as it is used as the domain of the semantics mapping.The second step is to formally define the abstract syntax of the graphical OO notations.For that pur-w xpose,the UML meta-model9is well suited,as it gives a precise notion of the abstract syntax.The UML semantics document also provides well-formedness rules expressed in the expression lan-guage OCL.These rules are used to determine whether a UML structure can be associated with a well-defined meaning.This part of the UML seman-tics is already well defined and we do not anticipate that our formalization will add much significant in-sights to this aspect of the semantics.However,the meta-model primarily aims at readability for the user.For a formalisation,an even more abstract characterisation of the syntax,e.g.,using math or Z Ž.as we did below is a better starting point.The third step of the formalization is concerned with defining the mapping between the syntactic Ž.domains as characterized in step2and the semantic domains.The mappings relate syntactic constructs, such as class names,to semantic ones,like actual classes.The system model formally defines the set of all possible systems.A document of a given descrip-tion technique is then defined by relating its syntac-tic elements to elements of a system,such as the existing set of classes,or other structural or behav-ioral entities.The semantics of a document is then given by a subset of the system model.This subset of the system model consists exactly of all systems that are correct implementations of the document.It is an important advantage,to separate formal-ization of the semantic domain and the semantics mapping,by defining the system model explicitly, because this leads to a better understanding of the developed systems,allows the user to understand what a system is independently of the used notation, and allows to add and integrate new OO diagram forms.If the semantic domain is carefully defined,then the mapping between syntax and semantics becomes easier.If there is a larger coincidence between the syntactic and the semantic domain,then the mapping()R.France et al.r Computer Standards &Interfaces 191998325–334331may even be the identity to some extent.For exam-ple,if the notion of class does exist in the semantics,Žeither because it was defined e.g.,a schema using .ŽZ ,or it already exists in the used language e.g.,.Object-Z,Z qq ,identity can be used in this case.Thus,syntactic and semantic domain may overlap to some extent.For convenience,we will allow such overlapping,but is important to be aware of this situation to avoid confusion.It is also important that syntactic and semantic concepts have the same meaning.For example,if the syntax allows the deno-tation of classes with publicly accessible attributes,then a mapping to classes without such attributes is not appropriate.It clearly is beyond the scope of this paper to carry out these steps.In the next section we give a few examples of the formalizations that can be pro-duced in our approach.4.A formalization exampleIn this section,we formalize the meaning of a classifier in terms of the set of object instances that it describes.To keep the example small,we show only the part of a formalisation that deals with classes and attributes.Please note,that this section demonstrates the formalisation approach,especially the separation of syntactic and semantic domains.It is however not intended to be already a considerable contribution to the formalisation of UML.4.1.Abstract syntaxThe first step in formalizing the meaning of a classifier is to describe its abstract syntax.First,it is assumed that there are the given sets:w xClassifier Name ,Attribute Name from which the set of all classifier and attributes names can be drawn.A classifier has a name,and a set ofattributes:At any point in time,a UML model will contain a set of uniquely namedclassifiers:The constraint of the schema states that each classifier must have a unique name.4.2.System modelIn order to give meaning to classifiers,values must be assigned.In the UML,a classifier is viewed as defining a set of possible object instances.This is the ‘system model’that we adopt for our formaliza-tion.The given types Object Name and Attribute Link describes the set of all object identities and values of interest:w xAttribute Link ,Object Name An object is owned by a classifier,has a unique identity,and maps a set of attributes to theirvalues:At any point in time,the meaning of a UML model is a finite set of unique objectinstances:4.3.Meaning functionThis section describes the meaning of classifiers as a mapping from classifiers to object instances:。

Abstract— Statecharts have been originally created to specify complex reactive systems for use in simulating real-time applications. They ex tend state transition diagrams with notons of hierarchy,concurrency and synchronization. They have also been adapted for specifying and dealing analytically with performance models by converting into a Markov chain from which steady-state probabilities are obtained. A software system,PerformCharts,has been developed for this purpose. In order to improve the interface to specify and generate steady-state probabilities, this paper proposes a markup language based on XML. Procedures of how to deal with such specification in order to generate the necessary performance evaluation information are provided.Ke y wo rd s—Statecharts, PerformCharts, XML, PcMLI.I NTRODUCTIONost of the E ngineering applications in complex systemsranging from areas such as Manufacturing, Communications,Space and others rely on studies conducted on these systems behavior before they are implemented. Performance evaluation of modern complex systems has become an essential part in the engineering processes so that bottlenecks can be found and improved before the system becomes ready. W ithin the contex t of this paper, complex systems are considered as reactive systems in which they are organized as a set of states and a set of transitions among states fired by ex ternal or internal stimuli known as events. That is,a reaction takes place by moving one state to another due to a trigger of an event. Usually solutions to generate the performance evaluation are based on simulation and analytical approaches once a system is somehow represented. The approach discussed in this paper is based on analytical solution. Usually analytical approaches are based on Markov chains. A Markov chain can be considered Manuscript received F ebruary 14, 2005.A. S. M. S. Amaral is with the L aboratory of Computing and Applied Mathematics,National Institute for Space Research,SJ Campos,SP,Brazil (55-12-3945-6541; fax: 55-12-3945-6375; e-mail: anasil@ lac.inpe.br).R. R. Veloso is with the Department of Computer Science,Catholic University,Poços de Caldas,MG,Brazil (e-mail: rene.veloso@comp.pucpcaldas.br).N. L. Vijaykumar is with the L aboratory of Computing and Applied Mathematics,National Institute for Space Research,São J osédos Campos, SP, Brazil (e-mail: vijay@lac.inpe.br),C.R.L.F rances and E dvar Oliveira are with E lectrical E ngineering Department,F ederal University of Para,Belem,PA,Brazil,(e-mail: {rfrances,edva}@ufpa.br as a F inite State Machine (F SM)whose visualization is achieved by means of a state-transition diagram consisting of a set of states and transition arcs among the states in which a transition (from one state to another) takes place triggered by an event. However, there is a restriction that events among the transition arcs have to follow an ex ponential distribution. Therefore, if the system behavior is represented in F SM, then by applying Markov theory (assuming that events among transitions are ex ponentially distributed),one can determine the performance evaluation of the given system. However, depending on the complex ity of the logic of the system to be represented,it might not be very easy to clearly visualize or even have an idea of its behavior if the system is modeled in a state-transition diagram. That is, if the system is too complex with several components to be considered,state-transition diagrams may not be able to deal with the visual aspect of clarity of the represented system as the diagram may contain several hundreds of states and with a similar number of transition arcs among these states [1].In order to cope up with such issue of clearly representing complex system behavior,one has to consider higher-level techniq ues. Besides, these techniq ues must be computationally handled so that they can be associated with some mathematical solution in order to determine the performance evaluation. F ormal techniq ues that can be mentioned are q ueuing networks [2]and [3],Petri nets [4]and Statecharts [5]. The paper is based on Statecharts approach and as mentioned earlier an analytical solution is associated with the specification. The solution found to deal with Statecharts specification of a complex system behavior is to convert it into a Markov chain and then apply the appropriate numerical methods [6]and [7]that solve the chain to determine the steady-state probabilities. These probabilities are already the performance measures as they represent the probabilities of occupying each state of the specified system as a function of time. One more issue that is addressed in this paper is the interface through which one can specify complex system behavior in Statecharts and the necessary procedures to invoke to generate the performance measures. The approach taken for the interface is based on a language rather than graphical. Due to the popularity and concern in open standards, a decision has been taken to use XML as a basis to develop an interface to deal with the application of Statecharts in specifying and dealing with performance models. Therefore, the objective of the paper is the integration of the specification techniq ueOn proposing a Markup L anguage forStatecharts to be used in PerformanceE valuationA. S. M. S. Amaral, R. R. Veloso, N. L. Vijaykumar, C. R. L. F rances, E dvar Oliveira MStatecharts with XML-based interoperable technology in order to represent complex system behavior and conduct performance evaluation through an analytical approach of the system.The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides a brief description of how a Markov chain is generated from a Statecharts representation. Section 3 addresses basic concepts of XML and introduces the proposed markup language, PcML, for PerformCharts. Section 4 presents the ideas on how to deal with PcML and some of the operators constructed in order to obtain the performance values for the specified reactive system. Finally Section 5 ends the paper with some conclusions.II.S TATECHARTS AND THEIR USE IN P ERFORMANCE M ODELS Statecharts extend state-transition diagrams with notions of hierarchy (depth), orthogonality (parallel activities) and interdependence/synchronization (broadcast communication) [5], [8], [9] and [10]. Statecharts consist of following elements to represent a complex system: states, conditions, events, actions and transitions [11] and [12]. Events have been classified into: internal (or immediate) are triggered automatically by the internal logic of Statecharts (not explicitly stimulated) taking zero time when enabled; external events are stochastic (where time between their activation and occurrences follow an exponential distribution in order to deal with Continuous-Time Markov chains) and have to be explicitly stimulated to yield new configurations. The logic of converting a Statecharts specification into a Markov chain is explained briefly. Based on an initial configuration (basic states of each orthogonal component in the initial instant), enabled immediate events, if any, are triggered and new configuration is obtained. For this new configuration, stochastic events that can be enabled are listed. For each event from the list, a reaction is performed, yielding a new configuration. Once a configuration is obtained, internal events, if enabled, are triggered, firing transitions to yield new configurations. This process continues until all the configurations have been expanded. The result is a list of a structure containing a source configuration, stimulated stochastic event (along with its transition rate), and the target configuration. This structure is a Markov chain and when solved steady-state probabilities are obtained [6] and [7]. An example of a specification of a reactive system with two machines E1 e E2 and a Supervisor using Statecharts, isshown in Fig. 1 and its resulting Markov Chain in Fig. 2.Fig. 1: Statecharts representation of a System with twomachines and a repairer .The initial configuration in Figure 1 is {W1, W2, WS}. There are no internal events for this specific configuration and therefore, a list of stochastic events {a1, a2} is compiled. First the stochastic event a1 is stimulated for the initial configuration and the result is {P1, W2, WS}. As there are no immediate events that can be triggered for this configuration, it is stored in the graph structure as a target configuration (source configuration is the initial configuration and the stochastic event is a1). Now, there is still one more stochastic event a2 that has to be explicitly stimulated for the initial configuration and the result is {W1, P2, WS}. Just like with the former event, the following information is stored: initial configuration as the source, stochastic event a2 and the targetThis process continues. However, in order to show the reaction to an immediate event, assume that at a certain stage, the resulting configuration is {B1, P2, WS}. In this, the immediate event t r [i n (B1)] is enabled and i mme d i a t e l y (zero time) the configuration moves to {B1, P2, C1}. Note that in case both the machines are in failure state (i.e. B1 and B2), a priority is given to repair the first machine. This is achievedthrough the event t r [i n (B2) ^i n (B1)]. The result of all this reaction is a graph with states and transition arcs with stochastic events. Due to the fact that it is assumed that these stochastic events follow an exponential distribution, this graph is a Markov chain and when solved, steady-state probabilitiesare obtained and they are the basis for the performance measures.In a nutshell, the construction of a Markov chain from a Statecharts specification obeys the following steps:x the initial configuration (set of basic active states within each comp onent) is obtained;x a reaction to internal events (true, false, ex it, entered), if any, is p erformed obtaining a new configuration;x for this new configuration, a list of ex ternal events is obtained;x for each event of this list a reaction is p erformed followed by a reaction to internal events and actions;x this p rocess is rep eated until a configuration is obtained such that reaction has already been p erformed to its list of ex ternal events.It is important to mention that the PerformCharts software also caters for entry by history in which the last state has to be “remembered” thus overruling the default entry. Probabilities have also been introduced among transitions where a same event leads to different target configurations. Details of the application of Statecharts in performance models can be seen in [12].III.P C ML-P ERFORM C HARTS M ARKUP L ANGUAGEAs already mentioned the application of the specification technique Statecharts to performance models resulted in the development of a software package known as PerformCharts. In order to use PerformCharts, the specification of the model must be coded in the main module in C++programming language followed by invoking the necessary methods to convert the representation into a Markov chain and then to calculate the performance measures. One natural alternative is a graphical interface and it is under development. In order to devise a better (when compared to coding in C++) and a faster interface to deal with the software package, it has been decided to use a language-based interface. XML (eXtensible Markup Language) has become very popular and extremely useful in dealing with interoperable formats [13]. Therefore, a language based on this technology has been designed with the objective of its use in specifying and dealing with performance models.XML (eXtensible Markup Language) is a kind of meta language, i.e., it is not a programming language and can be considered as consisting a set of rules that can be used for formatting texts in order to structure a given data. The main advantage of XML is that it is extensible, platform-independent, and it is supported by international efforts for standardization. XML is similar to HTML by making use of tags and attributes. In HTML, tags and associated attributes are used to present the text in a certain format by a browser. Whereas in the case of XML, tags are used to organize a set of data and the interpretation of this data is entirely left to the application that eventually reads it. Just as an example, while <p> in HTML indicates a paragraph, in XML it might inform price, parameter, person, etc. depending on the context. By using regular text format, XML makes it possible for any reader to look at the text without having to use any program for that purpose, i.e., one can use any text editor to read XML file. However, XML is strict in the sense that a forgotten tag or an attribute value without quotes generates an error [14]. XML has a set of useful modules to accomplish some tasks such as: XLink allows to add hyperlinks to an XML file; XPointer and XFragments are useful in pointing to parts of an XML document; CSS is a style sheet language, just like HTML, to apply on XML files. XSL is a language that can describe style sheets to enable to rearrange, add and delete tags and attributes; DOM allows handling XML files from a programming language; Schemas assist users to define structures of XML-based formats.The best way to appreciate and get a feeling of what XML documents look like is with a simple example - a company that sells products on-line. HTML formatting is used to describe the products; however, names and addresses of customers, and also prices and discounts are formatted with XML. A customer is described as:<customer-details id="ProdOnLine-ID1"><name>AmaralVelVij Products Co.</name><address country="Brazil"><street>1758 Avenida do Espaço</street> <city>Cidade dos Astronautas</city><state>Espaçonave</state><postal>12245</postal></address></customer-details>All the tags must have a matching end within XML syntax. As can be seen from the example, start and end tags <name> and </name>are used to mark up information. Information marked by tags is called an element; elements may be further enriched by attaching name-value pairs (for example, country="Brazil"in the example above) called attributes. Its syntax is quite simple and can be easily processed by a machine. Moreover, it is understandable to humans. XML is based on SGML, and has a lot of similarities when compared to HTML.These features within XML have been transported to propose a markup language to deal with performance evaluation of reactive systems based on Statecharts specification. As previously mentioned the software system PerformCharts has been developed to specify a complex system using Statecharts and analytically evaluate its performance. Therefore the markup language PerformCharts Markup Language PcML [15] has been proposed and developed. Its tags, attributes and other features represent the elements used in Statecharts for specifying reactive systems as well as their use in performance evaluation.Basically, following XML principles, tags consisting of the elements required to specify a complex system in Statecharts have been created for PcML. But the problem of handling the tags in order to generate the performance measures still remains. The solution to deal with this issue has been to interpret the language and generate the main module in C++ so that when compiled, linked with other classes from PerformCharts and executed would yield the performance measures. In other words, coding the specification and invoking necessary methods are thus avoided by letting theinterpreter takes care of this. The interpreter has been written in two languages: perl and java.PcML diagram is shown in Figure 3. The figure shows boxes consisting of elements using dotted and solid lines. Elements with dotted lines are not required in the specification of some systems while elements with solid lines are mandatory. This is because some of the elements, such as conditions, actions and probabilities are optional whereas states, events and transitions are mandatory for specifying a complex reactive system. The optional elements provide more power in representing complex systems. The boxes connected to other boxes, with the symbol -> are the elements allowed between the matching start and end tags. Consider the element Conditions; the tags allowed between it and /Conditions are: InState, NotCondition and ComposedCondition. In the same way, the elements ANDCond and ORCond can be specified within ComposedCondition. The 1..f means that the number of occurrences of such elements must be in the range of one to infinite. XML 1.0 supplies the Document Type Definition (DTD) mechanism for declaring constraints on the use of markup [13]. The specification part within PerformCharts' main program is basically function calls for the creation of the states, conditions, events, actions, transitions and other elements of a reactive system. Following are some details on how those elements are defined within PcML file.1. RootA Root element must be specified for the model in Statecharts. For the example shown in Figure 1, the definition of the root is:<Root Name="System" Type="AND">The RootName corresponds to the same name given to the model.2. StatesStates (root as well as its offspring) are created defining the whole hierarchy of the specified model. An initial default state must be provided. In case entry by History is considered, this information must also be given. For the root state, a string containing the name and its type has to be provided as parameters. For the others, a name, type and their parent have to be provided. Definition of default states needs that the state should be the entry point as well the component in which this default is applied. In the example of Figure 1, PcML defines states as:<State Name="E1" Type="XOR" Default="W1"/>3. ConditionsIf the conditions associated with transition are not satisfied, a transition is not fired. Conditions can also be combined. As an example, a frequently used condition - instate condition - in[X], where X is a State is defined in the following way:< InState Name="C1" State="X"/>The definition indicates that a instate condition named C1 has been created and the related state has the name X. The State must have already been defined before.4. EventsWhen defining a stochastic event, a name (f1) for the event along with its transition rate (0.1) must be specified. For an immediate (built-in) event, such as a true condition event, the tag TrueCondition is used by specifying a name (TC1) for the event along with the condition (C1). The condition must have been defined earlier. Examples of such events are listed:<Events>< Stochastic Name="f1" Value="0.1"/><TrueCondition Name="TC1" Condition="C1"/></Events>In order to define Action, EventTriggerAction must be used with the action name (Eta1M1) along with the associated event (c1). An example of specifying action follows:<Actions><EventTriggerAction Name="Eta1M1" Event="c1"/></Actions>5. TransitionsIn order to define a transition within PerformCharts, the following are required: a name for a transition; means by which the transition occurs (event, conditioned event, action, etc.); source state; and a target state. From the example in Figure 1, a basic transition in PcML is defined as:<Transition Source="W1" Event="a1"Destination="P1"/>Fig. 3: PcML DiagramIV.O N DEALING WITH P C ML FOR PERFORMANCEEVALUATIONOnce the PcML file is ready, it is parsed and the information contained within it is converted into a main program in C++. This resulting main program duly linked to other classes and run will generate the steady-state probabilities. The PcML fileis interpreted by using either perl [16], [17] and [18] or java [19] and [20]. Both the implementations access and manipulate the PcML document by means of DOM (Document Object Model)-based parsing. The parser reads an XML document and creates objects to represent the different parts of that document. These objects are associated with specific methods and properties, and are used to manipulate and access information about it. Thus, the entire XML document is represented as a hierarchical "tree" of these objects, with the DOM parser providing a simple API to move between different branches. Once a particular node has been reached, built-in methods can be used to obtain value of the node, and use it within the script [17]. It supports all the different structures typically found in an XML document: elements, attributes, namespaces, entities, notations and others. DOM defines a standard set of interfaces for representing documents, a standard model of how these objects can be combined, and a standard set of methods for accessing and manipulating them. The DOM specification also attempts to remain neutral in its interface definitions. DOM is a W3C Recommendation and recognized as a Web standard. Both programs read the PcML file and, according to the rules established in a DTD/Schema, they check if it is well formed.Perl code consists in traversing the PcML document searching for given tags with their values and attributes. Once these tags are retrieved, it writes text lines in a file consisting of functions calls of PerformCharts. Detailed information can be found in [16] and [18].In Java, after the hierarchical tree of nodes/objects is created, the nodes will be searched by internal methods that use Xpath expressions. Detailed information can be found in [19] and [20].Now, some examples of C++ commands (that should make part of the main program file) generated by those tools are in order.Statechart System;System.createRoot("System",AND);System.createSonState ("E1",OR,"System");System.setDefaultEntry ("E1","P1");One can observe that the name assigned to the root state is also assigned to the system being modeled. The example shown in Figure 1 does not use any entry by History feature. If it is used, a command line similar to:System.createHistoryEntry("State") ;would be generated.Next, an example of how a condition is created: InStateCondition *inC1 =System.createInStateCondition("W1");Definition of stochastic events is based on the method createPrimEvent and its parameters are a string with the event’s name and a transition rate. The same method is used without the transition rate for defining an event that will be used as an action.A class ConditionedEvent has been designed to deal with events combined with a guarding and takes two parameters: the event and the condition. The example shown in the Figure 1 has no such events.ConditionedEvent *cevR1=example.createConditionedEvent (*ncR1, "Lambda r"); Example of the creation of a transition are followed: Transition *transW1_P1 = System.createTransition (*teva1);System.addSourceNode (*transW1_P1,"W1");System.addDestinationNode (*transW1_P1,"P1"); Finally, the following C++ function calls are generated in order to yield the performance evaluation parameters: GraphBase gb;GraphGenerator gen;//Perform reaction - generate all possible Configurations gen.generateGraph (RedundSys, gb );gb.printOn ( fout );flush ( fout );//Determine steady-state probabilities MarkovChainGenerator mk ( gb );mk.generateLimitingProbabilities ( );mk.printLimitProbabilities ( fout );mk.printCompStLimitProb ( fout );V.C ONCLUSIONComplex reactive systems are one of a kind where many intricacies have to be represented. Statecharts have been originally created for representing real-time systems. However, their visual appeal combined with their rich formalism enables their use in other applications. For example, many object-oriented systems do use Statecharts to represent the behavior of the classes. Bearing in mind the possibilities of representing complex logic in modern reactive systems, they have been adapted to represent and deal (analytically) with performance models. The paper described adapting the specifying technique Statecharts to be used in specifying and dealing with performance models by associating to a mathematical solution, in particular to Markov chains from which performance measures are obtained. Many examples (from many applications) were tested and also compared with systems represented in Petri nets and queuing networks. The software system PerformCharts has also included other features already defined in Statecharts such as entry by History (overriding the entry by default) and parameterised states. Probabilistic transitions, not defined in Statecharts but necessary for performance evaluation, have been added to the software system. However, interface, necessary to call the functions in order to create the data structures of the representation itself as well as generating a Markov chain along with its steady-state probabilities, has to be written in C++ programming language and depending on the complexity of the reactive system, this activity might become real tedious.A graphical interface is being developed. However, due to the growing use of interoperability technologies, especially XML, it has been decided to integrate the formal specification technique Statecharts with XML-based interoperable technology. Therefore, by adapting XML to PerformCharts, PcML was created. But just the specification of a reactive system in a XML-like language is not sufficient as somehow it has to be handled for the objective which is the performance measures of a reactive system. In this case two approaches were used: one based onperl language and the other on Java. The development of such language along with the solution approaches to deal with it were quite fast and started as a course project. This interface gave a boost to the use of PerformCharts due to its easiness in specifying and dealing with a performance model thus avoiding the tedious job of writing the specification in a programming language.Future work related to this project is to develop a web-based PerformCharts where a reactive system can be delivered in graphical form or in PcML in order to calculate the performance measures of the given system. The main idea here would be to convert the graphical interface to PcML. However, other approaches of generating the performance measures without having to convert into a main program are under consideration.There is one more ongoing research project that is adapting PerformCharts to be used in generating test cases. There are several tools that can generate test cases of a software system if the system is specified in an extended finite state machine. Therefore, in this project, the idea is to convert the Statecharts specification into an extended finite state machine instead of a Markov chain.R EFERENCES[1] D. Drusinsky and D. Harel, “Using Statecharts for Hardware Description and Synthesis”, IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design 8(7), 1989, pp. 798-807[2] L. Kleinrock, “Queuing Systems”. Vol. 2. John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA, 1976[3] B. Bunday, “An introduction to Queuing theory”. Arnold, USA, (1996)[4] J. L. Peterson, “Petri net theory and modeling of systems”. Prentice-Hall International, London, 1981[5] D. Harel,, “Statecharts: a visual formalism for complex systems”, Science of Computer Programming , Vol.8., 1987, pp. 237-274[6] ] E. A. S. Silva, R. R. Muntz , “Computational methods to solve Markov Chains: Applications to computing and communication systems”. UFRGS, Gramado, RS, Brazil, 1992 (In portuguese).[7] B. Philippe, Y. Saad, W. J. Stewart. “Numerical Methods in Markov Chain modeling”. Operations R esearch 40 (6), 1992, pp. 1156-1179.[8] D. Harel, A. Pnueli, J. Schmidt, R. SHERMAN, “On the formal semantics of Statecharts”, IEEE Symposium on L ogic in Computer Science, Ithaca, USA., 1987[9] D. Harel, A. Naamad, “The STATEMATE Semantics of Statecharts”, ACM Transactions on Software Engineering 5(4), 1996, pp. 293-333[10] D. Harel, M. Politi, “Modeling Reactive Systems with Statecharts: the Statemate Approach”, McGraw-Hill, USA., 1998[11] N. L. Vijaykumar, “Statecharts: Their use in specifying and dealing with Performance Models”. Ph.D. Thesis Aeronautical Institute of Technology (ITA), São José dos Campos, SP, Brazil, 1999[12] N. L. Vijaykumar, S. V. Carvalho, V. Abdurahiman, “On proposing Statecharts to specify Performance Models”, International Transactions in Operational R esearch, 9(3), 2002, pp. 321-336[13] W3C, Extensible Markup Language (XML)/XML/Activity.2002[14] C. Bates, “XML in Theory & Practice”, John Wiley Computer, 2003[15] A.S.M.S. Amaral, R. R. Veloso, and N. L. Vijaykumar, “ PcML Reference Manual”. Technical Report, National Institute for Space Research, Brazil, 2004[16] E. T. Ray, “Perl and XML”, USA: O´Reilly & Associates, Inc., 2002[17] Icarus, , Using Perl with XML/Server-Side/Perl/PerlXML/PerlXML2/print_htm, 2002[18] M. Riehl and I. Sterin, “XML and Perl”. USA: Macmillan Computer Pub, Oct 2002[19] H. Maruyama, “XML and Java – Developing Web Application”. CA: Addison Wesley, 2002 [20] R. R. Veloso, “Java e Xml – Quick refrence guide”. Novatec Editora, Brazil, 2003. (In Portuguese)。

7.1 Introduction7.1.1 What is semantics??Semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.7.1.2 Sub-branches of semantics. John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics, Wen Qiufang makes a distinction between l exical semantics and sentence semantics the latter of which is also termed sentential semantics by some people.7.2 meaning7.2.1 Uncertainty of meaningThe words mean and meaning can be used in many different contexts and for different purposes in daily communication.Even as a technical term, meaning is defined and used differently according to different theoretical approaches.7.2.2 theories of meaningJohn Lyons1.The referential (or denotational theory) 指称说2.the ideational, or mentalistic theory 意念说.3.the behaviourist theory 行为反应说4.the meaning-is-use theory 用法说5.the verificationist theory验证说6.the truth-conditional theory.真值说Li Fuyuan Semantic triangular 语义三角理论7.2.3 Basic concept related to meaningReference所指is the relation between the linguistic expression and the object in extra-linguistic reality to which the expression refers.Denotation指称is a term which is intrinsically connected with referenceReferent is the object or state of affairs in extra-linguistic reality or a linguistic element to which the speaker or writer is referring by using a linguistic sign. LimitationsSense意义the characteristic or quality of the object denoted by the linguistic expression. Denotes the relationship inside language.Extension and intensionExtension is the class of entities to which a linguistic expression is correctly applied Intension is the set of defining properties which determines the applicability of a linguistic expression.Concept is the result of human cognition,reflecting the objective world in human mind.7.2.4 Types of meaningDenotation and connotation 外延意义和内涵意义The denotative meaning of a linguistic form is the person,object, abstract notion, event, or Mate which the word or sentence denotes.We can say that the denotation of a linguistic expression is its dictionary meaning.The main application of the term connotation is with reference to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of a linguistic unit, especially a lexical item.Positive neutral negative (Wen Qiufang)7.3Lexical semantics is concerned with the meaning of lexical items.7.3.1 componential analysis成分分析The way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components is known as componential analysis. We can analyze a word as a set of semantic features or semantic components with the values: plus ( + ) or minus ( -)7.3.27.3.2 Semantic field 语义场Words do not exist in isolation. They are always related to each other in one another and form different semantic fields. Semantic field theory is a theory of the German structuralist school：the vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, or fields, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways. (Crystal. 1985, 274).7.3.3 Lexical relationsSaeed 8 lexical relations一Form relation 形式关系Homonymy同音（同形）异义关系two or more lexical items are synonyms when they have the same meaningsAbsolute homoyms 同音同形异义词Homopones 同音异义词Homographs 同形异义词二Sense relations 语义关系1.Polysemy一词多义关系 a lexical item has a range of different meanings2.Synonymy同义关系two or more lexical items have the same meanings3.Antonymy反义关系two words are opposite in meaningcomplementary antonymy 互补反义关系Gradable antonymy 等级反义关系Relational opposite 关系对立反义词4.Hyponymy下义关系Hyponym 下义词Hyperonym 上义词三object relations 实体关系1.Meronymy 组成部分与整体关系2.Member-collection 成员与集体关系3.Portion-mass 部分与整体关系Lexical ambiguity is caused by ambiguous words rather than by ambiguous structures and is usually created by polysemy or homonymy.7.4 sentential semanticsSix essential factors for determining sentence meaningi) the meanings of individual words which make up a sentence;ii) grammaticality of a sentence;iii) the linear ordering of the linguistic forms in a sentence;iv) the phonological features like stress and intonation;v) the hierarchical order of a sentence;vi) the semantic roles of the nouns in relation to the verb in a sentence.Nine semantic rolesAgent （施事格）Patient （目标格）Experiencer （经验者）Instrument （工具格）Cause （动因格）Attribute （属性）Recipient （接受者）Locative （方位格）Temporal （时间格）SynonymousEntailContradictPresuppose presupposition triggerTautologyContradictionSemantically anomalous 异常的反常的Predicate谓语argument论元proposition命题。

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第四章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of m orphemes into words. 2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic kn owledge of a language speak-er are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, th e two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitiv e phrase, and auxiliary phrase. 10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A no un phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-struct ure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the l etter given: 15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a sub-ject a nd a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 16.A s______ is a structurally independ ent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question o r command. 17.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually prec edes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_ ______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words a re constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor an d a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to signific ant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C____ condit ion explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete t he statement: 25.A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical 26. A __________ in the embedd ed clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause. A. coordinato r B. particle C. preposition D. subordinator 27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properti es. A. recursive B. grammatical C. social D. functional 28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand ____________A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above. 29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________. A. transformational rul esB. generative rules C. phrase structure rules D. x-bar theory 30. The theory of case conditio n accounts for the fact that __________. A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary. 31. The sentence structure is ________. A. only linear B. Only hierarchical C. complex D. both linear and hierarchical 32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite 33. The ________ rules are the rules that g roup words and phrases to form grammatical sentencesA. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational 34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. A. Generative B. Transformational C. X-bar D. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. synta ctic categories 39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structure V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence? 44. What are the major types of sentence s? Illustrate them with examples. 45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? 4 7. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5. T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.Case III. There ar e four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A 31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structur e of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with o ther words to form grammatical sentences. 36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally indepen dent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which conta ins a finite verb or a verb phrase. 37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains t wo clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "o r". 38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refe rs to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function. 39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functi onal relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cas es, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the syst em of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions: 43.What are the basic components of a sentence? Normally, a sentence consists of at least a s ubject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 44. What are the maj or types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. Traditionally, there are three major ty pes of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex se ntence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicat e and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coo rdinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating con junction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentenc e do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam-ple: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics. 45. Are the elements in a sentence li nearly structured? Why? No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after an other in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not comp osed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another f ollowing a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sen-tences are also hierarchically structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phra se (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:S NP VP Det N Vt NPDet N The boy likes the music. 46. Wh at are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? The tre e diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups wo rds into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each struct ural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship am ong linguistic elements. 47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples. NP movemen t in-volves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sent ence changes from the active voice to the passive voice: (A)The man beat the child. (B). The child was beaten by the man. B is the result of the m ovement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left. Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentenc e from the active voice to the passive voice. For example: (C) It seems they are quite fit for the job. (D) They seem quite fit for the job. These sentences are identical in meanin g, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underly-ing structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第五章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American Engl ish but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or Ame rican English. 2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. 3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different refere nces in different situations. 4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsi c and inherent relation to the physical world of experience. 5. Contextualism is based on t he presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable context s. 6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. 7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components. 8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality. 9. “it is hot.”is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analy sis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the let ter given: 11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning. 12. The conceptualist vie w holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. 13.R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 14. W ords that are close in meaning are called s________. 15. When two words are identical in s ound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________. 16.R_________ o pposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided i nto meaning components. 18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. 20. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. III. There are fou r choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 21. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth 22. “We shall k now a word by the company it keeps.”This statement represents _______. A. the conce ptualist view B. contexutalism C. the naming theory D.behaviourism 23. Whic h of the following is not true? A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the lin guistic form. B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized. D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in. 24. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes 25. ____ _______ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning compone nts, called semantic features. A. Predication analysis B. Componential analysis C. Phonemic analysis D. Grammatical analysis 26. “alive”and “dead”are ______ ________. A. gradable antonyms B. relational opposites C. complementary antony ms D. None of the above 27. _________ deals with the relationship between the ling uistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. A. Reference B. C oncept C. Semantics D. Sense 28. ___________ refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different meanings have the same form. A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy 29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________. A. homonyms B. polysemy C. hyponyms D. synonyms 30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _ ______. A. grammatical rules B. selectional restrictions C. semantic rules D. semantic fea tures IV. Define the following terms: 31. semantics 32. sense 33 . reference 34. synonymy 35. polysemy 36. homonymy 37. homophones 38. Homographs 39. complete homonyms 40. hyponymy 41.antonymy 42 componential analysis 43.grammatical meaning 44. predication 45. Ar gument 46. predicate 47. Two-place predication V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components? 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with exampl es. 50. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth val ues? 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous re lation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values? 52. According to the way synonyms di ffer, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples. 53. W hat are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How they differ?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5. T 6.T 7.F 8.T 9.T 10.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Semantics 12. direct 13.Reference 14. synonyms 15.homopho nes 16.Relational 17. Componential 18. selectional 19. argument 20. naming III. There are fo ur choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 2l.A 22.B 23.D 24.D 25.B 26.C 27.A 28.C 29.D 30.A IV. Define the following terms: 31. Se mantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 32. Sense: Se nse is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de -contextualised. 33. Reference: Refere nce means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relati onship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience 34. Synonym y :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. 35. Polysemy :Polysemy r efers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning. 36. Homonymy:Homonymy refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different mean-ings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 37. homoph ones :When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones 38. homographs : When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 39. complete homonyms.:Wh en two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.40.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 41. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of opposite ness of meaning. 42. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro-posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief t hat the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning components, which are called sema ntic features. 43.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its grammatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence i s governed by the grammatical rules of the language. 44. predica-tion :The predica-tion is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. 45. ar-gument : An ar-gument is a logical particip ant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence. 46. predicate : A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical re lation linking the arguments in a sentence. 47. two-place predication :A two-place predication is one which con-tains two arguments. V. Answer the following qu estions: 48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the mea nings of all its components? The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the mean ings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example; (A) The dog bit the man. (B) The man bit the dog. If the meaning of a sentence were the sum total of the meanings of all its co mponents, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are diff erent in meanings. As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical mea n-ing and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (B). T he meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the constituent words and of the grammatical constructions that r elate one word syntagmatically to another. 49.What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples. Componential analysis, pro-pos ed by structural semanticists, is a way to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on t he belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are c alled semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usuall y written in capitalized letters. For example, the word “man”is ana-lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE] 50. How do yo u distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values? Entailment is a relation of inclusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y: X: He has been to Fran ce. Y: He has been to Europe. In terms of truth values, if X is true, Y is necessarily tru e, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe. If X is false, Y may be t rue or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he h as not been to Europe. If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not have been to France. If Y is false, X is false, e.g. If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France. Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y i s an entailment of X. The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows: Suppose there are two sentences X and Y X: John' s bike needs repairing. Y: J ohn has a bike. If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John mus t have a bike. If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, Jo hn still has a bike. If Y is true, X is either true or false, e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may not need repairing. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If John doe s not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. There fore, X presupposes Y, or Y is a presupposition of X. 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of tr uth values? In terms of truth condition, of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false, therefore X is synonymous with Y e.g. X; He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life. Of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true, then we can say A is inconsistent with Y e.g. X: John ismarried. Y: John is a bachelor.52. According to the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples.According to the ways synonyms differ, synonyms can be divided into the following group s. i. Dialectal synonyms They are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. Bri tish English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English la nguage. For examples: British English American English autumn fall lift elevator Then dialectal synonyms can also be foun d within British, or American English itself. For example, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is called "whisky" in Irish dialect. ii. Stylistic synonyms They a re synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms ten d to be more formal, others tend to be casual, and still oth-ers are neutral in style. For exa mple: old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent chap, pal, friend, companion iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning They are the words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indi cate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about . For exam-ple, “colla borator” and “accomplice” are synonymous, sharing the meaning of "a person who helps another", but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in do-ing something good, while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act. iv. Collocational synonyms They are synonyms which differ in the ir collocation. For example, we can use accuse, charge, rebuke to say that someone has done something wrong or even criminal, but they are used with different preposi-tions accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. . .for. v. V. Semantically different synonyms Semantically differe nt synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slight-ly in what they mean. For example, "a maze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise," but they have very s ubtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion andbewilderment, " astound" implies difficulty in believing. " 53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How do they differ? One of the oldest w as the naming theory, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the w ords used in a language are taken to be la-bels of the objects they stand for. The conceptua list view holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to.The form and the meaning are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Conte xtualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguistic context. For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal co uld not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context in which the sentence occurs: The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried. (seal meaning an aqu atic mammal) The seal could not be found. The king became worried. (seal meaning the kin g's stamp)Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of lingui stic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language form as " the situati on in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer".语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第六章)Historical Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore methods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between languages. 2. Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation. 3. The hi story of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English and Modern English. 4. Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded th e British Isles from northern Europe. 5. In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative cases. 6. In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it. 7. A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was the revival of French as a literary language. 8. In general, linguistic change i n grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabulary of a langua ge. 9. The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and move ment of sounds. 10. The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical develop ment of English are the loss and addition of affixes. 11. In Old English, the morphosyntac tic rule of adjective agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the h ead noun in case, number and gender. 12.。