Investigating Emotion With Music:
An fMRI Study
Stefan Koelsch,*Thomas Fritz,D.Yves v.Cramon,Karsten Mu¨ller,
and Angela D.Friederici
Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences,Leipzig,Germany
??Abstract:The present study used pleasant and unpleasant music to evoke emotion and functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI)to determine neural correlates of emotion processing.Unpleasant (permanently dissonant)music contrasted with pleasant(consonant)music showed activations of amyg-dala,hippocampus,parahippocampal gyrus,and temporal poles.These structures have previously been implicated in the emotional processing of stimuli with(negative)emotional valence;the present data show that a cerebral network comprising these structures can be activated during the perception of auditory(musical)information.Pleasant(contrasted to unpleasant)music showed activations of the inferior frontal gyrus(IFG,inferior Brodmann’s area(BA)44,BA45,and BA46),the anterior superior insula,the ventral striatum,Heschl’s gyrus,and the Rolandic operculum.IFG activations appear to re?ect processes of music–syntactic analysis and working memory operations.Activations of Rolandic opercular areas possibly re?ect the activation of mirror-function mechanisms during the perception of the pleasant tunes.Rolandic operculum,anterior superior insula,and ventral striatum may form a motor-related circuitry that serves the formation of(premotor)representations for vocal sound production during the perception of pleasant auditory information.In all of the mentioned structures,except the hippocampus, activations increased over time during the presentation of the musical stimuli,indicating that the effects of emotion processing have temporal dynamics;the temporal dynamics of emotion have so far mainly been neglected in the functional imaging literature.Hum Brain Mapp27:239–250,2006.
?2005W iley-L iss,I nc.
Key words:emotion;music;amygdala;mirror function;fMRI
??
INTRODUCTION
During the past10years the majority of imaging studies on emotion have focused on the examination of emotions with negative valence.In the course of this research a neural circuit underlying the processing of aversive stimuli has been described in which the amygdala plays a crucial role: Activity changes in the amygdala have been observed dur-ing the detection[Adolphs et al.,1994,1998;Scott et al.,1997] and generation[Lane et al.,1997;Taylor et al.,1998;Zald and Pardo,1997,2002]of fear-related,negative emotions. The amygdala is involved in the emotional processing of stimuli from multiple sensory modalities[Davis and Whalen,2001;Zald,2003].So far,amygdala responses have been investigated with functional imaging studies mainly in the visual modality using images of fearful facial expres-sions[Breiter et al.,1996;Morris et al.,1996,1998;Phillips et al.,1997,1998b;Whalen et al.,1998].In the auditory modal-ity,the amygdala has been shown to be involved in the processing of affective nonverbal vocal expressions:Involve-ment of the amygdala in the recognition of emotion has been
Contract grant sponsor:German Research Foundation(Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft);Contract grant number:KO2266/1-1(to
S.K.).
*Correspondence to:Stefan Koelsch,Max-Planck-Institute of Hu-
man Cognitive and Brain Sciences,Stephanstr.1a,04103Leipzig,
Germany.E-mail:koelsch@cbs.mpg.de
Received for publication13December2004;Accepted25May2005
DOI:10.1002/hbm.20180
Published online2August2005in Wiley InterScience(www.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/5e18162454.html,).
?H uman B rain M apping27:239–250(2006)??
suggested by functional imaging techniques using PET [Morris et al.,1999]and fMRI[Phillips et al.,1998b;Sander and Scheich,2001],and case studies on patients with dam-age to the amygdala suggest that the amygdala supports the appraisal of auditory signals of danger[Anderson and Phelps,1998;Scott et al.,1997].With respect to music processing,a recent lesion study reported impaired recog-nition of fear in patients with amygdala resections[Gosselin et al.,2005];functional imaging studies with musical stimuli have so far not reported activations of the amygdala.
The amygdala also plays a role in the processing of posi-tive emotions[Davis and Whalen,2001;Hamann et al.,1999; Liberzon et al.,2003;Zald,2003],and the amygdala is not the only neural substrate essential to emotion but part of a system that also involves other cerebral structures.The structures implicated in emotion processing have been sug-gested to include limbic(e.g.,amygdala and hippocampus), as well as paralimbic structures(e.g.,insular and orbitofron-tal cortex;for a review of the anatomical speci?cation of limbic and paralimbic structures see Mega et al.[1997]). Limbic and paralimbic structures are involved in a number of functions underlying the processing of a variety of emo-tions[e.g.,Baxter and Chiba,1999;Calder et al.,2001;Dolan, 2002;Hamann and Canli,2004;Mega et al.,1997;Phillips et al.,2003;Robbins and Everitt,1996;Rolls,2004]. Although there has been progress in the research of cir-cuits mediating emotions with negative valence,brain im-aging studies investigating the neural correlates of positive emotions are still rare[see Nitschke et al.,2004,for an overview](for imaging studies investigating recognition and classi?cation of positive emotional expressions see Phil-lips et al.[1998a];Morris et al.[1996]).The investigation of the neural correlates of emotions with positive valence is challenging,because in an experimental setting these emo-tions are more dif?cult to evoke than negative emotions (especially in experimental settings like those required when applying functional imaging techniques such as PET or fMRI).
In the present study we used musical stimuli to evoke emotion because music has been shown to be capable of inducing strong emotions with both positive and negative emotional valence consistently across subjects[Krumhansl, 1997].However,to date only a few imaging studies have addressed the investigation of emotion with https://www.doczj.com/doc/5e18162454.html,ing PET,Blood et al.[1999]investigated the emotional dimen-sion of pleasantness/unpleasantness with sequences of har-monized melodies.The stimuli varied in their degree of (permanent)dissonance,and were accordingly perceived as less or more unpleasant(stimuli with highest permanent dissonance were rated as the most unpleasant).Stimuli were presented under computerized control without musical ex-pression.This paradigm was not intended to induce the full range of(pleasant)musical mood,yet it allowed examina-tion of emotional processing with music while simulta-neously excluding effects of musical preference on the per-ception of the emotional valence of the stimuli.Increasing unpleasantness of the stimuli correlated with activations of the right parahippocampal gyrus and the precuneus,while decreasing unpleasantness of the stimuli correlated with activations of frontopolar,orbitofrontal,and subcallosal cin-gulate cortex.
The present study takes a similar approach,using pleasant and unpleasant musical stimuli to investigate emotion.In contrast to Blood et al.[1999],the pleasant musical excerpts were not computerized sounds but natural musical stimuli (joyful,instrumental dance-tunes recorded from commer-cially available CDs).Unpleasant stimuli were permanently dissonant counterparts of the original musical excerpts.Per-manently dissonant signals are usually perceived as more unpleasant compared to mainly consonant signals[Blood et al.,1999;Schellenberg and Trehub,1994;Trainor and Hein-miller,1998;Van de Geer et al.,1962;Wedin,1972;Zentner and Kagan,1998;these studies do not exclude that cultural experiences can modify judgments about the pleasantness of certain dissonances].Note that,compared to the stimuli used by Blood et al.[1999],the present stimuli were in-tended to induce not only unpleasantness,but also pleas-antness as a response to the joyful,naturalistic music.
A PET study by Brown et al.[2004]investigated activa-tions elicited by unfamiliar pleasant music.Contrasted to a rest condition,pleasant music activated limbic and paralim-bic structures,including subcallosal cingulate cortex,ante-rior insula,the posterior hippocampus,the superior tempo-ral poles,and part of the ventral striatum(nucleus accumbens).Similarly,another experiment by Blood and Zatorre[2001]measured changes in regional cerebral blood ?ow(rCBF)during“chills”when participants were pre-sented with a piece of their own favorite music(as a control condition,participants listened to the favorite piece of an-other subject).Increasing chills intensity correlated with in-creases in rCBF in brain regions thought to be involved in reward and emotion,including the insula,orbitofrontal cor-tex,and the ventral striatum.Decreases in rCBF(with in-creasing chills intensity)were observed in the amygdala,the hippocampus,and the ventral medial prefrontal cortex. Compared to the paradigm used in the study from Blood and Zatorre[2001],the present study has the advantage that identical stimuli were used across subjects,enabling the investigation of emotion independent of personal prefer-ences of listeners.Moreover,in contrast to the studies from both Blood and Zatorre[2001]and Brown et al.[2004],the present study used pleasant as well as unpleasant music, allowing investigation not only of the processing of stimuli with positive but also with negative emotional valence in a within-subjects design.
We hypothesized that participants perceive consonant musical excerpts as pleasant,and permanently dissonant excerpts as unpleasant.Because the amygdala has been im-plicated in the processing of aversive stimuli,we expected that unpleasant music elicits activity changes in the amyg-dala.Based on the?ndings of the mentioned PET studies on music processing[Blood et al.,1999;Blood and Zatorre, 2001;Brown et al.,2004],we also expected activity changes in other limbic and paralimbic structures,namely,in the
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hippocampus,the ventral striatum,frontopolar,orbitofron-tal,as well as subcallosal cingulate cortex in response to pleasant music,and in the parahippocampal gyrus in re-sponse to unpleasant music.
Another aim of the present study was to compare brain activations elicited during early and later stages of the pro-cessing of music with emotional valence.The investigation of the temporal dynamics of emotion has so far been rather neglected,and to our knowledge only one psycho–physio-logical study has investigated this issue with music[Krum-hansl,1997].In this study,several physiological measures (including cardiac,vascular,electrodermal,and respiratory functions)were recorded while listeners heard musical ex-cerpts chosen to represent one of three emotions(sadness, fear,and happiness).Signi?cant correlations were found between most of the recorded physiological responses and time(measured in1-s intervals from the beginning of the presentation of each musical excerpt).The strongest physio-logical effects for each emotion type generally tended to increase over time,suggesting that the intensity of an emo-tional experience may increase over time during the percep-tion of a musical excerpt.Thus,differences in brain activa-tions could be expected in the present study when comparing activations elicited during the?rst half and dur-ing the second half of the presentation of each musical stimulus(each excerpt lasted?1min).We expected differ-ences between both halves,especially for the pleasant ex-cerpts,because tender positive emotions might require a certain amount of time to unfold.
SUBJECTS AND METHODS
Participants
Eleven nonmusicians(?ve females;age range20–29years, mean24.6years)participated in the experiment after giving written informed consent.All subjects were right-handed [Old?eld,1971](handedness quotient?90according to the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory),and reported to have normal hearing.None of the subjects had any special musi-cal expertise or musical education;no subject had learned an instrument or had had singing lessons.
Stimuli
Pleasant stimuli were eight excerpts of joyful instru-mental dance-tunes from the last four centuries(all major-minor tonal music),recorded from commercially available CDs:A.Dvora′k,Slavonic Dance No.8in G Minor(Op.
46);J.S.Bach,Badinerie(Overture No.2,BWV1067);J.S. Bach,Bourre′e(Overture No.1,BWV1066);J.S.Bach, Rejouissance(BWV1069);F.Canaro,La Punalada(CD-ASIN:B00000DXZQ);J.Pastorius,Soul intro(“The Chicken,”CD-ASIN:B0000C24JN);P.F.Caroubel,Volte (CD-ASIN B0000247QD);Anonymous,Entree-Courante (CD-ASIN B0000247QD).
Unpleasant stimuli were electronically manipulated coun-terparts of the original tunes(stimuli were processed using CoolEdit Pro software):For each pleasant stimulus,a new sound?le was created in which the original(pleasant)ex-cerpt was recorded simultaneously with two pitch-shifted versions of the same excerpt,the pitch-shifted versions being one tone above and a tritone below the original pitch (samples of the stimuli are provided at http://www.stefan-koelsch.de/Music_Emotion1).
Importantly,both pleasant and unpleasant versions of an excerpt(original and electronically manipulated)had the same dynamic outline,identical rhythmic structure, and identical melodic contour,rendering it impossible that simply the bottom-up processing of these stimulus dimensions already contributes to brain activation pat-terns when contrasting effects of pleasant and unpleasant stimuli.
Procedure
Participants were presented at least3days prior to the functional MRI study with the musical stimuli(i.e.,with both original and electronically manipulated versions)to ensure that all participants were similarly familiar with the stimulus material.In the fMRI experiment,pleasant and unpleasant excerpts were presented alternately,duration of excerpts was between45s and60s(mean duration55s).All excerpts were presented twice during the functional mea-surements to increase the signal-to-noise ratio.Each stimu-lus began and ended with a signal tone(440Hz,sine wave) of600ms,and each excerpt was followed by an interval of 3s in which no music was presented.Within this3-s inter-val,participants had to indicate how(un)pleasant they felt by pressing response buttons according to a?ve-point-scale (with–2corresponding to very unpleasant,0neutral,and ?2very pleasant).That is,subjects were asked to rate their own emotional state[see also Krumhansl,1997];they were not asked to make an assessment of the emotions expressed by the music.Behavioral responses were averaged for the consonant and dissonant excerpts separately for each sub-ject.Then,pleasant and unpleasant ratings from all subjects were compared with a two-tailed,one-sample t-test. During the presentation of the music,participants were instructed to listen carefully to the music and to tap the meter of the music with their right index?nger(for ex-ample,during a musical piece with a metronome beat of ?90beats per minute,participants tapped with their?n-ger at an average rate of1.5Hz).This task allowed us to control if participants paid attention not only to the con-sonant but also to the dissonant stimuli.For each subject and each excerpt,all intertap time intervals(i.e.,time intervals between two subsequent taps)were measured. Subsequently,the variance of these intertap time intervals was calculated separately for each excerpt.To investigate if the subjects’tapping performance was comparably ac-curate for both pleasant and unpleasant excerpts,t-tests were used to compare the variances between each pleas-ant excerpt and its unpleasant counterpart at the group level.
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fMRI
Scanning procedure
Inside the scanner,participants were acoustically shielded by placing soundproo?ng material around the heads of participants and by hearing protection placed over the head-phones.Scanning was performed on a3T Bruker Medspec 30/100spectrometer.Nine axial slices(19.2cm?eld of view, 64?64matrix,5mm thickness,2mm spacing),parallel to the AC–PC plane(?ve slices above AC–PC),using a single shot,gradient recalled EPI(TR3000ms)were continuously acquired.The relatively long TR and the relatively low number of slices were chosen to avoid a strong masking of the music by the scanner noise.Two functional runs were conducted in direct succession,each run comprising360 acquisitions(resulting in a duration of18min for each run). Each excerpt was presented once in each run.Each acquisi-tion sampled over the nine slices.The?rst four acquisitions of each functional run were excluded from data evaluation to compensate for T1-saturation effects.Prior to the func-tional sessions,two anatomical data sets(MDEFT,consisting of16anatomical slices,and an EPI-T1image)were acquired. fMRI data analysis
fMRI-data were processed using the software package LIPSIA[Lohmann et al.,2001].Functional data were cor-rected for slicetime acquisition differences using sinc-inter-polation.In addition,data were corrected for motion arti-facts.A temporal highpass?lter with a cutoff frequency of 1/132Hz was used for baseline correction of the signal and a spatial Gaussian?lter with5.6mm FWHM was applied. To align the functional data slices with a3-D stereotactic coordinate reference system,a rigid linear registration with six degrees of freedom(three rotational,three translational) was performed.The rotational and translational parameters were acquired on the basis of the MDEFT and EPI-T1slices to achieve an optimal match between these slices and the individual3-D reference dataset.This3-D reference dataset was acquired for each subject during a previous scanning session.The rotational and translational parameters were subsequently transformed by linear scaling to a standard size[Talairach and Tournoux,1988].The resulting parame-ters were then used to transform the functional slices using trilinear interpolation,so that the resulting functional slices were aligned with the stereotactic coordinate system. Statistical evaluation for each subject was based on a least-squares estimation using the general linear model for serially autocorrelated observations[Friston,1994].The de-sign matrix was generated with a boxcar(square wave) function,observation data and design matrix were con-volved by a Gaussian kernel of dispersion of4s FWHM.The output image contains the parameter estimation(beta-val-ues)which are an estimation for the slope of the regression. These images were evaluated for each subject using a linear contrast.Pictures containing a signal tone were excluded from data evaluation.
As noted before,each individual functional dataset was aligned with the standard stereotactic reference space.A second-level statistical analysis was performed consisting of a one-sample t-test across the aligned contrast images of all subjects.The t-test indicated whether observed differences between the pleasant and the unpleasant condition were signi?cantly different from zero[Holmes and Friston,1998]. Additionally,a smoothness estimation was performed [Kiebel et al.,1999].The resulting t-map was thresholded at t?4.14(P?0.001,one-tailed,uncorrected).The smoothness estimation was used to describe the statistical parametric t-map in terms of excursion sets.The corrected signi?cance of the results are based on cluster-and voxel-level inferences using distributional approximations from the theory of Gaussian?elds[Worsley et al.,1996].Clusters of activated voxels were taken into account when the size of the cluster comprised at least three voxels,and when the reported activations were signi?cant using a threshold corresponding to P?0.05(corrected for multiple comparisons)at the cluster level[Worsley et al.,1996].
Both t-maps and region of interest(ROI)values were?rst calculated modeling each excerpt as one block.To investi-gate differences in activation between the?rst and the sec-ond half of each excerpt(see Introduction),each excerpt was then modeled as consisting of two blocks:the?rst block was modeled for the?rst half of each excerpt(second1–30),and the second block was modeled for the second half of each excerpt(second31to the end of each excerpt).The t-maps and ROI values were then computed separately for each block.
ROI-analysis
To test lateralization of activations,as well as differences in activations between blocks,analyses for ROIs were per-formed for structures mentioned in the hypotheses(amyg-dala,hippocampus,parahippocampal gyrus,and ventral striatum).Moreover,analogous ROI analyses were per-formed for all other structures that were signi?cantly acti-vated in the t-maps corrected for multiple comparisons.In each participant,individual ROIs were de?ned as single voxels(3?3?3mm)according to each subjects’individual brain anatomy.The de?nition of ROI coordinates for each subject individually accounts for intersubject anatomical dif-ferences that can deteriorate group statistical data,especially when examining activations of small subcortical structures. The exact locations of the individual ROIs were established as follows.The maximum voxel of activation in the t-map of a group contrast(e.g.,unpleasant?pleasant,computed for entire excerpts)was located for each brain structure.Within a search radius of6mm from these maxima(and within the anatomical boundaries of the ROI in each subject),the coor-dinates for the individual ROIs were de?ned as the maxi-mum voxel of activation in the individual contrasts.For statistical comparisons,ROI-values were analyzed for each structure and its contralateral homotope(e.g.,left and right amygdala)using ANOVAs with factors condition(pleasant, unpleasant),block(?rst,second),and hemisphere.
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RESULTS
Behaviorally,subjects rated the original(mainly conso-nant)stimuli as pleasant,and the manipulated(permanently dissonant)stimuli as unpleasant.The average rating for the consonant stimuli was?1.1(on a5-point scale ranging from –2to?2),for the dissonant stimuli–0.6,the difference between ratings being signi?cant(P?0.001,two-tailed t-test).Both stimulus categories(pleasant and unpleasant) were rated signi?cantly different from zero(corresponding to emotionally neutral;P?0.0001in each test).Participants showed comparable accuracy in tapping performance for both pleasant and unpleasant excerpts:None of the t-tests used to compare the variances between each pleasant ex-cerpt and its unpleasant counterpart at the group level(see Subjects and Methods)yielded a signi?cant difference be-tween pleasant and unpleasant excerpts.This indicates that participants performed the tapping task in a comparable manner during both pleasant and unpleasant excerpts,and that,thus,participants not only paid attention to the pleas-ant but also to the unpleasant excerpts.
In the fMRI data,the t-maps of entire excerpts(corrected for multiple comparisons,see Subjects and Methods) showed signi?cant activations during the presentation of unpleasant music(contrasted to pleasant music,unpleasant ?pleasant)in the left hippocampus,the left parahippocam-
pal gyrus,and the right temporal pole(Fig.1A,Table I). When analyzing corrected t-maps of the?rst and second block separately(guided by our hypotheses),an additional activation was indicated for the(left)amygdala in the sec-ond block(Fig.1B,Table I).In all mentioned structures, activity changes were not only due to an increase of the fMRI signal during the presentation of the unpleasant mu-sic,but also due to signal decreases during the presentation of the pleasant music(Fig.3).
The ROI analysis indicates that activations of amygdala, parahippocampal gyrus,and temporal poles were signi?-cantly stronger during the second block(Table II);no differ-ence between blocks was noted for the hippocampus.When analyzing the ROI values of amygdala,parahippocampal gyrus,and temporal poles separately for each block,all mentioned structures were activated during both blocks, although activations of the amygdala were only marginally signi?cant during the?rst block(P?0.06).It appears that activations of amygdala,hippocampus,and parahippocam-pal gyrus were stronger in the left hemisphere,and the activation of the temporal pole stronger in the right hemi-sphere,but these observations were not statistically con-?rmed by the ROI analyses(ANOVAs computed with fac-tors condition and hemisphere did not yield any two-way
interaction).
Figure2A shows the fMRI data of the opposite contrast (pleasant?unpleasant,entire excerpts).The corrected t-maps indicate activations of Heschl’s gyrus,the anterior superior insula,and the left inferior frontal gyrus(IFG,BA45,46;see also Table I).When analyzing corrected t-maps of the?rst and second block separately,additional activations were observed during the second block in the Rolandic opercu-lum(BA43,extending into the precentral sulcus),and the inferior portion of the(right)frontal operculum(inferior pars opercularis,BA44i;Fig.2B,C,Table I).
ROI analyses performed for these structures,as well as for the ventral striatum(guided by our hypothesis),indicated signi?cant activations for all structures(Table II).Moreover, all structures were activated signi?cantly more strongly dur-ing the second block.When analyzing the ROI values sepa-
Figure1.
Activations elicited during the presentation of unpleasant(con-trasted to pleasant)music(t-maps),separately for entire excerpts (A),and for the second block of excerpts only(B,see Subjects and Methods for details).The t-maps were thresholded using an error probability of P?0.001(corrected for multiple comparisons). Unpleasant music activated the hippocampus,the parahippocampal gyrus,the temporal poles,and the amygdala.
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rately for the?rst and second block,all structures except the ventral striatum and the pars opercularis were signi?cantly activated during both halves of the musical excerpts;the activation of the ventral striatum was only marginally sig-ni?cant during the?rst block(P?0.06),and no activation of the pars opercularis(BA44i)was indicated for the?rst block.No signi?cant lateralizations were found for any structure except the anterior IFG(BA45/46;Table II).
It was also hypothesized that pleasant(contrasted to un-pleasant)music activates(medial)orbitofrontal,and subcal-losal cingulate cortex,but no data could be obtained from these structures because of fMRI-related susceptibility arti-facts.To investigate if the arousal[Russell,1980]elicited by the musical excerpts differs between pleasant and unpleas-ant excerpts,a different group of subjects(n?20)was investigated behaviorally using a very similar experimental protocol,except that participants were asked to rate both the valence and the arousal of the stimuli(reminiscent of pre-vious studies,e.g.,Bradley and Lang[1994]).Whereas pleas-ant and unpleasant ratings clearly differed from each other (P?0.0001),no difference in arousal ratings was indicated. This suggests that differences in the fMRI activations are due to differences in emotional valence,and not due to differ-ences in arousal.
DISCUSSION
The behavioral data indicate that participants perceived the original excerpts as pleasant and their electronically manipulated(permanently dissonant)counterparts as un-pleasant,showing that the stimuli used in the present study are capable of inducing pleasant and unpleasant emotion. During the presentation of unpleasant music,the amyg-dala,the hippocampus,the parahippocampal gyri,and the temporal poles were activated.The activation of the amyg-dala is in line with studies showing that stimuli with nega-tive emotional valence induce activity changes in this struc-ture(see Introduction).However,so far the majority of studies investigated the role of the amygdala for emotion processing in the visual domain,and few studies have shown involvement of the amygdala in the auditory recog-
TABLE I.Activations as indicated by the t-maps(corrected for multiple
comparisons)
Anatomical structure
Left hemisphere Right hemisphere Coordinate t-value mm3Coordinate t-value mm3
Both blocks
Unpleasant?Pleasant
Hippocampus?28,?14,?14 6.913525,?14,?14 3.127
Parahippocampal g.?25,?26,?11 5.713522,?26,?13 3.827
Temporal pole?37,12,?20 3.924337,9,?23 4.227
Pleasant?Unpleasant
Heschl’s g.?37,?26,14 4.98146,?17,11 4.681
IFG(BA45/46)?37,30,7 4.827037,30,7—
Ant.sup.insula?29,18,8 4.513534,21,5 3.454 Second block only
Unpleasant?Pleasant
Amygdala?19,?5,?14 4.75415,?5,?17 3.354
Pleasant?Unpleasant
Rolandic op.(BA43)?49,?4,8 6.232449,0,11 3.2183
IFG(BA44i)?52,9,2 3.52749,3,8 5.127
Ventral striatum?10,6,?8 4.15410,6,?4 5.181
Values in bold indicate t-values and size of activations(in mm3)obtained with a threshold of t?4.14
(corresponding to P-values smaller than0.001);plain type values were obtained with a threshold of
t?3.17(corresponding to a P-value of0.005).
IFG,inferior frontal gyrus.
TABLE II.Results of ROI analyses
Anatomical structure Condition Cond.?Block
Unpleasant?Pleasant
Amygdala0.0020.0005
Hippocampus0.0005—
Parahippocampal g.0.0050.0001
Temporal pole0.00010.002
Unpleasant?Pleasant
Heschl’s g.0.0020.0001
IFG(BA45/46)0.001a0.0001
IFG(BA44i)0.010.0001
Ant.sup.insula0.0010.0002
Rolandic op.(BA43)0.0010.0001
Ventral striatum0.0050.001
Values are expressed as P.
a Interaction Condition?Hemisphere:P?0.05.
For each anatomical structure,ROI values were compared at the
group level using ANOVAs with factors condition(pleasant,un-
pleasant),block(?rst,second),and hemisphere.
IFG,inferior frontal gyrus.
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nition of emotion[Morris et al.,1999;Phillips et al.,1998b; Sander and Scheich,2001;Scott et al.,1997;these studies report involvement of the amygdala in the emotional pro-cessing of nonverbal vocal expressions].The present data demonstrate that activity changes in the amygdala can also be observed in response to unpleasant musical information,corresponding to a study reporting impaired recognition of scary music in patients with resections of the amygdala [Gosselin et al.,2005].Note that strong deactivations were observed in the amygdala in response to the pleasant stimuli (as well as in the hippocampus,the parahippocampal gyrus, and the temporal poles),supporting the notion that activity
Figure2.
Activations elicited during the presentation of pleasant(contrasted to unpleasant)music(t-maps),separately for entire excerpts(A), and for the second block of excerpts only(B,C).The t-maps were thresholded using an error probability of P?0.001(corrected for multiple comparisons).Pleasant music activated Heschl’s gyri,the IFG(BA45and46),as well as the left anterior superior insula during both halves,and additionally Rolandic and frontal opercular areas(inferior BA44)during the second block.
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changes within the amygdala are not only related to un-pleasant,but also to pleasant emotion[see also Davis and Whalen,2001;Zald,2003].With respect to music processing, Blood and Zatorre[2001]also reported deactivations of the amygdala(and of the hippocampus)in response to pleasant stimuli.Thus,the combined?ndings of the present and the mentioned previous studies on music and emotion[Blood and Zatorre,2001;Gosselin et al.,2005]indicate that the amygdala plays a role for the processing of complex,mean-ingful auditory information with both negative and positive emotional valence.
The hippocampus is densely interconnected with the amyg-dala,and has previously been implicated in emotional pro-cessing[for the relevance of the hippocampus with respect to memory functions see,e.g.,Greicius et al.,2003]:The hippocampus has been reported to be activated by audio-genic stressors,and to be sensitive to other emotional stres-sors[Bremner,1999;Campeau and Watson,1997;Lopez et al.,1999;Phillips et al.,2003].It has been suggested that the hippocampus is involved in facilitation and inhibition of defensive behavior,as well as anxiety in response to threat-ening stimuli[Phillips et al.,2003].Moreover,the hippocam-pus is assumed to be involved in affective state regulation, attentional systems,and motivation[Mega et al.,1997;Phil-lips et al.,2003].Using PET,Brown et al.[2004]reported an activation of the hippocampus during listening to pleasant music(contrasted to a rest condition),although the activa-tion focus reported by that study was located more posteri-orly than the activation observed in the present study.The factors that account for the differences between the present study and the study from Brown et al.[2004]remain to be speci?ed.
The parahippocampal gyrus is also densely interconnected with the amygdala,and has previously been implicated in emotion processing.The activation focus of the parahip-pocampal gyrus observed in the present study replicates ?ndings of the study from Blood et al.[1999]in which unpleasant(permanently dissonant)music also activated this structure(note the high consistency of coordinates be-tween studies;for a similar,although more dorsal activation of the parahippocampal gyrus during the perception of aversive pictures see Lane et al.[1997]).Likewise,the tem-poral poles are interconnected with the amygdala through monosynaptic connections[Amaral and Price,1984],and have been reported to be involved in the processing of acoustic stimuli with negative emotional valence[Zald and Pardo,2002].A study from Brown et al.[2004]reported activations of the right superior temporal pole(BA38/22) during listening to pleasant music,but that activation was more superior than the activation observed in the present study(near,and partly within the planum polare),and possibly associated with the cognitive processing of the musical structure.Both parahippocampal gyrus and tempo-ral poles receive input from auditory association areas [Amaral and Price,1984;Suzuki and Amaral,1994],and it appears that the aspect of the parahippocampal gyrus acti-vated in the present study and in the study from Blood et al. [1999],as well as the temporal poles,are part of a paralimbic circuit that is involved in the processing of complex auditory information with emotional valence.
Figure3.
Percent signal change of trial-averaged fMRI signals within the structures reported in Tables I and II;fMRI signals were computed for the voxels used for the ROI analyses(see Subjects and Meth-ods),and averaged for all four conditions(?rst and second block of pleasant and unpleasant stimuli).AL/AR:left/right amygdala,PL/PR:left/right parahippocampal gyrus,TL/TR:left/right temporal pole,VSL/VSR:left/right ventral striatum,HIL/HIR:left/right hip-pocampus,HL/HR:left/right gyrus of Heschl,IL/IR:left/right insula, RL/RR:left/right Rolandic operculum.
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It cannot be excluded that the BOLD responses observed in the contrast unpleasant?pleasant originate from inhibi-tory rather than from excitatory synaptic processes[Buxton, 2002]and that,thus,the unpleasant stimuli inhibited emo-tional activity in limbic regions(compared to activity as present during a positive emotional state)rather than acti-vating excitatory processes in those regions.With respect to this,it is interesting to note that the hippocampus is pre-sumably one of the most sensitive cerebral structures be-cause it appears to be the only brain structure that can be damaged by traumatizing stressors(such as strong violence, e.g.,Bremner[1999]).Thus,inhibition of neural pathways projecting to the hippocampus during the perception of unpleasant stimuli could represent a neural mechanism that serves the prevention from potential damage of hippocam-pal neurons.
In summary,clear activity changes were measured in limbic and paralimbic structures(amygdala,hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus,and temporal poles)that have pre-viously been implicated in emotion processing.The present results indicate that a cerebral network comprising these structures can be activated by the emotional processing of auditory(musical)stimuli.
During the presentation of pleasant(contrasted to un-pleasant)music,the Rolandic operculum(BA43)was acti-vated in both hemispheres(especially during the second half of the musical excerpts,where the P-values computed for the ROIs were signi?cantly higher than during the?rst half). It is highly likely that the portion of the Rolandic operculum activated in the present study contains the representation of the larynx(and the pharynx).The larynx is a vocal tract articulator which produces(as an effector)melody,rhythm, and emotional modulation of the vocal timbre during vocal communication.Functional imaging data on the exact local-ization of the(sensorimotor)representation of the larynx are not yet available.However,it is known that both sensory and motor cortices are somatotopically organized[Naka-mura et al.,1998;Pen?eld and Rasmussen,1952],with the representation of the larynx being ventral to the representa-tion of tongue,lower lip,and upper lip.The focus within the Rolandic operculum activated in the present study(axial plane through z?8)is ventral to foci reported for tongue movements[Pardo et al.,1997,z?20],swallowing[Hamdy et al.,1999,z?24],and gustatory perception[Zald and Pardo,2000,z?22].
Neural circuits comprising Rolandic opercular areas have been described in some functional imaging studies on both overt and covert singing[Jeffries et al.,2003;Riecker et al., 2000;Wildgruber et al.,1996].It is highly unlikely that the activation of the Rolandic operculum observed in the present study was due to overt singing,because participants were strictly instructed not to vocalize or to move during the experiment;when asked after the experiment,all partici-pants assured that they carefully kept to this instruction.As an additional control,the same experimental protocol was conducted with a different group of subjects while recording the EMG of the larynx.In that experiment no motor activity of the larynx was observed in the EMG data.
The present data suggest that subjects coded vocal sound production(without actual movement)while they perceived the pleasant musical signals.This phenomenon is reminis-cent of mechanisms of observation–execution matching that have so far mainly been investigated in the visual domain [see Rizzolatti and Craighero,2004,for an overview].In the auditory domain,mirror neurons that discharge in response to the sound of actions have been observed in monkeys [Kohler et al.,2002];for humans,a recent study from Tetta-manti et al.[2005]showed that merely listening to action-related sentences can activate mirror-function mechanisms. The present results suggest that the perception of(pleasant) musical information activated an auditory perception–ex-ecution matching system that includes representations of vocal sound production.This interpretation is supported by a recent study reporting activation of the Rolandic opercu-lum during the processing of intonation contour while lis-tening to spoken sentences[Meyer et al.,2004],suggesting that premotor programs for the production of prosodic sig-nals(such as speech melody)are already formed when perceiving prosodic signals produced by other individuals. The activation of the Rolandic operculum was observed during the perception of the pleasant but not of the unpleas-ant musical information,presumably due to the appetitive quality of the pleasant excerpts(the unpleasant excerpts rather evoked avoidance behavior).It is also possible that the dissonant stimuli were simply more dif?cult to vocalize than the consonant ones because of the simultaneous pre-sentation of the two pitch-shifted versions together with the original excerpt.
However,a study from Indefrey et al.[2001]reported an activation of the Rolandic operculum related to the structur-ing of individual words into phrases and sentences during the perception of spoken sentences.Thus,it cannot be ex-cluded that the activation of the Rolandic operculum in the present study is also related to the processing of music-syntactic information(due to the positive emotional valence of the pleasant excerpts,it is likely that participants ana-lyzed the structure of the pleasant,but not of the unpleasant excerpts).Previous imaging studies indicate that music–syntactic processing involves the frontal operculum,espe-cially inferior BA44[Janata et al.,2002a;Koelsch,2005; Koelsch et al.,2005,2002;Maess et al.,2001;Tillmann et al., 2003],which was also activated in the present study;the Rolandic operculum was not activated in those studies. However,in the mentioned studies stimuli were played without musical expression,and it is possible that the Ro-landic operculum comes into play during the processing of naturalistic musical stimuli.This issue remains to be speci-?ed.
The music–syntactic analysis most likely also required working memory resources.The activation of these re-sources appears to be re?ected in the activation of BA45/46 [see also Koelsch et al.,2005;Janata et al.,2002b].
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The activation of the anterior superior insula is presum-ably related to the activation of the Rolandic operculum. This interpretation is based on previous studies showing that both overt and covert singing activates neural circuits involving the insular cortex and the Rolandic operculum [Jeffries et al.,2003;Riecker et al.,2000;Wildgruber et al., 1996].The superior insula has been considered a motor association area[Augustine,1996],and particularly the left anterior superior insula has been suggested to support ar-ticulatory planning[Dronkers,1996]and the coordination of vocal tract innervation[see Ackermann and Riecker,2004, for a review].It is assumed that this area supports the automatic coordination of the activity of the muscles en-gaged in articulation by elaborating temporospatial inner-vation patterns of vocal tract musculature during verbal utterances.
It has been reported that this activity is eventually depen-dent on emotional demands[Ackermann and Riecker,2004], and the widespread interconnections with both premotor cortex and limbic structures render it likely that the anterior superior insula plays a role in the activation of the Rolandic operculum during the emotional perception of the musical stimuli.
The ventral striatum has previously been implicated in the processing of stimuli with positive emotional valence[Blood and Zatorre,2001;Brown et al.,2004;Delgado et al.,2000].It has been proposed that the motivational effects of emotion-ally signi?cant stimuli are mediated in part by the ventral striatum(speci?cally,the nucleus accumbens,NAc).The NAc receives input from limbic structures(including the amygdala and the hippocampus),and projects to structures known to be involved in behavioral expression.Therefore, the NAc has been suggested to represent a“limbic–motor interface”[Cardinal et al.,2002].With regard to this,it is likely that in the present study a motor-related circuitry (comprising the ventral striatum,the insular cortex,the Ro-landic,and possibly the frontal operculum)was activated, which served the formation of premotor representations for vocal sound production during the perception of the pleas-ant musical excerpts(activations of NAc,insular,and Ro-landic cortex have also been reported in a previous study during the singing of melodies[Jeffries et al.,2003]).
Due to the positive emotional valence of the pleasant excerpts,the activation of the primary auditory cortices during the presentation of the pleasant music was presum-ably modulated by(top-down)attentional processes(the increased attention leading to a greater activation of Heschl’s gyri[Ja¨ncke et al.,1999]).Note that acoustic rough-ness is decoded at least at the level of the primary auditory cortex[Fishman et al.,2001],most presumably at even lower levels.Thus,it is likely that the negative emotional valence of permanently dissonant auditory signals can be detected even without the contribution of the mentioned cortical structures in the frontal and Rolandic operculum.This view is supported by a lesion study that used experimental stim-uli reminiscent of those used in the present study[Peretz et al.,2001].In that study a patient with bilateral damage to the auditory cortex was found to be unable to distinguish con-sonant from dissonant musical excerpts.
Interestingly,activations of all structures,except the hip-pocampus,were stronger during the second block of the musical excerpts,presumably because the intensity of listen-ers’emotional experiences increased during the perception of both the pleasant and the unpleasant musical excerpts. This?nding corroborates the notion that emotion processing has temporal dynamics[Krumhansl,1997],especially when listening to music which unfolds over time[see also Blood and Zatorre,2001;in that study musical stimuli selected to evoke chills had a duration of90s].This temporal dynamics is potentially relevant for an appropriate description of the neurophysiological correlates of emotion.However,further investigations are necessary before the temporal dynamics of emotion processing can be described in more detail.
CONCLUSION
In the present study,activations during the perception of unpleasant music were observed within an extensive neu-ronal network of limbic and paralimbic structures compris-ing the amygdala,hippocampus,parahippocampal gyrus, and temporal poles.Although clear increases of BOLD sig-nals were observed in those structures in response to un-pleasant music,strong signal decreases were also measured in response to pleasant music.This indicates that these structures respond to both pleasant and unpleasant auditory information with emotional valence,and that listening to music has the capacity to up-as well as down-regulate neuronal activity in these structures.
During the presentation of the pleasant music,activations were observed in the ventral striatum,the anterior superior insula,and in the Rolandic operculum.The activity within the Rolandic operculum is suggested to re?ect mechanisms of perception-execution matching during the perception of vocalizable auditory(musical)information.Rolandic oper-culum,anterior superior insula,and ventral striatum possi-bly form a motor-related circuitry that serves the formation of premotor representations for vocal sound production during the perception of pleasant auditory information. Finally,the present pleasant/unpleasant paradigm al-lowed us to play the same musical stimulus to all partici-pants,i.e.,stimuli were not chosen separately for each sub-ject(according to each subjects’musical taste).Thus,the present study introduces music as a novel tool to generally investigate neural substrates of pleasant and unpleasant human emotion with fMRI,independent of listeners’per-sonal preferences.This provides the possibility to use the experimental paradigm in future research with different groups of subjects such as children,patients,and subjects with different cultural backgrounds.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The project is part of the Research Group FOR499of the German Research Foundation“Acoustic communication of emotions in nonhuman mammals and man:production,per-
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ception and neural processing.”We thank W.A.Siebel for help in selecting the stimuli.
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?K oelsch et al.?
以控制情绪为话题的英语作文 以控制情绪为话题的英语作文 You must control and direct your emotions not abolish them. Besides, abolition would be antimissile task. Emotions are like a river. Their power can be dammed up and released under control and direction, but is cannot be held forever in check. Sooner or later the dam will burst, unleashing catastrophic destruction. 你必须控制并导引你的情绪而非摧毁它，况且摧毁情绪是一件不可能的事情。情绪就像河流一样，你可以筑一道堤防把它挡起来，并在控制和导引之下排放它，但却不能永远抑制它，否则那道堤防迟早会崩溃，并造成大灾难。 Your negative emotions can also be controlled and directed. PMA and self-discipline can remove their harmful effects and make them serve constructive purposes. Sometimes fear and anger will inspire intense action. But you must always submit your negative emotions--and you positive ones--to the examination of your reason before releasing them. Emotion without reason is a dreadful enemy. 你的消极心态同样也可被控制和导引，积极心态和自律可去除其中有害的部分，而使这些消极心态能为目标贡献力量。有的时候恐惧和生气会激发出更彻底的行动，但是在你释放消极情
如何应对负面情绪How to Deal With Negative Emotion Life is a journey. We will see different scenery and learn to grow up. Nobody can live easy life all the time, and they must have gone through some hard time. The one who can conquer the difficulty will be stronger. While those who can’t deal with the negative emotion will miss the beautiful scenery. Wise men can find the ways to remove bad mood. 生活是一场旅程，我们将会看到不一样的风景并学习成长。没有人能一直过着一帆风顺的生活，他们都会经历一些艰难的时刻。那些能够克服困难的人会变得更强。而那些不能处理负面情绪的人会错过美丽的风景。智者总能找到方法来消除坏心情。 In the modern life, a lot of people do the same things every day, then the repeating routines are easy to frustrate them. They feel life is meaningful and why they have to sit in the office to work for a whole day. The negative emotion makes them lose themselves. At this time, they need to slow down their life pace. A trip is the best way to relax and forget about the annoyance. It opens your vision and helps you to find the answers.
形容情绪的英文词语 在生活中经常有很多心情无以言说，用英文表达就更难了！别急！这里选取的例句，可都是摘自外媒新闻的原句，都是些最最常用地道的用法哦！以下是带来形容情绪的英文词语的相关内容，希望对你有帮助。 1. abandoned forsaken by owner or inhabitants 被主人或者居民抛弃； Adopted children must face issues of abandonment as they grow older. 2. aggressive characteristic of an enemy or one eager to fight 富有侵略性的人或者好斗的； But Bowser could appoint new and aggressive leaders in other city agencies, where Gray’s appointees have tended to be more cautious. —Washington Post 3. alienated
socially disoriented 分不清方向或者目标； The more vigilant Allen was, the more resentful and alienated Nicholas became, and the worse things got. —Class Matters 4. apathetic showing little or no emotion or animation 对事情缺乏兴趣，无动于衷； “And some people are able to inspire otherwise apathetic young people to vote.” —Forbes (Oct 21, 2014) 5. ashamed feeling guilt or embarrassment or remorse 感觉内疚，尴尬，惭愧； Then, ashamed and embarrassed, he disappeared under a duvet and grieved. —BBC (Nov 4, 2014) 6. astonished filled with the emotional impact of overwhelming surprise 充满巨大的惊喜； Oh my God, he sputters, clearly astonished by the claim.
如何面对情绪How to Face Emotions 初中英语作文 We are not god, so we will have the emotions all the time, when we meet difficulties, we will feel distressed, when we are treated unfairly, we will be angry. We must learn to deal emotions, so that we can move on. When the emotions come, we must tell ourselves to calm down, we can get angry for a while, but not all the time, only when we calm down can we think in a clear way. We can also find a way to relieve our emotions, like going to KTV or just talking to friends. We have to face emotion problems now and then, if we do the right thing, then all is well.我们不是上帝，因此我们总是会有情绪，在我们遇到困难时，会感到沮丧，在我们得到不公平的待遇时，会生气。我们必须学会处理情绪，这样才能向前看。当情绪来临的时候，我们必须告诉自己要冷静，我们可以生一会气情绪问题，但是不能一直生气，只有当我们冷静下来，才能清楚地思考。我们也能够找到方法来处理我们的情绪，比如去唱歌，或者和朋友聊天。我们不得不时而不时地面对，如果我们的处理正确，然后一切都会好起来。 1
英语短文：控制你的情绪 You must control and direct your emotions not abolish them. Besides, abolition would be antimissile task. Emotions are like a river. Their power can be dammed up and released under control and direction, but is cannot be held forever in check. Sooner or later the dam will burst, unleashing catastrophic destruction. 你必须控制并导引你的情绪而非摧毁它，况且摧毁情绪是一件不 可能的事情。情绪就像河流一样，你能够筑一道堤防把它挡起来，并在控制和导引之下排放它，但却不能永远抑制它，否则那道堤防迟早 会崩溃，并造成大灾难。 Your negative emotions can also be controlled and directed. PMA and self-discipline can remove their harmful effects and make them serve constructive purposes. Sometimes fear and anger will inspire intense action. But you must always submit your negative emotions--and you positive ones--to the examination of your reason before releasing them. Emotion without reason is a dreadful enemy. 你的消极心态同样也可被控制和导引，积极心态和自律可去除其中有害的部分，而使这些消极心态能为目标贡献力量。有的时候恐惧和生气会激发出更彻底的行动，但是在你释放消极情绪(以及积极情绪)之前务必要让你的理性为它们做一番检验，缺乏理性的情绪必然是一 位可怕的敌人。 What faculty provides the crucial balance between emotions and reason? It is your willpower, or ego, a subject which will be explored in more detail below. Self-discipline will teach you to throw your willpower behind either reason or emotion and amplify the intensity of their expression.
以控制情绪为话题的英语作文（附翻译） 导语：你会怎么控制自己的情绪吗?以下是小编为大家收集的以控制情绪为 话题的英语作文 作文。供大家参考阅读。希望喜欢。 以控制情绪为话题的英语作文 You must control and direct your emotions not abolish them. Besides, abolition would be antimissile task. Emotions are like a river. Their power can be dammed up and released under control and direction, but is cannot be held forever in check. Sooner or later the dam will burst, unleashing catastrophic destruction. 你必须控制并导引你的情绪而非摧毁它， 况且摧毁情绪是一件不可能的事情。 情绪就像河流一样，你可以筑一道堤 防把它挡起来，并在控制和导引之下排放 它，但却不能永远抑制它，否则那道堤防迟早会崩溃，并造成大灾难。 Your negative emotions can also be controlled and directed. PMA and self-discipline can remove their harmful effects and make them serve constructive purposes. Sometimes fear and anger will inspire intense action. But you must always submit your negative emotions--and you positive ones--to the examination of your reason before releasing them. Emotion without reason is a dreadful enemy. 你的消极心态同样也可被控制和导引，积极心态和自律 可去除其中有害的 部分，而使这些消极心态能为目标贡献力 量。有的时候恐惧和生气会激发出更 彻底的行动， 但是在你释放消极情绪(以及积极情绪)之前务必要让你的理性为它 们做一番检验，缺乏理性的情绪必然是一位可怕的敌人。 What faculty provides the crucial balance between emotions and reason? It is your willpower, or ego, a subject which will be explored in more detail below. Self-discipline will teach you to throw your willpower behind either reason or emotion and amplify the intensity of their expression. 是什么力量使得情绪和理性之间能够达到平衡呢 ?是意志力或自尊心(我将 在以下做更详细的说明)。自律会教导你的意志力作为理性和情绪的后盾，并强 化二者的表现强度。 Both your heart and your mind need a master, and they can find the master in your ego. However, your ego will fill their role only if you
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情景英语口语100主题 095feelings and emotions情感和情绪 095 feelings and emotions Words Love jealous frightened scared embarrassed confused nervous guilty excited proud worried surprised bored ashamed relieved shocked emotional moody exhausted tired terrified stunned amazed disgusted afraid impatient horrified devastated happy sad angry shy Phrases Start to feel Get really/a bit Become nervous Feel embarrassed Be afraid of Worry about money Be scared stiff Beginner A: hello! How are you today?
B: hi. I’m feeling very nervous. I just had a test and I’m not sure how well or how badly I did. A: it’s not use worrying about it now. you’ ve done test and you can’t change any of your answers. B: that’s true. I really should go home and prepare for the next test, but I’m feeling tired. A: let’s go and get a coffee together. That will help you to wake up again! B: ok. I feel like sitting down and having a chat. How have you been recently? A; oh, you know me. I’m always happy! If I think I’m getting into a bad mood, I call some friends and socialize or have a chat. B: that’s a good idea. I usually just sit at home alone and get increasingly moody. A: I hate spending too much time at home. I get bored of it really quickly. I’m always excited about going out to party or other social event and meeting people. B: perhaps I’m being too shy. I should go out more too and not spend time worrying about tests! Intermediate
表达情绪的英语句子 导读：本文是关于表达情绪的英语句子，如果觉得很不错，欢迎点评和分享！ 1、爱情就是一粒沙子，没有多余的余地！ Love is just like a grain of sand, there is no room for it! 2、你永远不懂我的心，我们注定没结局。 You never understand my heart, we are doomed to have no end. 3、一个人并不孤单，想一个人时才孤单。 One man is not alone, and he is alone when he wants to be alone. 4、只要能够这样静静的陪着你，就够了。 As long as I can accompany you quietly, enough. 5、好久不见的我们，想问候都觉得尴尬。 Long time no see us, want to greet all feel embarrassed. 6、我特别幸福因为我男朋友是我同桌呀。 I'm very happy, because my boyfriend is my deskmate. 7、我们只能是普通朋友无论我怎么挽救。 We can only be ordinary friends, no matter how I save them. 8、你为他断了长发，换不回他一句牵挂。
You have broken his long hair, can not change his one worry. 9、转身回头，你依旧在原地求俄说别走。 Turn around, you are still in place for Russia not to go. 10、生活是场清醒的梦，梦到醒不来的梦。 Life is a lucid dream, a dream that cannot be awakened. 11、我是幸福的，因为我爱，因为我有爱。 I am happy, because I love, because I have love. 12、有我在的地方，就没有你吃苦的时候。 Where I am, there is no time for you to bear hardships. 13、她是左撇子，我们吃饭都可以手牵手！ She is left-handed, and we can eat hand in hand! 14、令人不能自拔的，除暸牙齿还有爱情。 In addition to a inextricably bogged down in, teeth and love. 15、与其开口又是争执，倒不如缄口不言。 With the opening and dispute, rather than anything. 16、或许我是累了，不想再让自己疼痛了。 Maybe I'm tired and I don't want to hurt myself anymore. 17、在你睡觉时亲亲你，不会把你吵醒的。 Kiss you when you sleep, it won't wake you up. 18、我们爱的太容易，不知道失去的结局。
有关情绪的英文表达 2009/02/11 情绪（emotion）是一种心理（mental）与生理（physiological）的状态，包括许多种的感觉（feeling）、想法（thought）与行为（behaviour）。它是主观体验（subjective experience），经常与心绪（mood）、生性（temperament）、性格（personality）与倾向性（disposition）联系在一起。下面按照字母顺序简要介绍主要的情绪类型。每个词下面还有近义词，按照近义程度从上往下排列。 acceptance：指一个人感受到某种形式（situation）或条件（condition）【常常是负面的（negative）或不舒服的（uncomfortable）】，但不试图改变（change）、抗议（protest）或躲避（exit）。toleration/sufference permissiveness/tolerance affection：是一种常常与爱（love）有关的心态（disposition or state of mind），要高于友谊（friendship）或善意（good will）。例如小哥哥亲弟弟的脸来表达affection。affectionateness/philia/warmness/warmheartedness/fondness/tenderness/heart：The child won everyone's heart. The warmness of his welcome made us feel right at home. feeling：I disliked him and the feeling was mutual. attachment/fond regard protectiveness regard/respect：She mistook his manly regard for love. He inspires respect. soft spot：She had a soft spot for her youngest son. anger：指愤怒的感觉，强度不等，可以是小的刺激（irritation）也可以是狂怒（rage）。 ire/choler/wrath/angriness emotion fury/rage/madness：Hell hath no fury like a woman scorned. His face turned red with rage. enragement/infuriation umbrage/offense/offence huffiness hackles/dander：Having one's hackles or dander up bad temper/ill temper vexation/annoyance/chafe annoyance：一种不开心的（unpleasant）的精神状态，类似‘恼火’。如果经常出于这种状态，那么这种情况叫petulance。 botheration/irritation/vexation mental condition/mental state/psychological condition/psychological state bummer：Having to stand in line so long was a real bummer. huff/miff/seeing red pinprick impatience/restlessness snit：He was in a snit. vexation/chafe anger/ire/choler
有关情绪的初中英语作文 篇1 We are not god, so we will have the emotions all the time, when we meet difficulties, we will feel distressed, when we are treated unfairly, we will be angry. We must learn to deal emotions, so that we can move on. When the emotions come, we must tell ourselves to calm down, we can get angry for a while, but not all the time, only when we calm down can we think in a clear way. We can also find a way to relieve our emotions, like going to KTV or just talking to friends. We have to face emotion problems now and then, if we do the right thing, then all is well. 我们不是上帝，因此我们总是会有情绪，在我们遇到困难时，会感到沮丧，在我们得 到不公平的待遇时，会生气。我们必须学会处理情绪，这样才能向前看。当情绪来临的时候，我们必须告诉自己要冷静，我们可以生一会气情绪问题，但是不能一直生气，只有当 我们冷静下来，才能清楚地思考。我们也能够找到方法来处理我们的情绪，比如去唱歌， 或者和朋友聊天。我们不得不时而不时地面对，如果我们的处理正确，然后一切都会好起来。 篇2 We human beings are really complicated animals. We can talk,smile as well as cry.we can express different kinds of moods,such as happy, sorrow, angry and upset. They always change in ourselves. The important for us to control and adapt your mood. Laughing too fiercely ,especially being deeply sorrow is not good for our boby or our life.And here are some suggestions for you .Firstly, if you are in low mood , you can try to go out and have a walk. Secondly, thinking of your happy memory in your life . Third, listening to the music you like should be helpful. Last but not least, don't burden yourself as possible as you can usually. How to control your mood can be a kind of knowledage. It need us practice to learn it . In short ,choosing your way to control mood is useful. 篇3
情绪与决策 摘要：近几十年在情绪科学中出现了一场革命，这场革命具有造成决策理论范式转变的潜能。研究显示，情绪构成了有效、普遍、可预测、时而有害、时而有益的决策驱动程序。在不同的领域，在（决策）机制中通过情绪对判断和选择的影响呈现了重要规律。我们整理以及分析了过去35年来情绪和决策的研究工作中所得知的内容。因此，我们提出了情绪-渗透选择模型，它囊括了传统理性选择理论和新近情绪研究两者的成果，组合成的科学模型。关键词：情感，情绪，评价倾向，判断，选择，行为经济学 目录 前言 目的和方法 判断及决策中的情绪影响：八个主要主题 主题1：整合情绪对决策的影响 主题2：偶然事件情绪对决策的影响 主题3：情感价只是在决策中形成情绪影响的多个维度之一 主题4：情绪通过思考内容形成决策 主题5：情绪通过思考深度形成决策 主题6：情绪通过目标激活形成决策 主题7：情绪对人际关系决策的影响 主题8：在特定情况下可以减少情绪对决策的不必要影响 一般模型 总结 前言 因此，为了某些诸如人类理性的完整理论的东西，我们必须理解情绪在其中起的作用。 Herbert Simon (1983, p. 29) 诺贝尔奖得主Herbert Simon (1967, 1983)在他引入了有限理性这一感念时【Bounded rationality：认为决策偏离理性，是由于人类内在固有因素，如认知能力、意志力和情境控制的局限。】，引起了一场决策理论的革命，该概念认为，我们需要改进现有的理性选择的规范性模型【Normative:如何以及/或者什么样的人们可以做出理想的判断或决定】，从而把认知和情境控制囊括进来。但正如上述引用所揭示的，Simon知道，他的理论在情绪的作用没有弄清楚的情况下是不完整的，因此他预言了当代科学已经开始把情绪加入到决策研究中这一重要关注点【Emotion:关于存在-相关的事件的、多层次的、以生物学为媒介的、伴随反应(经验上的、认知上的、行为上的、表达上的)。】。横跨了从哲学 (Solomon 1993)到神经科学 (e.g., Phelps et al. 2014)的学科范围，越来越多的关于确定判断与决策（JDM 【JDM: 判断与决策】）中情绪影响的活跃的探索正在进行中。 这种活跃并不是经常出现的。在经济学中，历史上占主导地位的关于决策理论的研究学科中，情绪——更通常一点叫情感——的作用，在20世纪大部分时间中在决策里鲜有出现，尽管在18和19世纪中有影响力的经济学论文中突显出重要作用(for review, see Loewenstein & Lerner 2003)。20世纪的大部分时间内，这种情况在心理学中都是相似的。甚至有心理学家们批判期望效用理论主要关注于认知过程的理解 (see Kahneman & Tversky 1979)。而且，考察情绪的研究在心理学的所有领域内仍然很缺乏 (for review, see Keltner & Lerner 2010)。本文的在线补充文本，考察了关于对情感进行系统关注的稀奇历史(follow the Supplemental Material link from the Annual Reviews home page at http ://https://www.doczj.com/doc/5e18162454.html,)。补充部分还包括了(a)情绪和(b)JDM各自领域的入门读物。
A psychological maturity, is not a person without negative moods , but the person with the ability to regulate and control their own emotions. Then ,how to master the skills of regulating andcontroling their emotions? NO.1 controlyouself consciously .Whencomsumed by avery strong emotion or feelings ,use the sense of control over their own, and remind yourself that you should keep rational, and you can also carry out self-indication: "don't get angry or anger will ruin you ". Look at this little this monk, he is trying to control his inside. And apparently, he made it An educated person is able to keep rational under strong feelings . NO.2is the environmental restriction.Environment on the emotions are important in the regulation and restriction. When depressed, go out for a walk, which plays a
有关情绪的英语作文 情绪是身体对行为成功的可能性乃至必然性，在生理反应上的评价和体验，包括喜、怒、哀、乐等几种。下面是给大家整理的一些英语范文，供大家参阅! 有关情绪的英语作文篇1 A psychological maturity, is not a person without negative moods , but the person with the ability to regulate and control their own emotions. Then ,how to master the skills of regulating andcontroling their emotions? NO.1 controlyouself consciously .Whencomsumed by avery strong emotion or feelings ,use the sense of control over their own, and remind yourself that you should keep rational, and you can also carry out self-indication: "don't get angry or anger will ruin you ". Look at this little this monk, he is trying to control his inside. And apparently, he made it An educated person is able to keep rational under strong feelings . NO.2is the environmental restriction.Environment on the
关于情绪的英语作文 好心情使人愉快、精力旺盛、有创造力。我们应该保持良好的情绪。那么关于情绪的英语作文有哪些呢?下面是小编为大家精心挑选的关于情绪的英语作文，希望对大家有所帮助。 写情绪的英语作文篇一Many people are unhappy with the develpment of society.We care about everything and think about thousands of bad results before we do one thing. F.Bcon said:Everything is so complicated that I dont try to solve a problem until I have to.I only need to take one thing at a time. Dont augment your sorrow.Happiness is important in your life.Above all,we can conclude that augmenting our sorrow really does harm to ourselves. Whats worse,it will inevitably influence our good mood.If we remain unhappy,how can we keep healthy . The old Greeces philosopher said; life is a mirrow. If you smile into it,it will smile back to you. If you cry to it,it cry back to you. So we should have a happy day,Try to forget all my problems.You should talk with your best friends about your problems ! 写情绪的英语作文篇二You must control and direct your
【篇一】如何用英语口语表达情绪 1. Recognize the importance of expressing emotions. 认识到表达情绪的重要性。 Unexpressed emotions affect your life. For example, many people who struggle with ongoing depression or anxiety are often actually angry. Because the unexpressed anger has nowhere to go, the person experiences the emotion as depression or anxiety. If you want to take control over your emotional life, you need to first recognize that it is important to express your emotions. 不把情绪表达出来会影响到你的生活。比如，很多患有持续抑郁或焦虑状况的人实际上经常生气。因为怒气没有发泄出来，所以才会有抑郁或焦虑的感觉。如果你想控制自己的情绪，首先需要认识到把自己的情绪表达出来是很重要的。 2. Label your emotions appropriately. 识别出自己的情绪。 Many people who have never learned how to express their emotions have a difficult time even labeling what those emotions are. Some people might feel anger w... 许多人都知道情绪来的时候，想抵挡都抵挡不住。那么你知道如何合理的运用英语口语表达情绪吗?下面是表达情绪的几种方式。 1. Recognize the importance of expressing emotions. 认识到表达情绪的重要性。 Unexpressed emotions affect your life. For example, many people who struggle with ongoing depression or anxiety are often actually angry. Because the unexpressed anger has nowhere to go, the person experiences the emotion as depression or anxiety. If you want to take control over your emotional life, you need to first recognize that it is important to express your emotions. 不把情绪表达出来会影响到你的生活。比如，很多患有持续抑郁或焦虑状况的人实际上经常生气。因为怒气没有发泄出来，所以才会有抑郁或焦虑的感觉。如果你想控制自己的情绪，首先需要认识到把自己的情绪表达出来是很重要的。 2. Label your emotions appropriately.
以控制情绪为话题的英语作文（附翻译） 导语：你会怎么控制自己的情绪吗?以下是小编为大家收集的以控制情绪为话题的英语作文作文。供大家参考阅读。希望喜欢。 以控制情绪为话题的英语作文 You must control and direct your emotions not abolish them. Besides, abolition would be antimissile task. Emotions are like a river. Their power can be dammed up and released under control and direction, but is cannot be held forever in check. Sooner or later the dam will burst, unleashing catastrophic destruction. 你必须控制并导引你的情绪而非摧毁它，况且摧毁情绪是一件不可能的事情。情绪就像河流一样，你可以筑一道堤防把它挡起来，并在控制和导引之下排放它，但却不能永远抑制它，否则那道堤防迟早会崩溃，并造成大灾难。 Your negative emotions can also be controlled and directed. PMA and self-discipline can remove their harmful effects and make them serve constructive purposes. Sometimes fear and anger will inspire intense action. But you must always submit your negative emotions--and you positive ones--to the examination of