THE PRINCIPLES OF EUROPEAN
CONTRACT LAW
Prepared by the Commision on European Contract
Law
1999 text in English
CHAPTER 1 : GENERAL PROVISIONS
Section 1: Scope of the Principles
Article 1:101: Application of the Principles
(1) These Principles are intended to be applied as general rules of contract law in the European Union.
(2) These Principles will apply when the parties have agreed to incorporate them into their contract or that their contract is to be governed by them.
(3) These Principles may be applied when the parties:
(a) have agreed that their contract is to be governed by "general principles of law", the "lex mercatoria" or the like; or
(b) have not chosen any system or rules of law to govern their contract.
(4) These Principles may provide a solution to the issue raised where the system or rules of law applicable do not do so.
Article 1:102: Freedom of Contract
(1) Parties are free to enter into a contract and to determine its contents, subject to the requirements of good faith and fair dealing, and the mandatory rules established by these Principles.
(2) The parties may exclude the application of any of the Principles or derogate from or vary their effects, except as otherwise provided by these Principles.
Article 1:103: Mandatory Law
(1) Where the law therwise applicable so allows, the parties may choose to have their contract governed by the Principles, with the effect that national mandatory rules are not applicable.
(2) Effect should nevertheless be given to those mandatory rules of national, supranational and international law which, according to the relevant rules of private international law, are applicable irrespective of the law governing the contract.
Article 1:104: Application to Questions of Consent
(1) The existence and validity of the agreement of the parties to adopt or incorporate these Principles shall be determined by these Principles.
(2) Nevertheless, a party may rely upon the law of the country in which it has its habitual residence to establish that it did not consent if it appears from the circumstances that it would not be reasonable to determine the effect of the party’s conduct in accordance with these Principles.
Article 1:105: Usages and Practices
(1) The parties are bound by any usage to which they have agreed and by any practice they have established between themselves.
(2) The parties are bound by a usage which would be considered generally applicable by persons in the same situation as the parties, except where the application of such usage would be unreasonable.
Article 1:106: Interpretation and Supplementation
(1) These Principles should be interpreted and developed in accordance with their purposes. In particular, regard should be had to the need to promote good faith and fair dealing, certainty in contractual relationships and uniformity of application.
(2) Issues within the scope of these Principles but not expressly settled by them are so far as possible to be settled in accordance with the ideas underlying the Principles. Failing this, the legal system applicable by virtue of the rules of private international law is to be applied.
Article 1:107 : Application of the Principles by Way of Analogy
These Principles apply with appropriate modifications to agreements to modify or end a contract, to unilateral promises and other statements and conduct indicating intention.
Section 2: General Duties
Article 1:201: Good Faith and Fair Dealing
(1) Each party must act in accordance with good faith and fair dealing.
(2) The parties may not exclude or limit this duty.
Article 1:202: Duty to Co-operate
Each party owes to the other a duty to co-operate in order to give full effect to the contract.
Section 3: Terminology and Other Provisions
Article 1:301: Meaning of Terms
In these Principles, except where the context otherwise requires:
(1) ‘act’includes omission;
(2) ‘court’includes arbitral tribunal;
(3) an ‘intentional’act includes an act done recklessly;
(4) ‘non-performance’denotes any failure to perform an obligation under the contract, whether or not excused, and includes delayed performance, defective performance and failure to co-operate in order to give full effect to the contract.
(5) a matter is ‘material’if it is one which a reasonable person in the same situation as one party ought to have known would influence the other party in its decision whether to contract on the proposed terms or to contract at all;
(6) ‘written’statements include communications made by telegram, telex, telefax and electronic mail and other means of communication capable of providing a readable record of the statement on both sides
Article 1:302: Reasonableness
Under these Principles reasonableness is to be judged by what persons acting in good faith and in the same situation as the parties would consider to be reasonable. In particular, in assessing what is reasonable the nature and purpose of the contract, the circumstances of the case, and the usages and practices of the trades or professions involved should be taken into account. Article 1:303: Notice
(1) Any notice may be given by any means, whether in writing or otherwise, appropriate to the circumstances.
(2) Subject to paragraphs (4) and (5), any notice becomes effective when it reaches the addressee.
(3) A notice reaches the addressee when it is delivered to it or to its place of business or mailing address, or, if it does not have a place of business or mailing address, to its habitual residence
(4) If one party gives notice to the other because of the other's
non-performance or because such non-performance is reasonably anticipated
by the first party, and the notice is properly dispatched or given, a delay or inaccuracy in the transmission of the notice or its failure to arrive does not prevent it from having effect. The notice shall have effect from the time at which it would have arrived in normal circumstances.
(5) A notice has no effect if a withdrawal of it reaches the addressee before or at the same time as the notice.
(6) In this Article, 'notice' includes the communication of a promise, statement, offer, acceptance, demand, request or other declaration.
Article 1:304: Computation of Time
(1) A period of time set by a party in a written document for the addressee to reply or take other action begins to run from the date stated as the date of the document. If no date is shown, the period begins to run from the moment the document reaches the addressee.
(2) Official holidays and official non-working days occurring during the period are included in calculating the period. However, if the last day of the period is an official holiday or official non-working day at the address of the addressee, or at the place where a prescribed act is to be performed, the period is extended until the first following working day in that place.
(3) Periods of time expressed in days, weeks, months or years shall begin at 00.00 on the next day and shall end at 24.00 on the last day of the period; but any reply that has to reach the party who set the period must arrive, or other act which is to be done must be completed, by the normal close of business in the relevant place on the last day of the period.
Article 1:305: Imputed Knowledge and Intention
If any person who with a party's assent was involved in making a contract, or who was entrusted with performance by a party or performed with its assent:
(a) knew or foresaw a fact, or ought to have known or foreseen it; or
(b) acted intentionally or with gross negligence, or not in accordance with good faith and fair dealing,
this knowledge, foresight or behaviour is imputed to the party itself.
CHAPTER 2 : FORMATION
Section 1 : General Provisions
Article 2:101: Conditions for the Conclusion of a Contract
(1) A contract is concluded if:
(a) the parties intend to be legally bound, and
(b) they reach a sufficient agreement
without any further requirement.
(2) A contract need not be concluded or evidenced in writing nor is it subject to any other requirement as to form. The contract may be proved by any means, including witnesses.
Article 2:102: Intention
The intention of a party to be legally bound by contract is to be determined from the party's statements or conduct as they were reasonably understood by the other party.
Article 2:103: Sufficient Agreement
(1) There is sufficient agreement if the terms:
(a) have been sufficiently defined by the parties so that the contract can be enforced, or
(b) can be determined under these Principles.
(2) However, if one of the parties refuses to conclude a contract unless the parties have agreed on some specific matter, there is no contract unless agreement on that matter has been reached.
Article 2:104: Terms Not Individually Negotiated
(1) Contract terms which have not been individually negotiated may be invoked against a party who did not know of them only if the party invoking them took reasonable steps to bring them to the other party's attention before or when the contract was concluded.
(2) Terms are not brought appropriately to a party's attention by a mere reference to them in a contract document, even if that party signs the document.
Article 2:105: Merger Clause
(1) If a written contract contains an individually negotiated clause stating that the writing embodies all the terms of the contract (a merger clause), any prior statements, undertakings or agreements which are not embodied in the writing do not form part of the contract.
(2) If the merger clause is not individually negotiated it will only establish a presumption that the parties intended that their prior statements, undertakings or agreements were not to form part of the contract. This rule may not be excluded or restricted.
(3) The parties' prior statements may be used to interpret the contract. This rule may not be excluded or restricted except by an individually negotiated clause.
(4) A party may by its statements or conduct be precluded from asserting a merger clause to the extent that the other party has reasonably relied on them.
Article 2:106: Written Modification Only
(1) A clause in a written contract requiring any modification or ending by agreement to be made in writing establishes only a presumption that an agreement to modify or end the contract is not intended to be legally binding unless it is in writing.
(2) A party may by its statements or conduct be precluded from asserting such
a clause to the extent that the other party has reasonably relied on them.
Article 2:107: Promises Binding without Acceptance
A promise which is intended to be legally binding without acceptance is binding.
Section 2 : Offer and Acceptance
Article 2:201: Offer
(1) A proposal amounts to an offer if:
(a) it is intended to result in a contract if the other party accepts it, and
(b) it contains sufficiently definite terms to form a contract.
(2) An offer may be made to one or more specific persons or to the public.
(3) A proposal to supply goods or services at stated prices made by a professional supplier in a public advertisement or a catalogue, or by a display of goods, is presumed to be an offer to sell or supply at that price until the stock of goods, or the supplier's capacity to supply the service, is exhausted.
Article 2:202: Revocation of an Offer
(1) An offer may be revoked if the revocation reaches the offeree before it has dispatched its acceptance or, in cases of acceptance by conduct, before the contract has been concluded under Article 2:205(2) or (3).
(2) An offer made to the public can be revoked by the same means as were used to make the offer.
(3) However, a revocation of an offer is ineffective if:
(a) the offer indicates that it is irrevocable; or
(b) it states a fixed time for its acceptance; or
(c) it was reasonable for the offeree to rely on the offer as being irrevocable and the offeree has acted in reliance on the offer.
Article 2:203: Rejection
When a rejection of an offer reaches the offeror, the offer lapses..
Article 2:204: Acceptance
(1) Any form of statement or conduct by the offeree is an acceptance if it indicates assent to the offer.
(2) Silence or inactivity does not in itself amount to acceptance.
Article 2:205: Time of Conclusion of the Contract
(1) If an acceptance has been dispatched by the offeree the contract is concluded when the acceptance reaches the offeror.
(2) In case of acceptance by conduct, the contract is concluded when notice of the conduct reaches the offeror.
(3) If by virtue of the offer, of practices which the parties have established between themselves, or of a usage, the offeree may accept the offer by performing an act without notice to the offeror, the contract is concluded when the performance of the act begins.
Article 2:206: Time Limit for Acceptance
In order to be effective, acceptance of an offer must reach the offeror within the time fixed by it.
(2) If no time has been fixed by the offeror acceptance must reach it within a reasonable time.
(3) In the case of an acceptance by an act of performance under art. 2:205 (3), that act must be performed within the time for acceptance fixed by the offeror or, if no such time is fixed, within a reasonable time.
Article 2:207: Late Acceptance
(1) A late acceptance is nonetheless effective as an acceptance if without delay the offeror informs the offeree that he treats it as such.
(2) If a letter or other writing containing a late acceptance shows that it has been sent in such circumstances that if its transmission had been normal it would have reached the offeror in due time, the late acceptance is effective as an acceptance unless, without delay, the offeror informs the offeree that it considers its offer as having lapsed.
Article 2:208: Modified Acceptance
(1) A reply by the offeree which states or implies additional or different terms which would materially alter the terms of the offer is a rejection and a new offer.
(2) A reply which gives a definite assent to an offer operates as an acceptance even if it states or implies additional or different terms, provided these do not materially alter the terms of the offer. The additional or different terms then become part of the contract.
(3) However, such a reply will be treated as a rejection of the offer if:
(a) the offer expressly limits acceptance to the terms of the offer; or
(b) the offeror objects to the additional or different terms without delay; or
(c) the offeree makes its acceptance conditional upon the offeror’s assent to the additional or different terms, and the assent does not reach the offeree within a reasonable time.
Article 2:209: Conflicting General Conditions
(1) If the parties have reached agreement except that the offer and acceptance refer to conflicting general conditions of contract, a contract is nonetheless formed. The general conditions form part of the contract to the extent that they are common in substance.
(2) However, no contract is formed if one party:
(a) has indicated in advance, explicitly, and not by way of general conditions, that it does not intend to be bound by a contract on the basis of paragraph (1); or
(b) without delay, informs the other party that it does not intend to be bound by such contract.
(3) General conditions of contract are terms which have been formulated in advance for an indefinite number of contracts of a certain nature, and which have not been individually negotiated between the parties.
Article 2:210: Professional's Written Confirmation
If professionals have concluded a contract but have not embodied it in a final document, and one without delay sends the other a writing which purports to be a confirmation of the contract but which contains additional or different terms, such terms will become part of the contract unless:
(a) the terms materially alter the terms of the contract, or
(b) the addressee objects to them without delay.
Article 2:211: Contracts not Concluded through Offer and Acceptance
The rules in this section apply with appropriate adaptations even though the process of conclusion of a contract cannot be analysed into offer and acceptance.
Section 3: Liability for negotiations
Article 2:301: Negotiations Contrary to Good Faith
(1) A party is free to negotiate and is not liable for failure to reach an agreement.
(2) However, a party who has negotiated or broken off negotiations contrary to good faith and fair dealing is liable for the losses caused to the other party. (3) It is contrary to good faith and fair dealing, in particular, for a party to enter into or continue negotiations with no real intention of reaching an agreement with the other party.
Article 2:302: Breach of Confidentiality
If confidential information is given by one party in the course of negotiations, the other party is under a duty not to disclose that information or use it for its own purposes whether or not a contract is subsequently concluded. The remedy for breach of this duty may include compensation for loss suffered and restitution of the benefit received by the other party.
CHAPTER 3: AUTHORITY OF AGENTS
Section 1 : General Provisions
Article 3:101 : Scope of the Chapter
(1) This Chapter governs the authority of an agent or other intermediary to bind its principal in relation to a contract with a third party.
(2) This Chapter does not govern an agent's authority bestowed by law or the authority of an agent appointed by a public or judicial authority.
(3) This Chapter does not govern the internal relationship between the agent or intermediary and its principal.
Article 3:102: Categories of Representation
(1) Where an agent acts in the name of a principal, the rules on direct representation apply (Section 2). It is irrelevant whether the principal's identity is revealed at the time the agent acts or is to be revealed later.
(2) Where an intermediary acts on instructions and on behalf of, but not in the name of, a principal, or where the third party neither knows nor has reason to know that the intermediary acts as an agent, the rules on indirect representation apply (Section 3).
Section 2 : Direct Representation
Article 3:201: Express, Implied and Apparent Authority
(1) The principal's grant of authority to an agent to act in its name may be express or may be implied from the circumstances.
(2) The agent has authority to perform all acts necessary in the circumstances to achieve the purposes for which the authority was granted.
A person is to be treated as having granted authority to an apparent agent if the person’s statements or conduct induce the third party reasonably and in good faith to believe that the apparent agent has been granted authority for the act performed by it.
Article 3:202: Agent acting in Exercise of its Authority
Where an agent is acting within its authority as defined by article 3.201, its acts bind the principal and the third party directly to each other. The agent itself is not bound to the third party.
Article 3:203: Unidentified Principal
If an agent enters into a contract in the name of a principal whose identity is to be revealed later, but fails to reveal that identity within a reasonable time after a request by the third party, the agent itself is bound by the contract.
THE PRINCIPLES OF EUROPEAN CONTRACT LAW completed and revised version 1998 European Union Commission on Contract Law 欧洲合同法原则
CHAPTER 1 - GENERAL PROVISIONS 第一章一般规定 Section 1 - Scope of the Principles 第一节本原则的适用范围 Article 1.101- Application of the Principles 第1:101条：本原则的适用 (1) These Principles are intended to be applied as general rules of contract law in the European Communities. （一）本原则拟作为合同法的一般规则在欧洲共同体适用。 （一）本原则作为合同法在欧共体内的适用通则。 本原则作为合同法通则在欧共体内适用。 (2) These Principles will apply when the parties have agreed to incorporate them into their contract or that their contract is to be governed by them. （二）如果当事人已约定将本原则订入其合同或者其合同受本原则的规制，本原则即予适用。 (3) These Principles may be applied when the parties: (a) have agreed that their contract is to be governed by ‘general principles of law’, the ‘lex mercatoria’ or the like; or (b) have not chosen any system or rules of law to govern their contract. （三）当事人于符合下列条件时，可适用本原则：1.约定其合同受“法的一般原则”、“商人法”或类似者之规制时；或者2.没有选择任何法律制度或者法律规则规制其合同。 (4) These Principles may provide a solution to the issue raised where the system or rules of law applicable do not do so. （四）当可得适用的法律制度或法律规则对所产生的问题未提供解决方案时，本原则得作为一种解决方案。 Article 1.102 - Freedom of contract 第1:102条：合同自由 (1) Parties are free to enter into a contract and to determine its contents, subject to the requirements of good faith and fair dealing, and the mandatory rules established by these Principles. （一）当事人可以自由缔结合同并决定其内容，但要符合诚实信用和公平交易，以及由本原则确立的强制性规则。 (2) The parties may exclude the application of any of the Principles or derogate from or vary their effects, except as otherwise provided by these Principles.
合同法与公约对风险转移和所有权转移的异同 （一）《公约》对风险转移的规定 在公约中对风险转移做了比较详细的规定，它确定了如下一些原则： 1. 以交付为风险转移时间，这是公约第69条明确规定的，将风险与所有权相分离； 2. 以当事人的约定时间为风险转移的时间，这体现了意思自治，当事人可以自行在合同中约定在一定时间内转移风险； 3. 遵循国际惯例，在国际贸易中约束货物买卖不仅有公约还有其它的一些国际惯例，比如有《华沙—牛津规则》和《2000年国际贸易术语解释通则》，而当事人一旦在合同中选择这些规则中的术语，那么风险转移时间依规则而定； 4.以法律规定的时间为风险转移时间，这是讲如果在合同中当事人未约定时间则应按公约或各国法律规定来确定风险转移时间；在遵循上述基本原则的情况下，公约的66—69条具体规定了涉及运输的国际买卖、运输途中销售、还有违约等情况下的风险转移。 （二）《合同法》对与风险转移的规定对于风险转移我国合同法第142条规定：“标的物毁损、灭失的风险，在标的物交付之前由出卖人承担，交付之后由买受人承担，但法律另有规定或者当事人另有约定的除外。”这具体规定了风险转移与所有权相分离，以交付时间为风险 转移时间的基本原则，而这是与《公约》规定的原则所一致的。另外合同法还在143—149 条具体规定了在买方违约、没有约定交付地点或约定不明确、卖方违约、以及运输途中货物买卖的风险转移。可见，我国对所有权与风险转移都做了比较详细而明确的规定。 二、比较分析两部法律的异同并提出完善立法的建议 （二）对风险转移的对比分析及完善 对于风险转移这一问题，不论是公约还是合同法都给予了较详细的规定。对比公约的66—70条与合同法的141—149条我们可以发现两者还是有较大的差异，因而在立法上都有着不足，应予完善。 1.在我国合同法142条确定了风险与所有权相分离的，以交付时间为风险转移时间的基本原则，这与公约的规定是一致的。但是对于法律另有规定及当事人约定的情况那个先适用并未明确，而在实践中我们多以“当事人约定在不违反国家法律的强制性规定的前提下优先适用”为原则，因而我们必须在立法上明确规定。 2.合同法143条规定：“因买受人的原因致使标的物不能按照约定的期限交付的，买受人应当自违反约定之日起承担标的物毁损、灭失的风险。”第146条规定：“出卖人按照约定或者依照本法第一百四十一条第二款第二项的规定将标的物置于交付地点，买受人违反约定没有收取的，标的物毁损、灭失的风险自违反约定之日起由买受人承担。”这两条对买方违约时风险转移做了规定。公约69条第1款规定“在不属于第六十七条和六十八条规定的情况下，买方接收货物时起，或如果买方不在适当时间内这样做,则从货物交给他处置但他不收取货物从而违反合同时起，风险转移到买方承担。”通过对比可以发现，合同法规定在违反约定之日起风险转移，而公约对买方违约期间的规定是“适当时间内这样做”，但这个适当时间究竟该如何确定，却是一个模糊性的规定，因此在国际立法上必须予以明确；还有就是按照
欧洲合同法原则第三部分 一 欧洲合同法原则由三部分组成。第一部分主要规定了履行的种类、不履行、不履行时救济手段以及一系列一般问题（如适用、任意法特点、概念规定及交易过程中的一般行为义务等）。该原则第一部分的起草工作始于1982年并持续到1995年，欧洲合同法委员会在此期间召开12次会议磋商该部分内容并最终确定了总计59条的内容（参见：Ole Lando，Hugh Beale，Principles of European Contract Law，PartI，1995）。该原则的第二部分起草工作始于1992年并持续至1995年，委员会就此共召开9次会议讨论该部分内容。第二部分共计73条，涉及到如下内容：合同的订立、代理权限、合同的生效（包括意思表示瑕疵，但不包括违反强行法和违反善良风俗的规定）、合同的解释以及合同的内容和效力。第二部分并没有以单行本的方式问世，相反，一并出版了第一部分和第二部分的合订修订版（参见：Ole Lando，Hugh Beale编辑，Principles of European Contract Law，PartIandII，1999）。目前第三部分也已问世。该部分共计69条，起草时间从1997年延续至2002年，其间共召开5次委员会会议，其涉及到多方当事人（多方债务人和多方债权人）、债权转让、债务承担和合同转让、抵消、时效、不法、条件及复利等内容：（参见：Ole Lando，Eric Clive，André Prüm，Reinhard Zimmrmann编辑，Principles of European Contract Law，PartIII，2003）。同上述前两部分一致，该原则第三部分也由Kluwr Law International出版社出版。与第二部
合同生效的要件分析，英美法系与大陆 法系的不同点 课程名称：国际商法 姓名：李皇欣 学号：201016016210 班级：物流102班 提交日期：2012年12月7日
合同生效的要件分析，英美法系与大陆法系的不同点 【摘要】：在《合同法》颁布并实施之前的相当一段时间里，相关法律、法规的批准、登记对合同效力有什么影响，如何进行界定，一直困扰着司法实务界的一个实际问题，导致法院审理此类案件出现五花八门的局面。同类案件在不同的法院，就有不同的审判结果.在《合同法》颁布实施后，对于此类案件的审理便有了统一的原则，然而怎样把握批准、登记法律对合同效力的影响，就显得十分重要了。（In quite a period of time Before“Contract Law”promulgated and implement,what influences do Approval and registration relevant laws and regulations,how to definition,is a practical problem puzzled Judicial practice field, Lead to court cases appear all kinds of situation. Similar cases in different court had different results.After“Contract Law”promulgated and implement, For this kind of case will have a unified principle.It`s important that how to grasp the impact of approval and registration laws on validity of contract.） 【关键词】：合同生效（validate contract）；英美法系大陆法系（anglo-american law system& the continental law system）；合同法（Contract Law） 一丶合同生效的要件分析 合同生效，是指合同具备了一定的要件后所产生的全中固有的法律效力。符合法定生效要件的合同，便可以受到法律的保护，并能够产生合同当事人所预期的法律后果。合同的生效时间是合同开始具有法律效力，从而对当事人具有约束力的时间，合同一旦生效，当事人就必须依照合同的规定履行合同义务。除根据法律有规定和当事人约定外，不得擅自变更和解除合同，否则须承担违约责任。 《合同法》第44条规定，依法成立的合同，自成立时生效。但合同成立并非等于合同生效，因为只有依法成立的合同才能生效。一般而言，合同的生效要件包括： （l）合同当事人订立合同时具有相应的缔约行为能力。民事行为能力是民事法律行为有效的先决条件，无民事行为能力人及限制民事行为能力人实施的民事法律行为只有经其法定代理人的追认才有效。所谓缔约行为能力，是指民事主体据以独立订立合同，以自己的行为取得民事权利或承担民事义务的法律资格。据此，年满18周岁，或者16周岁以上不满18周岁的未成年人，以自己的劳动收人为主要生活来源的完全民事行为能力人有权订立合同。间歇性精神病人为限制民事行为能力，他们不具有缔约行为能力。不能辨认自己行为的精神病人和
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篇一：欧洲合同法PECL韩世远译 THE PRINCIPLES OF EUROPEAN CONTRACT LAW completed and revised version 1998 European Union Commission on Contract Law 欧洲合同法原则 CHAPTER 1 - GENERAL PROVISIONS 第一章一般规定 Section 1 - Scope of the Principles 第一节本原则的适用范围 Article Application of the Principles 第1:101 条：本原则的适用 (1) These Principles are intended to be applied as general rules of contract law in the European Communities. (一)本原则拟作为合同法的一般规则在欧洲共同体适用。 (2) These Principles will apply when the parties have agreed to incorporate them into their contract or that their contract is to be governed by them. (二)如果当事人已约定将本原则订入其合同或者其合 同受本原则的规制，本原则即予适用。
The Principles Of European Contract Law1998,Parts I and II-(Parts I and II completed and revised) European Union copy@https://www.doczj.com/doc/5018029356.html,
Copyright?1998European Union
Contents THE PRINCIPLES OF EUROPEAN CONTRACT LA W-completed and revised version19981 CHAPTER1-GENERAL PROVISIONS1 Section1-Scope of the Principles1 Article1.101(ex art.1.101)-Application of the Principles (1) Article1.102-Freedom of contract (1) Article1.103-Mandatory Law (1) Article1.104-Application to questions of consent (2) Article1.105(ex art.1.103)-Usages and Practices (2) Article1.106(ex art.1.104)-Interpretation and Supplementation (2) Article1.107(ex Art.1.113)-Application of the Principles by Way of Analogy2 Section2-General Obligations2 Article1.201(ex art.1.106)-Good Faith and Fair Dealing (2) Article1.202(ex art.1.107)-Duty to Co-operate (3) Section3-Terminology and Other Provisions3 Article1.301(ex art.1.105)-Meaning of Terms (3) Article1.302(ex art.1.108)-Reasonableness (3) Article1.303(ex art.1.110)-Notice (3) Article1.304(ex art.1.111)-Computation of Time (4) Article1.305(ex art.1.109)-Imputed Knowledge and Intention (4) CHAPTER2-FORMATION5 Section1-General Provisions5 Article2.101(ex art.5.101)-Conditions for the Conclusion of a Contract..5 Article2.102(ex art.5.102)-Intention (5) Article2.103(ex art.5.103)-Sufficient Agreement (5) Article2.104(ex art.5.103A)-Terms not individually negotiated (5) Article2.105(ex art.5.106A)-Merger Clause (6) Article2.106(ex art.5.106B)-Written Modification only (6) Article2.107(ex art.5.108)-Promises binding without acceptance (6) Section2-O?er and Acceptance6 Article2.201(ex art.5.201)-Offer (6) Article2.202(ex art.5.202)-Revocation of an Offer (7) Article2.203(ex art.5.203)-Lapse of an Offer (7) Article2.204(ex art.5.204)-Acceptance (7) Article2.205(ex art.5.205)-Time of Conclusion of the Contract (7) Article2.206(ex art.5.206)-Time Limit for Acceptance (7)
最新英语专业全英原创毕业论文，都是近期写作 1 论英语新闻中的模糊语言 2 英汉习语渊源对比及其常用分析方法 3 《小妇人》中的家庭教育及它对现代家庭教育的意义 4 从《瓦尔登湖》看梭罗的自然观 5 简奥斯丁《爱玛》中的爱玛形象分析 6 《彼得潘》中彼得潘形象分析 7 解析《老人与海》中的桑提亚哥形象 8 完美管家还是他者—浅析《长日留痕》中的管家形象（开题报告+论） 9 《德伯家的苔丝》中苔丝之死的必然性 10 An Analysis of Main Characters in Wuthering Heights 11 小议《呼啸山庄》中希斯克利夫人性的回归 12 英汉思维模式差异的对比研究 13 A Study of Hawthorne’s Notion of Science as Shown in “Rappaccini's Daughter” 14 爱与孤独的互生——舍伍德安德森《曾经沧海》与戴维劳伦斯《马贩子的女儿》对比研究 15 The Study of Humor in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn from the Perspective of Cooperative Principle 16 从主人公的悲剧命运看《推销员之死》的现实意义 17 从理解文化角度翻译英语习语 18 书面语言输入与输出对英语词汇习得的影响 19 浅析当代美国跨种族领养的现状 20 爱伦坡侦探小说的特征与影响 21 关联理论视角下《生活大爆炸》中言语幽默的汉译 22 A Comparative Study on Tea Culture of China and English-speaking Countries 23 《简爱》中的女性主义意识初探 24 The Poet’s Identity in Keats’s Six Odes 25 Doomed Tragedy out of Desire-Driven Morbid Personalities in Nabokov’s Lolita 26 论《荆棘鸟》中的女性意识 27 英汉委婉语中体现的文化异同 28 从中美管理方式的不同透析中西方文化差异与整合 29 论个人主义对美国英雄电影的影响 30 产品说明书的翻译技巧 31 《喧哗与骚动》中凯蒂悲剧的分析 32 伊丽莎白．贝内特与简．爱的婚姻观之比较 33 论跨文化交际中的中西文化冲突 34 外语学习焦虑与口语成绩的相关性研究 35 形成性评价在英语教学中的运用 36 《都柏林人》的“顿悟”手法解读 37 翻译中的字词选择 38 爱情，悲剧和战争——《永别了武器》关键元素的分析 39 从贫穷到堕落——解读嘉莉妹妹中嘉莉的奋斗历程 40 Cultural Issues in Interpreting
欧洲合同法原则 ,韩世远译, 第一章一般规定 第一节本原则的适用范围 第1:101条:本原则的适用 (一)本原则拟作为合同法的一般规则在欧洲共同体适用。 (二)如果当事人已约定将本原则订入其合同或者其合同受本原则的规制，本原则即予适用。 (三)当事人于符合下列条件时，可适用本原则: 1.约定其合同受“法的一般原则”、“商人法”或类似者之规制时;或者 2.没有选择任何法律制度或者法律规则规制其合同。 (四)当可得适用的法律制度或者法律规则对所产生的问题没有提供一种解决方案时，本原则得作为一种解决方案。 第1:102条:合同自由 (一)当事人可以自由缔结合同并决定其内容，但要符合诚实信用和公平交易，以及由本原则确立的强制性规则。 (二)当事人可以排除本原则的适用或者背离或变更其效力，除非本原则另有规定。 第1:103条:强行法 (一)在其他可得适用的法律亦允许之场合，当事人可以选择使其合同受本原则的规制，以使国内的强制性规则不能适用。 (二)依据有关国际私法规则，如国内的、超国家的以及国际的强制性规则能够适用时，则应赋予这些强制性规则以效力，而不管规制该合同的法律。
第1:104条:对同意之问题的适用 (一)当事人对适用本原则的合意，其存在及生效应依本原则加以确定。 (二)然一方当事人可以依据它的惯常居所所在国的法律来证明它不同意，只要情况表明依据本原则确定它的行为的效力将会是不合理的。 第1:105条:惯例与习惯做法 (一)当事人受它们同意的惯例以及它们之间确立的习惯做法的拘束。 (二)与当事人处于同样情形下的其他人通常会认为可得适用的惯例，当事人受其拘束，除非适用该惯例会是不合理的。 第1:106条:解释与补充 (一)本原则应本其目的予以解释和发展，特别是，应注意有必要促进诚实信用和公平交易、合同关系的确定性和适用的统一性。 (二)对属于本原则范围之内但又未为本原则明确解决的问题，应尽可能地依照本原则所隐含的精神予以解决。如仍不能解决，则应适用依国际私法规则可以适用的法律制度。 第1:107条:本原则的类推适用 本原则经适当修正适用于变更或解除合同的协议、单方允诺和其他的表意陈述和行为。 第二节一般义务 第1:201条:诚实信用和公平交易 (一)各方当事人均须依诚实信用和公平交易而行为。 (二)当事人不得排除或限制此项义务。 第1:202条:协助义务 为了充分落实合同，各方当事人均向对方负有协助的义务。 第三节术语与其他规定
论合同法国际化 随着经济全球化的发展，市场经济的开放性越来越明显。世界贸易交往变得更加频繁，世界各大经济实体通过资本、金融、商品等大量的输出与输入行为紧密联系在一起。全球市场是一个不可分割的整体，随着国内经济结构的转型，国内市场和国际市场的分隔越来越小，在这种现状下的交易急需一种规则的统一，以此来避免由于规则不统一造成的不必要的争端，降低交易的成本和费用，并在争端发生后，有足够完善，有足够说服力的法律来解决争端。 合同法作为在交易中发挥重要作用的法律，它在订立之时就确定了合同双方的权利义务，在合同解除后追究合同双方应承担的法律责任时，也是以双方所订立的合同为重要依据。由于每个国家的经济、政治、文化、历史、法律等环境都会有所不同，所以如果国际合同在订立时因无统一的规则，就会面临许多问题。比如说订立合同所用的语言，合同中的权利义务关系是否都符合双方国家所设定的相关法律中的规定，合同中交易所用的货币等问题。如果不但能给予现有的交易者一个公平的市场环境，而且能使得更多的具备潜在市场参与能力的交易者更加容易地加入市场，促进经济发展。为了适应这种开放性的市场经济，不能只着眼于国内，更应该与国际合同法接轨，形成在世界范围内的统一，给交易者一个良好的方便的有依据的法律凭证，营造公平的市场环境。正如美国学者夏皮罗指出的，“随着市场的全球化和相伴而来的跨国公司在这种市场上的经营，就产生了走向相对统一的全球化契约法和商法的一些活动。＂ 在合同法国际化的进程中，已经有了一些实践和探索。大陆法系和英美法系在不断的借鉴和融合，一方面，英美法逐步借鉴大陆法的理论。例如，英美法历来认为合同是一种允诺，而并没有重视其合意的本质。近几十年来其也借鉴大陆法合同的概念，强调合同的本质是合意；另一方面，大陆法也借鉴了英美法的经验，例如关于预期违约等制度。尤其是两大法系在许多规则上出现相同之处，例如对于要约的非实质性的变更并不构成反要约，对此两大法系的发展趋势是相同的。 在2004年进行了比较大的修订的《国际商事合同通则》，就是一部具有现代性、广泛代表性、权威性与实用性的商事合同统一法。它可为各国立法参考，为司法、仲裁所适用，是起草合同、谈判的工具。它是各国努力寻求解决国际合同法律冲突方法的创新，在很多情形下，可以直接介入国际贸易关系并直接调整国际合同法律冲突。 1988年生效现今已有60多个国家参与的《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》，它的目的就是使各缔约国在平等互利基础上发展国际贸易，并且照顾到了不同的社会、经济和法律制度下的国际货物销售合同并为此制定统一规则。此公约有助于减少国际贸易的法律障碍，促进国际贸易的发展。 拟作为合同法的一般规则在欧洲共同体适用的《欧洲合同法原则》就是关于国际合同方面的统一规则，这种非立法方式是寻求国际合同法律冲突的一种新的尝试。欧洲合同法原则作为不具有法的拘束力的文件却又与其它非法律文件有着明显的不同之处。它虽然其不具有法律拘束力，却具有不可磨灭的权威性和说服力，是国际商事合同方面的统一规则。在实践中不仅被越来越多的当事人援引作为支持他们主张的论据，而且在判决或仲裁裁决中也越来越多地被提及以论证裁判的合法性和合理性。 合同法的国际化不是各国合同法的简单的汇集、解释，而是一种全方位的整合、发展，具有很强的学理性，其并非简单地考虑哪一种规则为大多数国家所采用，而是考虑哪一种规则是最佳的解决办法，哪一种规则最具有说服力，哪一种规则最适合国际商事贸易。它综合的考虑到各方面的权利义务，尽可能兼容了不同文化背景和不同法律体系的一些通用的法律原则。同时还总结和吸收国际商事活动中广为适用的惯例和规则，因而对指导和规范国际商事活动具有很大的影响力。
THE PRINCIPLES OF EUROPEAN CONTRACT LAW Prepared by the Commision on European Contract Law 1999 text in English
Introduction to the Principles of European Contract Law Prepared by The Commission on European Contract Law A businessman is negotiating a contract with a company in another State of the European Union, but neither party wishes to apply the law of the other country. A lawyer is advising parties to a contract involving parties in different States. An arbitrator has to decide a dispute under a contract "to be governed by internationally accepted principles of law". A professor of law wants his students to gain an understanding of the way in which contracts are treated by the laws of the different States of the European Union, and to learn the common principles. A legislator is drafting a code or a statute on the law of contracts. An European Union official is drafting a new Directive affecting contracts. All these need to know the principles of contract law shared by the legal systems of the Member States and to have a concise, comprehensive and workable statement of them. The Principles of European Contract Law Parts I and II(1), and part III (2) will provide this. The Books are available with Kluwer Law International see sales@https://www.doczj.com/doc/5018029356.html, You will find the text of the articles of Parts I-III in the third section below. The Principles have been drawn up by an independent body of experts from each Member State of the European Union under a project supported by the European Commission and many other organisations. The principles are stated in the form of articles with a detailed commentary explaining the purpose and operation of each article. In the comments there are illustrations, ultra short cases which show how the rules are to operate
大陆法系和英美法系在合同法的简单比较 在市场经济占主导和经济全球化的今天，各国之间的经济生活联系越来越紧密，对于现在的国际贸易来说，最大的一部分就是合同法，我们要吃透各国的法律才能使我们在国际贸易中不吃亏，在我们学习中我们经常都听说有大陆法系和英法法系但是我们知道它们的主要区别是什么吗？我们要研究两大法系在合同法上的区别我认为首先要知道它们之间的区别才能更深刻的去研究其它问题。 它们的主要区别有四点： 第一，历史渊源不同，英美法系是在广泛吸收日耳曼法的基础上发展的，只接受了罗马法的某些原则和制度，普通法构成其法律制度的基础。大陆法系是在继承罗马法的基础上发展起来的，以罗马法为蓝本演变而成具有基本法性质的民法体系，是构成其法律制度的支柱。 第二，法律结构不同。英美法系国家重视判例，援引先例成为一个重要原则；法官不仅司法，还能立法；虽有制定法但是未编纂大陆类型的法典。大陆法系国家不存在判例法（行政法院除外），重视法典的系统编纂，以成文法典作为基本表现形式，法官只按法律的规定，司法官不能充当立法者。 第三，思维法式不同。英美法系国家的司法实践，一般采用归纳法的法律推理形式，先从大量的案例中归纳出普遍的原则，然而得出结论，因而又被称为归纳法。大陆法系采用的演绎法的推理形式，先从法律原则（大前提）演绎到具体的案由（小前提），再推导出结论，因而又被称为演绎法。 第五，法律范畴不同。英美法系采用有普通法、平衡法之分，民法没有形成统一体系而分别存在财产法、契约法、侵权行为法、婚姻家庭与继承法，实行民商合一，公私法的划分也不严格。大陆法系没有普通法与平衡法的范畴，民法自成统一独立的部门，实行民商分立，公法与私法的划分也较为严格。 现在我们可以研究两大法系的区别了，现在我们选取两大法系的两个国家英国和法国进行比较：首先，大陆国家的合同法认为是一个叫“债法”的更大的法律分支的一部分，合同法产生“合法债务”的可能根据之一，并且扩大到合法债务的各个方面，不仅是怎么产生的，也有怎么履行，当事人怎样能够免除履行，不履行时发生什么结果，所有大陆法国家基本概念就是“债”的概念，而英美法（普通法）国家没有这个概念。大陆法国家没有财产委托的分类和信托的概念，因而大陆法国家的合同概念比英美法国家要广一些。 在英国和法国，合同法的演变有显著的差别。由于合同是交易中必需的文件，因此，普通法赋予合同以约束力。当合同中的“允诺”作为协议的一部分时，它就可以由根据合同而提起“赔偿”之诉所认可。并且，根据英国法，在这案件中，合同存在的实质因素仅仅是对原告在普通法院提起诉讼所依据的允诺提出了对价。与此相反，在法国和其它欧洲大陆法国家，认为合同具有法定约束力的原因是道义上的，而非经济上的。“一个人必须信守诺言”，这是教会确认的规则，教会法学者成功的将其引入法律，基于这一点，协议和无偿的允诺之间就不应当有区别，对价是没有必要的，因为法院将强制执行所有的允诺。在美国的契约法
论文大纲 一、序论 （一）、中心论题：分析小说《远大前程》中女性人物的形象、地位及她们悲惨命运的成因。 （二）、写作意图：狄更斯小说《远大前程》旨在开导、教化人们从善，本文通过对小说中女性人物分析，进一步引导女性朋友正确选择自己的人生道路。 二、本论 （一）、引言 1、简述小说《远大前程》中主人公的人生经历，并阐明小说是紧紧围绕人道主义思想来写。 2、引出两部文献中分别对《远大前程》作出的点评，并概述自己的观点。 3、阐明本文写作意图及中心论题。 （二）、主题 1、小说中女性的形象分析。 （1）、分别对小说中主要女性人物形象进行分析点评。 （2）、引用文献资料进行全面阐述。 （3）、通过对比文献资料阐明自己的观点。 2、小说中女性的地位。 （1）、引出文献王新春在作品《笼中鸟》中对小说女性地位的总评。 （2）、阐明自己的观点，对女性地位进行分析。 （3）、引出许多读者对狄更斯是否对女性地位持有偏见的质疑，分析对比阐述自己观点。 3、小说中女性人物对主人公的影响。 （1）、引出文献李宇荣指出狄更斯小说是以人物为中心写作，因此《远大前程》中的几位主要女性都是围绕主人公皮普展开描写的。 三、结论 总结本文所写主题，再次归纳所有评论家的观点，阐述自己的主见，并呼应开头，再次点题。 浅析《远大前程》中的女性人物 一、引言： 《远大前程》是英国小说家狄更斯的晚年作品，小说主要讲述了主人公皮普人生的三个阶段，从小的时候对上层阶级生活的憧憬、羡慕开始，到他成为“上等人”，最后又恢复到下层阶级淳朴劳动者的身份。小说中劳动者的淳朴形象与当时英国上流阶级人们的自私形象形成鲜明的对比，作者狄更斯抓住人道主义的观点来批判当时的社会，其中女性所遭受的磨难，她们对爱情、婚姻的绝望以及她们道德的沦丧与最终远大前程的破灭有着密切的关系。作家王新春在试析《远大前程》的女性形象中点评狄更斯的小说是以深刻的笔触去揭示资本主义社会的各种弊端，强烈刻画了下层人民的悲惨生活。郭春林却点评说：“狄更斯之所以生动
远大前程读后感范文:远大前程读后感英文 版 这是狄更斯的(也叫做)，匹普。早晨还跟妈妈说，这样的好书，永远也看不厌。下面是X为大家整理的远大前程读后感，希望大家喜欢! 远大前程读后感篇一 是狄更斯晚期的作品，我感觉也是他最成熟的一部作品。这个书名知道我读完才知道是有讽刺意味的，它讲述了一个孤儿，匹普想当上等人的理想幻灭的故事，他最终没有当成上等人，当然也就没有了所谓的远大前程。本书以极其精彩的故事情节紧扣读者的心弦，生动地描写了一个饱受苦难并同命运不断抗争的孤儿匹普的心理历程，最后他终于悟出人生道理，成为一名普通人，并与初恋情人握手重逢，获得了圆满的结局。 的故事情节有它的独特之处，读来让读者有一种欲罢不能的感觉。本书的主人公匹普，更是联系其它人物角色的一条主线。环境可以改变人的命运，匹普就是被环境改变的。一开始，匹普还是一个孩子的时候是多么的天真，轻易信人，富有同情心。 然而，匹普遭遇的宿命就是遇上了一位女皇般的姑娘，这位姑娘将透彻影响他的一生。他开始瞧不起自己，开始为
自己的家庭环境及出身感到自卑，“而我一想到这座宅邸，心中就没有一丝阳光!同时对自己的行为也更为厌恶，也更瞧不起自己的家庭。”这是一段很好的情景交融的写法，在这样一所恐怖的房间里，匹普彻底瞧不起自己里哦阿。是中了魔吗? 知道最后``时间长了，人物开始有变化，在作者的笔下，通篇写来十分自然。最后大家都过着平凡而真实的生活，这是一个多么完美的结局啊! 在第十七章中，说敌人进攻鬼不灵，并压了一批囚犯，这囚犯里面，刚好有老钟叔，小嘎子河区队长一看，都很恼火，这时，区队长想到，可以把敌人引到西部，那里火力强大，可以乘机救出他，可那里有个柜子的据点，小嘎子一想，我去吧，就经过区队长的同意去了。 在这一章中，作者充分地体现出小嘎子的勇敢，非常使人敬佩。 远大前程读后感篇二 这是狄更斯的(也叫做)，匹普。早晨还跟妈妈说，这样的好书，永远也看不厌，每次看，都有新的收获，真是好东西啊。 前阵子又重电影版的，下面也许还偷空重看。这部片子太早了，反正是我很小很小的时候看的。还有，这个是很好的片子，操刀鬼就是从这里而来。我第一次去灌云的时候，
欧洲合同法,pdf 篇一：欧洲合同法PECL韩世远译 THE PRINCIPLES OF EUROPEAN CONTRACT LAW completed and revised version 1998 European Union Commission on Contract Law 欧洲合同法原则 CHAPTER 1 - GENERAL PROVISIONS 第一章一般规定 Section 1 - Scope of the Principles 第一节本原则的适用范围 Article Application of the Principles 第1:101条：本原则的适用 (1) These Principles are intended to be applied as general rules of contract law in the European Communities. （一）本原则拟作为合同法的一般规则在欧洲共同体适用。 （一）本原则作为合同法在欧共体内的适用通则。 本原则作为合同法通则在欧共体内适用。 (2) These Principles will apply when the parties have agreed to incorporate them into their contract or
that their contract is to be governed by them. （二）如果当事人已约定将本原则订入其合同或者其合同受本原则的规制，本原则即予适用。 (3) These Principles may be applied when the parties: (a) have agreed that their contract is to be governed by ‘general principles of law’, the ‘lex mercatoria’ or the like; or (b) have not chosen any system or rules of law to govern their contract. （三）当事人于符合下列条件时，可适用本原则：1.约定其合同受“法的一般原则”、“商人法”或类似者之规制时；或者2.没有选择任何法律制度或者法律规则规制其合同。 (4) These Principles may provide a solution to the issue raised where the system or rules of law applicable do not do so. （四）当可得适用的法律制度或法律规则对所产生的问题未提供解决方案时，本原则得作为一种解决方案。 Article - Freedom of contract 第1:102条：合同自由 (1) Parties are free to enter into a contract and to determine its contents, subject to the requirements of good faith and fair dealing, and the mandatory rules established by these Principles.
课程参考书： 王泽鉴：《债法原理1·基本原理债之发生》，中国政法大学出版社，2001第1版。 海因·克茨：《欧洲合同法》（上卷），周海忠等译，法律出版社，2001年第1版。 阿狄亚：《合同法导论》，赵旭东等译，法律出版社，2002年第1版。 尹田：《法国现代合同法》，法律出版社，1995年第1版。 韩世远：《合同法总则》，法律出版社，2004年第1版。 第一章契约与契约法 第一节契约与合同 一、合同的概念 1、合同法2条第一款：“本法所称合同是平等主体的自然人、法人、其他组织之间设立、变更、终止民事权利义务关系的协议。”
关于如何理解这一条款，存在广义说和狭义说两种观点：狭义说：合同法所称的合同仅仅指债权合同。 广义说：不限于债权合同，设立、变更、终止民事权利义务的合同都在合同法的范围之内，包括物权合同。 2、通常，契约被认为是产生法律效果的、因相互意思表示一致而成立的法律行为。（这是意思主义的定义，还是表示主义的？） ——很显然，这是依据法律行为论的定义，是将契约作为法律行为的下位概念而产生的，而法律行为论中的众多规则主要适用于契约领域。 *有关契约概念的源流：罗马法，中世纪，以及德国法，尤其是自然法对此的影响，可参见徐涤宇的文章。 3、契约与合同 ①我国目前的社会生活中，存在着将“合同”与“契约”相互替换使用的情形。 有学者提出, 今天有必要用“契约”概念代替“合同”；也有人认为：“考虑到合同一词已经约定俗成, 广为流传, 而‘契
约’、‘契据’等提法已在实践中极少采用, 因此我们认为区分契约与合同实无必要。”还有人认为，应将契约作为合同的上位概念。 ②日本法和台湾法上的区别 契约：按照相互对立的复数意思表示成立的法律行为。 合同行为：有多个当事人作出的，内容与方向都相同的多个意思表示一致而成立的法律行为。与契约的区别：当个别意思表示有问题时，法律效果不同。 *现在也有人反对这样的分类，认为没有什么特别的意义。 ③立足于继受法的历史，这两个词汇的法律意义可能并不完全是汉语自有的。 考虑现有的语言习惯及法律涵义的微妙区别，不加区分地使用这两个词语应是可以接受的。 我国目前的争论多数是以“契约与合同同义”为前提的，至少是大部分重合的。 4、多义性——契约可在多种意义上使用：