第二章词法翻译
词法翻译即根据“表达通顺”的需要在词类层次进行的各种处理，包括词性（类）转换、增词或减词、重复或省略、正译或反译、抽象化和具体化等等方法，以达到“表达通顺”之目的，此类方法，大多属于“此路不通，另辟蹊径”。
第一节词类转译
词类转译又叫词性转换。翻译过程中，为了句子通顺的需要，有时需改变原文的词性，不必也不可拘泥于原文的词性：即不能追求词性的对等。
一、转译成动词：
1.Vietnamese War is a drain on American resources.
2.The government called for the establishment of more technical schools.
3.I am so grateful to my father for his continuous encouragement during my childhood.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/5e19283643.html,lions of the people in the mountainous areas are finally off poverty.
5.It was a very informative meeting.
6.This pupil is a good writer.
7.I am no drinker, nor smoker.
8.I am afraid I can’t teach you swimming. I think my little brother is a better teacher than I.
9.Rockets have found their application for the exploration of the universe.
10. Arrogance and complacency turned out to be his ruin.
11. The application of electronic computers makes for a tremendous rise in labor productivity.
12. Ours is a policy for peace.
13. Those Mexicans were great workmen. (jinghao: P.107)
14. The Bench was nothing to me but an insensible blunderer.
15. He is not an originator, but merely a calculator.
二、转译成名词：
1. Formality has always characterized their relationship.
2. To them, he personified the absolute power.
3. It was officially announced that Paris is invited to the conference.
4. This instrument is chiefly characterized by its simplicity of structure.
5. Glass is more transparent than plastic cloth.
6. This problem is no more important than that one.
7. A well-dressed man, who looked and talked like an American, got into the car.
8. Stevenson is eloquent and elegant—but soft.
9. Because of Einstei n’s theory, scientists never regarded again regarded the world as they had before.
10. The knowledge of how to communicate in an original, amusing, and spontaneous manner to
delight the audience may be of importance to a would-be lecturer.
三、转译成形容词。
1. As he is a perfect stranger in the city, I hope you will give him the necessary help.
2. It is editorially reported that the conference was a great success.
3. I recognized the absurdity of dealing with them through intermediaries.(Zhang: P.56-57)
4. She promptly shepherded them out of the crowded living room and into the privacy of the library.
5. Boys are supposed to think differently from girls.
6. He became more surprised at the singularity of the stranger’s appearance.
7. She wisely determined to give it up. (Jinghao: 111-113)
8. This particular bit of Iceland was also heavily populated.
9. Nobody came and went. In the solitude of the dark winter night, there was nowhere to come and go.
10. The simplicity and cheerfulness of her nature, her contented and grateful spirit, were a recommendation to everybody.
四、转译成副词：汉语中副词在句子中多充当修饰语，修饰动词、形容词和其它副词，因而从英语其它短语转译成汉语副词的，往往是相关整个短语整体转换，而不是孤立转换。
1. What he said at the meeting was sheer nonsense.
2. People against the plan were in a clear minority.
3. Can you give an exact interpretation of this sentence?
4. He had a careful study of the map before starting off.
5. It was a clear and unemotional exposition of the President’s reasons for willing to begin a Chinese-American dialogue. (谭卫国：147)
6. For a clearer picture of what the student knows, most of teachers use another kind of examination in addition to objective tests. They use “essay”tests, which require students to write long answers of broad, general questions.
7. Companies should strive to convince consumers that the benefits of an online data-collection program outweigh its intrusiveness (meaning: annoyance). （张春柏：p.99）
8. I am taking the liberty of sending you these lines, hoping you will be good enough to publish them under your own name.
9. When he catches a glimpse of a potential antagonist, his instinct is to win him over with charm and humor. (张培基：p.55)
10. It may seem strange to put into the same packet an industrial revolution and two political
revolutions. But the fact is that they were all social revolutions. (庄绎传2002：p.30, 252)
综合练习：
1. The computer works with high calculating speed, high stability, and low consumption.
2. He has surfaced with less visibility in the policy decisions.
3. The significance of red-light running is magnified by its high visibility.
4. He was deeply impressed by what they did in the critical moment.
5. Two days later, I received a note from him saying he was impressed by my credentials, liked my answers to his questions and would probably invite me for additional interview. (杨立民III：P.107)
6. It was not until about 1600 BC when the chariot was invented that the maximum speed was raised to roughly twenty miles per hour.
So impressive was this invention, so difficult was it to exceed this speed limit, that nearly 3 500 years later, when the first mail coach began operation in England in 1784, it averaged a mere 10 mph. (大学英语精读III. Unit 10)
7. In a major study, psychologist Martin E.P. Selgman of the University of Pennsylvania and colleague Peter Schulman surveyed the sales representatives at the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. They found that the positive-thinkers among longtime representatives sold 37-percent more insurance than did the negative-thinkers. Of newly hired representatives, optimists sold 20 more.
Impressed, the company hired 100 people who had failed the standard industry test but scored high on optimism. These people, who might never have been hired, sold 10-percent more insurance than did the average representatives. (研究生英语精读教程（下）：P.3)
8. What is questioned is whether a country like Britain has a chance, assuming it has the will, to succeed where so many have failed and even assuming it has, should make the tremendous effort and take substantial financial risk of trying to leapfrog into leadership in entirely new technology or whether it should take the softer opinion of merely catching up with the industrialized countries. (中译：99-5-23-24)
9. If you feel depressed at a social gathering, keep it a secret. It may help you to remember the French writer Colette’s advice: There are times when you need to “put a smile on your philosophy of life”. When that philosophical smile is warm, it is often contagious.( (中译：98-3-13-14)
10. Check the list of members, and roster of events of every organization you might join. Do not be afraid to ask tough questions about any group’s strength and reputation.
11. When, for no apparent reason, all conversation in a room suddenly comes to a halt and everyone fails to come up with something appropriate to say, a painful silence develops.
12. So take some of that extra time you might have spent in a health club or gym and give it over to the arts.
13. We have acquired a keen sense of the diversity, dynamism, and progress of China under your policies of reform and opening to the outside world.
14. At last, he whispered a hurried good-bye to his host and darted toward the door. (张培基：p.57)
15. Somehow I always give myself away. Once I pinched a hotel towel to wrap up a wet swimming-costume. They were robbing me any-way, slamming the bag shut as the chambermaid entered the room, I hurried down the hall with my collar turned up and hat pulled down spy style, but knees knocking and heart pounding, I could see the lift-man eyeing my bag, and it seemed that everybody I met in the foyer was a plain-clothes policeman. I paid the bill, and the cashier called after me as I turned to leave: “Just a minute sir”. I stammered a full confession, opened my bag and handed over the towel. The cashier seemed embarrass ed. “The chambermaid just phoned downstairs”, he explained. “You left your shaving-kit in the bathroom”.
第二节增词译法
一、为了句意明了或背景需要，需进行表意性或解释性增词。
1. You’ve got to be careful of these Eastern lawyers. If you are not careful, they’ll take you and turn you inside out. (Zhangjinghao: P.130)
2. Mary washed for a living after her husband died of acute pneumonia.
(To wash after getting up. To wash before going to bed.)
3. Day after day he came to his work—sweeping, scrubbing, cleaning.
4. He is a complicated man—moody, mercurial, with a melancholy streak.
5. After all preparations were made, the planes were flown across the US to San Francisco.
6. This is the final solution to your problem. (Jin Meilin: P. 112)
7. We have made some achievements, and we must guard against complacency.
8. The remedies you propose are neat and easy but infeasible.
9. He fought a comer from the Coast one night and took the worst beating of his career. But he was on his feet at the end. With a jaw broken in three places.
10. He was a patriotic, adventurous, and romantic writer.
11. According to some informed official, the tensions between the two countries are being eased.
12. The room was warm and comfortably American.
13. Our rushing is understandable, but costly.
14. I was extremely worried about her, but this was neither the place nor the time for a lecture or an argument.
二、为了句子通顺需要，需进行结构性增词，一类是增补原文处于句法简洁需要而省略的成分；其次是出于表达通顺的需要增加表示名词复数的词、叠词、数词、表达时间的词、语气助词、量词等等。
1. Reading makes a full man; conference a ready man; writing an exact man.
2. I don’t regret, I never have and never will.
3. Sometimes their faces froze, sometimes their feet and their hands.
4. He did not really represent their opinions to the high-ups, although he claimed he did.
5. The crowds melted away.
6. Newsmen went flying off to Mexico.
7. The old man said, “They say his father was a fisherman. Maybe he was as poor as we are.”
8. I was, and remain, grateful for the part he played in my release.
9. I had imagined it to be merely a gesture of affection, but it seems it is to smell the lamb and make sure that it is her own.
10. The lion is the king of animals.
11. A stream was winding its way through the valley into the river.
12. The thesis summed up the new latest progress made in electronic computers, artificial satellites,
and rockets.
三、为了逻辑明晰严谨需要，需进行逻辑性增词：抽象名词作主语、代词所指具体事物等等。
1. Chance or circumstance, it must be added, has made this declaration almost contemporary with the scientific discoveries that have revolutionized the world.
2. You have heard this story before? No matter, I will tell it again because it points to a moral, and, better than that, to a state of mind.
3. Tom Mann said he must speak to him, and advanced as Lenin came toward us. How glad he was to greet Tom Mann! His face lit up with pleasure as he told Tom how closely he had followed his activities all over the world.
4. He stepped to the platform and paused: a little dingy station, a small crowd of travelers.
5. A little forethought would have saved you much trouble.
6. Further delay would cause us greater losses.
7. The availability of water power helped make New England a manufacturing center.
8. Such subtle flattery got him almost everything.
9. Some political scientists argue that the cynicism is more a rejection of specific policies and incumbents than government itself.
10. Failure to answer half the questions they asked made the police suspect him.
11. Ours is a mobile society.
四、为了传达原文文采，需进行修辞性增词。
1. A book, tight shut, is but a block of paper.
2. Success is just an idea away.
3. The gray hair should be respected throughout the society.
5. The spring sun is warm, urging vegetation and awakening hibernation.
6. He was born in a family of wealth, pleasure and harmony.
7. The cold wind is blowing, the snow falling, and the red flags flying.
第三节省略译法
省略译法亦称减词译法，主要分为以下三种情况：
一、表意性省略：
1. After leaving Chicago we headed in the direction of William Hinton’s farm near Philadelphia.
2. They took him with them to the village-temple one day, and asked the good old priest who lived there if he would have their little boy for his acolyte (follower), and teach him all that a priest ought to know.
3. There was no snow, the leaves were gone from the trees, the grass was dead.
4. I turned and twisted a thousand times between the sheets, prey to a dreadful anxiety and fear.
5. The crowd was pushing harder. Those in the middle were squeezed against each other so tightly they could not move in any direction.
6. At the birth of her second child she went into a long coma and emerged with a clear case of schizophrenia or “split personality”.
7. The late Mrs. Achson had passed to her Maker somewhere about 1930.
8. People are always neglecting something t hey can do in trying to do something they can’t do.
9. The significance of a man is not in what he attains but rather in what he longs to attain.
10. Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we do no plant while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old.
二、结构性省略：英语是重句法成分完整的语言，在译成汉语时，原文中的冠词、代词、介词、连词等结构性用词，能省就省。
1. He was a little man with an untidy beard and a prominent paunch (belly) that seemed startlingly out of place because of his emancipated appearance.
2. It seemed miraculous to her that a machine could remember so much and was always there, ready and waiting to do its work.
3. He shrugged his shoulders, shook his head, cast up his eyes, but said nothing.
4. She looked gloomy and troubled.
5. Because the departure was not easy, we made it brief.
6. The president said, “We shall now vote on draft resolution II as whole.”
7. I should like to make a brief statement regarding some of the considerations leading to our affirmative vote.
8. Mr. Bingley is good looking and gentlemen-like.
9. A wise man will never marry a woman who has attainments but no virtue.
10. “Now, if we put this sofa against the wall and move everything out of the room except the
chairs, don’t you think it all right?”
三、逻辑性省略和修辞性省略：
1. He ordered a Gibson (a martini garnished with a cocktail onion) and shouldered his way in between two other men at the bar.
2. There must be some people in the room, for I heard a voice.
3. Running as fast as his legs could carry him, he was soon out of breath.
4. He pushed this door, as he had been told to do, and found himself in a tiny room, which contained no furniture but a plain kitchen table, a rocking-chair, and an ordinary chair.
5. According to Bertrand Russell, most of the work that most people have to do is not in itself interesting, but even such work has certain great advantages.
6. “It pains me to find that you both have been panhandling so long that it no longer embarrasses you,” said the father to his two college-age sons.
7. I caught sight of her at the play, and in answer to her beckoning I went over during the interval and sat down beside her.
8. University applicants who had worked at a job would receive preference over those who had not.
9. He continued to order the stale bread—never a cake, never a pie, never one of the other delicious pasteries in the showcase.
10. As soon as the boy got into the compartment he felt there was something queer in it.
综合练习：
1. A little of everything and nothing at all.
2. His diligence, earnestness, carefulness, and brilliance make him praised by all.
3. There is something vulgar about her.
4. This road will take you to the station.
5. Business took me to the town.
6. Careful comparison of them will show the difference.
7. Histories make men wise; poets witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend.
8. When popular media trumpeted the paradigm-shifting importance of the Internet, one of the more misleading adjectives used to describe the global communications net works was "ubiquitous"（WIDESPREAD）.
9．The desire to avoid feeling guilty makes us avoid the worst sort of behavior.
10．He put his hands into his pockets and then shrugged his shoulders.
11. I was surprised when he flew off the handle and told me if I mentioned anything of the kind to
mother he’d kill me.
12. Francis is a strange mixture of intellectual power and moral weakness.
13. I think that’s the cornerstone of good management: set clear goals and good people to help you achieve them. As long as t hey are doing what you have in mind, don’t interfere, but if somebody drops the ball, intervene and makes a change.
14. “Heaven helps those who help themselves,” is a well-worn maxim, embodying in a small compass the results of vast human experience. The spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine growth in the individual; and exhibited in the lives of many, it constitutes the true source of national vigor and strength. Help from outside is often enfeebling in its effects, but help from inside invariably invigorates. Whatever is done for men or classes, to a certain extent takes away the stimulus and necessity of doing for themselves; and where men are subjected to over-guidance and over-government, the inevitable tendency is to render them comparatively helpless.
15. Maslow defined the need for self-realization as “the desire to become more than one is, to become everything one is capable of”. A person who operates on this level usually views work as something to be done in order to feel complete as a person to fulfill a personal philosophy. It is a higher-level need than the one for esteem because the person involved already feels that he or his work is worthwhile and respected. Such people find their work intrinsically interesting and satisfying.
第四节重复译法
重复分为两类：一是原文本身有重复，翻译时照译不误；二是原文由于某种需要省略的词，翻译时需重复，实质上是一种特殊的增词。重复没有词性限制。就方式而论，重复分为完全重复和概念重复；就目的而言，重复可使句子结构更加完整、逻辑更加严谨，含义更加明了、语气更加强烈、或起到某种修辞效果。
一、原文重复，译文照译，即传递原文所使用的重复手段，一般具有修辞效果。
1. Home is home, be it ever so homely.
2. I want to talk to you about the future, about our future tomorrow.
3. No one can be perfectly happy till all are happy.
4. That is our policy and that is our declaration. (Churchill’s speech).
5. If you don’t succeed at first, try, try, try again. (Guo: P. 67)
6. What we want, first and foremost, is to learn, to learn and to learn.
7. Behind all this glare, behind all this storm, I see that small group of villainous men who plan, organize, and launch this cataract of horrors upon mankind.
8. … that government of the people, by the peo ple, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. (Abraham Lincoln, “Gettysburg Address”)
9. We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas, and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields, and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender … .(Churchill’s sp eech)
二、原文省略，译文重复：有些情况下，原文运用代词或者省略的表述，译成汉语时需要重复其中某些成分才能使句意清楚，这实际上是一种特殊的增词译法。
1. John is your friend as much as mine.
2. But we still have defect, and very big ones.
3. Jesse opened his eyes. They were filled with tears. (Zhang Peiji: P.77)
4. Happy families also had their own troubles.
5. Each country has its own customs.
6. Whoever violates the law should be punished.
7. She was proficient both as a singer and as a dancer.
8. We talked of ourselves, of our prospects, of the journey, of the weather, of each other—of everything but our host and hostess.
9. But his wife kept dinning in his ears about his idleness, his carelessness, and the ruin he was bringing on his family.
10. They wanted to determine if he complied with the terms of his employment and his obligations
as an American.
11. We traveled the 3000 miles from the west coast to the east by road, rail, and air.
12. She was as different from him as possible—calm as he was furious; moderate as he was
fanatical; indulgent as he was sharp; reticent as he was garrulous. (Zhang Jinghao: P. 151) 13. I must admit that I could never have anticipated his ability to discover, much less to appreciate
such hidden virtues.
14. Common and recurrent diseases have among other things been investigated and studied.
(Jin Meilin: P.122-123.)
15. The signs of China’s influence and success abound in America. (by Reagon)
16. He prefers Dutch chess and I prefer Danish.
17. You should do whatever you are asked to.
18. To him, the birds sang, the squirrel chattered, and the flowers bloomed. (Zhang Peiji: P. 81)
三、意义重复：英语普通词译成汉语重复（叠）词，以示强调或增强修辞效果：
great contributions gratitude
ingratitude prosperity
vivid hesitate
arrogance grotesque
careless in chaos
street gossip rumors
1. He gave Lili every dime of that money. (Zhang Jinghao: P.148)
2. “But you’re bleeding to death,” protested she.
“I’d rather die!” said the injured sister.
3. One day he drew some very clever picture of cats upon a paper screen.
4. I could not help thinking of this fable when the other day I saw George lunching by himself in a restaurant. I never saw anyone wear an expression of such deep gloom.
5. There have been too much publicity about my case. (Zhang Peiji: P.85—86 )
6. I have been completely honest in my replies, withholding nothing.
7. With his tardiness, careless and appalling good humor, we were sore perplexed.
8. The mayor of Toledo said in 1932, “I have seen thousands and thousands of these defeated, discouraged, hopeless men and women, cringing and fawning as they come to ask for public aid. It is a spectacle of national degradation. (William Manchester, The Glory and the Dream)
9. Only a very slight and very scattering ripples of half-hearted hand-clapping greeted him.
10. It was a bright September afternoon, and the streets of New York were brilliant with moving
men.
11. He showed himself calm in an emergent situation.
12. The questions were evidently unexpected to the slow-witted spokesman, who instantly found
himself tongue-tied.
13. It’s a bit fishy that she should have given away a villa li ke that.
14. With what seemed my last hope frustrated, I slipped into a deep lethargy.
15. Old Behrman was a painter who lived on the ground floor beneath them. He was past sixty and had long white beard curling down over his chest. Despite looking the part, Behrman was a failure in art. For forty years he had been always about to paint a masterpiece, but had never yet begun it. He earned a little by serving as a model to those young artists who could not pay the price of a professional. He drank gin to excess, and still talked of his coming masterpiece. For the rest has was a fierce little old man, who mocked terribly at softness in anyone, and who regarded himself as guard dog to the two young artists in the studio above.
Sue found Berhman smelling strongly of gin in his dimly lighted studio below. In one corner was a blank canvas on an easel that had been waiting there for twenty-five years to receive the first line of the masterpiece. She told him of Johnsy’s fancy, and how she feared she would, indee d, light and fragile as a leaf herself, float away, when her slight hold upon the world grew weaker. Old Behrman, with his red eyes plainly streaming, shouted his contempt for such foolish imaginings.
第五节正译与反译
词法翻译中的正译与反译不同于句法翻译中肯定与否定的译法，也就是说，正译与反译同原文肯定或是否定句型可以有关，也可以无关。正译与反译的运用有助于表达的通顺，有时可加强语气。
例如：
1. Excuse me.
2. Don’t stop working.
3. He went into the insecure building.
4. This would cover my absence from the house.
5. Without reasoning one is apt to be beyond control.
6. His explanation is pretty thin.
7. Wet paint!
8. Admission by Invitation Only.
9. Keep upright.
10. Agreeable Sweetness.
一、英语从正面表达，汉语从反面表达：
1. The first bombs missed the target.
2. Their rescue attempts turned out predictably futile.
3. It would be most disastrous if even a rumor of it were given out.
4. We are watching with concern the fluid situation in the Mid-east.
5. This problem is above me.
6. It was beyond his power to sign such a contract.
7. We believe that the younger generation will prove worthy of our trust.
8. Both sides thought that the peace proposal was one they could accept with dignity.
9. When Philip missed the last bus, he was at a loss to know what to do.
10. Her husband hates to see her stony face.
二、英语从反面表达，汉语从正面表达：
1. It was said that someone had sown discord among them.
2. He manifested a strong dislike for his father’s business.
3. The doubt was still unsolved after his repeated explanation.
4. Many agreed that the Prime Minister had in effect resigned dishonorably.
5. The investigation left no doubt that the victim had died of murder.
6. Generally she accepted the family life in all its crowded inadequacy.
7. We must never stop taking an optimistic view of life.
8. Don’t make your conclusion before the end of the y ear.
9. He returned home with no hope on his face.
10. The train from Moscow will arrive in no time.
第六节虚化与实化
抽象化和具体化，有的书上叫做实译与虚译、虚化和实化、或称虚实化意，是词法翻译中的又一对矛盾。在增词译法中，有些属于具体化翻译，例如：
1. We should by no means neglect the evaporation of water.
2. All the people were exasperated by his fault-finding.
3. No one is satisfied with his favoritism in his work.
4. The pharmachologists are making a careful study of the allergy of the medicine.
5. John’s lightheartedness, however, did not last long.
6. There had been too much violence in that region.
7. The competing interest groups confront each other with a show of passion and drama, sometimes over inconsequential matters or over a mere linguistic difference.
本节主要练习实化虚手法。虚化的主要对象是原文为了生动，运用一些形象化的表达方法，而译文无法直译，或直译后无法达意，故应予虚化。
1. I was practically on my knees by he still refused.
2. The two sisters were usually in agreement on most issues, but they were at swords’ points on the matter of love.
3. He is a rolling stone, I don’t think he can lay up any money.
4. Since I only got the news at second hand, I took it with a grain of salt.
5. I must bare my heart to someone, or I shall go mad!
6. I’ll break my neck to get this done by Friday, but I can’t promise for sure.
7. By this means she cast in a bone between the wife and the husbands.
8. He thinks by all this fast thinking and flattery he can pull the wool over her eyes, but she isn’t deceived.
9. The matter was finally settled under the table.
10. The society held its meeting behind closed doors.
11. He earns scarcely enough to keep body and soul together.
12. This testimony puts quite a new face on the whole matter.
13. To my confusion, I discovered the yell was not ideal: hasty footsteps approached my chamber
door; somebody pushed it open with a vigorous hand.
14. “I can’t make that out,” said Michael. “It’s not like Rivarez to lose his head at a crisis.”
15. I have no head for music.
16. Please don’t wake a sleeping dog.
17. You can always fall back upon him when you are in difficulties.
18. If he is unhappy with her … why doesn’t he leave her? She can be happy without him. It is so
silly—this cat-and-dog existence.
19. If you dare to play the fox with me, I’ll shoot you at once.
20. Man for the field and woman for the hearth;
Man for the sword and for the needle she.
Man with the head and woman with the heart;
Man to command and woman to obey. (--by Tennyson)
21. He felt like a fish out of water.
22. I hope this concession of ours will set the ball rolling.
23. Sometimes, walking in the street at night, I’ve been so desperate that I’ve made up my mind to
win the horse or lose the saddle.
24. Why are you rushing around like a chicken with its head cut off?
25. He gets up very early and sits up very late and is burning the candle at both ends.
26. I’d love to go out to lunch but you know I’m living on a shoestring.
27. There are one thousand and one people watching the games in the stadium yesterday.
28. Twenty to one, it will rain tonight.
29. A hundred to one it will be a success.
30. His chances of getting into Harvard are one out of hundred.
汉译英 1.广场舞是社区中老年居民以健身、社交等为目的在广场、公园等开敞的地方进行的健身操或舞蹈，通常以高分贝的音乐伴奏。广场舞在中国大陆无论南北皆十分普遍。对于广场舞的确切认识，社会学界及体育界目前均未达成共识。广场舞的高分贝音乐常常造成噪音滋扰，因此许多居民反对在小区中跳广场舞。 The square dancing is a bodybuilding exercise or dance performed in wide and open places such as squares and parks among the middle-aged and old residents in communities, with the purpose of bodybuilding, socializing and so on, generally accompanied with high-pitched music. The square dancing is very popular all over mainland China, whether in the north or in the south. Neither the sociological circle nor the sports circle has currently reached a consensus on the exact perception of the square dancing. The high-pitched music of the square dancing often causes noisy disruption, and therefore many residents are opposed to the square dancing in communities. 2.故宫，又称紫禁城，是明、清两代的皇宫，二十四位皇帝在此生活起居和处理政务。它是世界现存最大、最完整的木质结构的古建筑群(architectural complex)。宫殿墙壁的色调以红色和黄色为主,红色代表快乐、好运和财富，而黄色代表帝王的神圣和尊贵。近十几年来，故宫平均每年接待中外游客600-800万人次，随着旅游业的繁荣，游客人数有增无减，可见人们对故宫的兴趣长盛不衰。 The Imperial Palace, also known as the Forbidden City, was the palace in Ming and Qing Dynasties where 24 emperors lived and handled government affairs. It is the largest and most complete existing ancient wooden architectural complex in the world. The palace wall was painted mainly in red and yellow. Red represents happiness, luck and fortune while yellow symbolizes imperial holiness and dignity. In recent decades, the Imperial Palace is visited annually by six to eight million tourists at home and abroad. Moreover, with flourishing tourism industry, the number of tourists keeps increasing. It shows people’s everlasting and unfading interest in the Imperial Palace. 3.《新闻联播》是中国中央电视台（CCTV）每日播出的一个新闻节目。节目每次播出时长一般为30分钟。它被中国大陆大多数地方频道同时转播，这使得它成为世界上收看人数最多的节目之一。自从1978年1月1日首次播出以来，它就以客观、生动、丰富的纪实手段记录着中华大地每一天的变化。作为中国官方新闻资讯类节目，《新闻联播》以沉稳、庄重的风格著称。 Xinwen Lianbo is a news program broadcast by China Central Television (CCTV) every day. It generally takes 30 minutes every time to broadcast the program. It is relayed simultaneously by most local television channels in the mainland of China, which makes it one of the world’s most-watched programs. Since it was first broadcast on January 1st, 1978, it has been recording the changes of every day throughout China by documentary means that is objective, vivid and rich. As the Chinese official news information program, Xinwen Lianbo is well-known for its
翻译技巧 【增词法】 他在那个大学里任语文教员。 He worked as a language teacher in that university. 他抓住了小偷的衣领。 He seized the pickpocket by the collar. 我们应当逐步消灭城乡差别。 We should gradually eliminate the differences between town and country. 学习外国的经验，必须有分析、有批判的地学，不能盲目地学。 We must learn foreign experience with an analytical and critical eye, not blindly. 交出翻译之前，必须读几遍，看看有没有需要修改的地方。 Before handing in your translation, you have to read it over and over again and see if there is anything in it to be corrected 其实世界上本没有路，走的人多了，也便有了路。 For actually the earth had no roads to begin with, but when many men pass one way, a road is made. 要提倡顾全大局。 We should advocate the spirit of taking the whole situation into consideration. 谁都知道朝鲜战场是艰苦些。 Every one knows that life on the Korean battlefield was rather hard. 班门弄斧。 Show off one’s proficiency with the axe before Lu Ban the master carpenter. 黑孩子 black children, who are born in violation of China’s one-child policy 【减词法】 紧张局势Tension 经营情况business 解决办法Solution 犯罪现象Crime 不必要的浪费Waste 极为可耻Shameful 完全征服Shameful 有个年轻人叫陈豪，家里很穷，缺吃少穿，住的房子又小。 There was a young man named Chen Hao. His family was so poor that they did not have enough food to eat or enough clothes to wear, and they lived in a small dilapidated house. There was a young man named Chen Hao, whose family was poor. They lived in a small dilapidated house and never had enough to eat or wear. 于是转喜为怒，转赞美为责备挑剔，转首肯为摇头。 Consequently, your joy would give way to anger; your praises to criticism or even faultfinding; and your nodding in agreement to shaking the head.
词法翻译1——词性转换的运用 1.事实胜于雄辩。 Facts speak louder than words. 2.眼见为实。 Seeing is believing. 3.不要怕犯错误。 Don't be afraid of making mistakes. 4.在中国，人们非常注重讲礼貌。 In China,people emphasize politeness much. 5.赞成还是反对我们的建议，请大家畅所欲言，表明立场。 Please everyone speaks up freely on whether you agree on our suggestion or not and states your stand. 6.独立思考对学习是绝对必需的。 Indendent thinking is absolutely needed for learning. 7.决不允许违反这个原则。 It is definitely not allowed to be contrary to this principle. 8.人口一直在不断增长。 The population increase continually all the time. 9.你赞成还是反对这项计划？ Do you agree on this plan or not? 10.官方宣布，中国已经成功的实现了载人航天。 Declaring by the official,China has already accomplished the project of manned space flight. 11.就业形势不可避免地受金融危机的影响。 The situation of employment is unavoidably impacted by the financial crisis. 12.科学家对政治并不陌生。 Scientists are not unfamiliar with politics. 13.亚洲仍然是世界上最具经济活力的地区。 Economically,Asia is still the most dynamic region in the world 14.大幅削减税收有利于增加投资。 Slash tax in favor of investment promotion. 15.要想保护自然界，就要从根本上改变目前的生活方式。 Intending to protect the nature,changing the way of living fundamentally is needed.
浅谈英汉翻译中的选词技巧 摘要:选词正确与否直接决定着翻译作品的好坏。选词,即选取意义择取单词,既关系到原文理解中词义的辨识和确定,也包括翻译表达中的词语的选择。相对而言,原文词语的理解更为重要。 关键词:翻译技巧;选词; 翻译技巧,即翻译方法,能使具有概括性、指导性、基础性的翻译原理具体化、条理化、实施化,利用各种翻译转换法准确、完整传达话语信息。它着重解决的是具体翻译转换上技术、技艺、艺术上的问题。翻译理论专着或教材中对技巧的处理一般按两 条线索分别或结合进行归纳:一是按原语的词类、句型等语法范畴及惯用法系列等,梳理翻译表达的技巧、方法;另一是按对原文信息、形式进行翻译表达的方法,而在分合、增减、反正、顺逆、去留存变、直译形神等辨证关系上,对翻译手法进行分类。翻译是科学又是艺术,对于技巧,理论着作、教材不
能囊括翻译实践中的所有情况,具体问题还须具体分析,翻译者不但要灵活运用已有的技巧,而且要善于创造新的技巧,以使译文 传意达旨,形神兼备。 选词,即选义择词,贯穿于整个翻译的 实际操作过程之中。这里的“词”指表达某一实体或整体性概念的单词、词组和短语。“选义”是由人类语言的一词多义现象决 定的。任何一种发展完备的人类语言,其中的大部分词汇都是一词多义。例如单词charge: 动词含义有两个,在科技英语的环境下是“充电”,而在日常生活中是“索取(费用)”。名词通常是“电流”的含义。该如何措辞则要看具体语境了。此外,英语中有一些名词,同时有两个形容词,比如名词sun,它的形容词可以是sunny,也可以是solar,这里就有个辨义和确定词义的问题。另外,语言使用中还普遍存在着多词一义的现象,即同一意思对应不同的词语。在英语里,一词多义是非常常见的,这与英语的多 源生有关。现代英语中不仅有许多词汇是从古英语演变而来,还有约80%的词汇从外国
汉英语篇翻译练习答案： 1．Retirement Attitudes toward retirement vary from person to person. Some people think that they will enjoy their time in retirement, but when it comes they may feel a little disappointed. Unwilling to resign themselves to the prospect of being put on the scrap heap, they try to seek alternative outlets for their energies and alternative sources of income that employment can provide. Others have already prepared themselves for the significant change in their lives. Tired out after all exhaus ting life revolving around work, they are anxious to relax in retirement with all the strains relieved. As there is no more need to rush to catch a morning bus and no more anxiety about promotion, they now have enough time to fulfill an old dream, such as writing, painting, growing flowers and traveling around. On the whole, female workers tend to have a more favorable attitude towards retirement than male workers. Withdrawal from employment to complete domesticity is a far less threatening experience for a woman than for a man. 2. Good-bye, My Ill-fated Motherland! The moment I set foot on the deck of the ship, there began my temporary separation from Chinese oil and a feeling of parting sorrow welled up in my heart. At sailing time, I stood on deck watching the ship receding slowly from the bank until I was out of sight of the towering waterfront buildings and the foreign warships on the Huangpu River. Thereupon I turned round with hot tears in my eyes, murmuri ng, “Good-bye, my ill-fated motherland!” Good-bye, my ill-fated motherland! I own what I am to the upbringing you have given me during the past 22 years. I have spent every day of my life in your warm bosom and under your loving care. Y ou have given me joy and sorrow as well as food and clothing. This is where my close relatives were born and brought up and where I have friends here and there. Y ou gave me a wide variety of happiness in my early childhood, but you have also been the source of my sorrow ever since I began to understand things. Here I have witnessed all sorts of human tragedy. Here I have come to know the times we live in. Here I have undergone untold sufferings. I have been struggling, fighting and, time and again, found myself on the brink of destruction and covered all over with cuts and bruises. I have laid to rest, with tears and sighs, some of my close relatives—relatives victimized by old feudal ethnics. Here, besides beautiful mountains and rivers and fertile farmland, we have ghastly prisons and execution grounds as well. Here bad people hold sway while good people suffer and justice is trodden down underfoot. Here people have to wage a savage struggle in order to win freedom. Here man eats man. O the numerous terrible scenes! O the numerous sad memories! O the grand Y ellow River! O the mysterious Y angtze River! Where on earth are your glories of the past? O my native land! O my people! How can I have the heart to leave you! Good-bye, my ill-fated motherland! Much as I hate you, I’ve got to love you as ever. （选自《英语世界》2004年第三期，张培基译）
2012-2013（1）研究生英语翻译理论与实践1 词法翻译 一、词义的选择 （一）根据词在句中的词类来选择和确定词义。 ?Like charges repel; unlike charges attract. ?He likes mathematics more than physics. ?In the sunbeam passing through the window there are fine grains of dust shining like gold. ?Like knows like. （二）根据上下文联系以及词在句中的搭配关系选择和确定词义。 ?He is the last man to come. ?He is the last man to do it. ?He is the last person for such a job. ?He should be the last man to blame. ?He is the last man to consult. ?This is the last place where I expected to meet you. ?An area the si ze of the Hornet’s flight deck was marked off on an airstrip and they practiced taking off time after time from this restricted space. ?He always sits on the very edge of his chair when he is working, as though about to take off. 二、词义的引申 （一）将词义抽象化的引申 1. 将表示具体形象的词译成该形象所代表的属性的词。 ?There is a mixture of the tiger and the ape in the character of him. ?Every life has roses and thorns. ? 2. 将带有特征性形象的词译成该形象所代表的概念的词。 ?In fact, the Bavarian environment was so charged with Nazi sentiment throughout the 1920s that Hit ler’s storm troops goosestepped into power in Furth in 1930. ?See-sawing between partly good and faintly ominous, the news for the next four weeks was never distinct. （二）将词义具体化的引申 ?The car in front of me stalled and I missed the green. ?Jewish-owned shops were shut down. Swastikas replaced six-pointed stars. The walls of anti-Semitism were closing in. 三、词义的褒贬 ?（一）有些词本身就有褒贬意义，翻译时就应相应地表达出来。 ?He was a man of high renown. ?His notoriety as a rake did not come until his death. ?The tasks carried out by them are praiseworthy. ?Henry keeps boasting that he has talked to the President. ?“He was polite and always gave advice willingly,” she recalled. ?We were shocked by his coarse manners. ?(二) 有些词的词义是中立的，本身不表示褒义或贬义，但在一定的上下文中可能有
谈英汉翻译中的选词技巧 选词，即选义择词，贯穿于整个翻译的实际操作过程之中。这里的“词”指表达某一实体或整体性概念的单词、词组和短语。“选义”是由人类语言的一词多义现象决定的。任何一种发展完备的人类语言，其中的大部分词汇都是一词多义。 例如单词charge动词含义有两个，在科技英语的环境下是“充电”，而在日常生活中是“索取（费用）”。名词通常是指“电流”。该如何措辞则要看具体语境了。此外，英语中有一些名词，同时有两个形容词，比如名词sun，它的形容词可以是sunny，也可以是solar，这里就有个辨义和确定词义的问题。 另外，语言使用中还普遍存在着一义多词的现象，即同一意思对应不同的词语。现代英语中不仅有许多词汇是从古英语演变而来，还有约80%的词汇从外国输入，经过历史变迁，这些词汇并存和融合，使英语一词多义，一义多词的现象特别普遍。因此译者除了具有辨义这项本领外，还要具备“择词”这方面的技巧。 无论是“选义”，还是“择词”，都离不开具体的语境。英国翻译理论家纽马克说，没有词是完全孤立的(No word is an island entire to itself.)，词的意义必然受到前后相邻词句的影响。 从词语与语境的关系看，有些词基本不受语境影响(context-free)，如意义相对固定单一的专有名词、科技术语、数量词等；有些词则受语境制约(context-bound)，如那些含有感情色彩、价值判断且意义极为丰富的普通名词、形容词、动词、副词等。对于这些词语，先利用各种手段确定其意，然后恰当措辞表达。下面介绍两种确定词义的方法。 一、根据上下文和汉语习惯搭配来确定词义 理解原文是整个翻译过程的第一步。这是最关键、也是最容易出问题的一步。以下我们通过翻译实例来具体讲解在理解原文的前提下如何根据上下文确定词义： A．意群拆分确定词义： “In short”， a leader of the new school contends，“the scientific revolution，as we call it， was largely the improvement and invention and use of a series of instruments that expanded the reach of science in innumerable direc tions.” 本句可以分四个意群来确定词义： 第一个意群：in short 简言之 school 学派 contend 坚持认为，争辩，讨论 第二个意群：the scientific revolution 科学革命（不可译为“科技革命”）as we call it 所谓的
1. 她连水都不愿喝一口，更别提留下来吃饭了。(much less) 2. 他认为我在对他说谎，但实际上我讲的是实话。(whereas) 3. 这个星期你每天都迟到，对此你怎么解释？(account for) 4. 他们利润增长的部分原因是采用了新的市场策略。(due to) 5. 这样的措施很可能会带来工作效率的提高。(result in) 5. 这样的措施很可能会带来工作效率的提高。(result in) 6. 我们已经在这个项目上投入了大量时间和精力，所以我们只能继续。(pour into) Unit2 1. 尽管她是家里的独生女，她父母也从不溺爱她。(despite) 2. 迈克没来参加昨晚的聚会，也没给我打电话作任何解释。(nor) 3. 坐在他旁边的那个人确实发表过一些小说，但决不是什么大作家。(next to; by no means) 4. 他对足球不感兴趣，也从不关心谁输谁赢。(be indifferent to) 5. 经理需要一个可以信赖的助手，在他外出时，由助手负责处理问题。(count on) 6. 这是他第一次当着那么多观众演讲。(in the presence of sb.) Unit3 1. 你再怎么有经验，也得学习新技术。(never too... to...) 2. 还存在一个问题，那就是派谁去带领那里的研究工作。(Use an appositional structure) 3. 由于文化的不同，他们的关系在开始确实遇到了一些困难。(meet with) 4. 虽然他历经沉浮，但我始终相信他总有一天会成功的。(ups and downs; all along) 5. 我对你的说法的真实性有些保留看法。(have reservations about) 6. 她长得并不特别高，但是她身材瘦，给人一种个子高的错觉。(give an illusion of) Unit4 1. 有朋自远方来，不亦乐乎？(Use "it" as the formal subject) 2. 不管黑猫白猫，能抓住老鼠就是好猫。(as long as) 3. 你必须明天上午十点之前把那笔钱还给我。(without fail) 4. 请允许我参加这个项目，我对这个项目非常感兴趣。(more than + adjective) 5. 人人都知道他比较特殊：他来去随意。(be free to do sth.) 6. 看她脸上不悦的神色，我觉得她似乎有什么话想跟我说。(feel as though) Unit5 1. 他说话很自信，给我留下了很深的印象。(Use "which" to refer back to an idea or situation) 2. 我父亲太爱忘事，总是在找钥匙。(Use "so... that..." to emphasize the degree of something) 3. 我十分感激你给我的帮助。(be grateful for) 4. 光线不足，加上地面潮湿，使得驾驶十分困难。(coupled with) 5. 由于缺乏资金，他们不得不取消了创业计划。(starve of) 6. 每当有了麻烦，他们总是依靠我们。(lean on) Unit6 1. 就像机器需要经常运转一样，身体也需要经常锻炼。(as... so...) 2. 在美国学习时，他学会了弹钢琴。(while + V-ing) 3. 令我们失望的是，他拒绝了我们的邀请。(turn down) 4. 真实情况是，不管是好是坏，随着新科技的进步，世界发生了变化。(for better or worse) 5. 我班里的大多数女生在被要求回答问题时都似乎感到不自在。(ill at ease) 6. 当地政府负责运动会的安全。(take charge of)Unit7
【翻译技巧】英汉翻译中的选词技巧 选词，即选义择词，贯穿于整个翻译的实际操作过程之中。这里的“词”指表达某一实体或整体性概念的单词、词组和短语。“选义”是由人类语言的一词多义现象决定的。任何一种发展完备的人类语言，其中的大部分词汇都是一词多义。 例如单词charge动词含义有两个，在科技英语的环境下是“充电”，而在日常生活中是“索取（费用）”。名词通常是指“电流”。该如何措辞则要看具体语境了。此外，英语中有一些名词，同时有两个形容词，比如名词sun，它的形容词可以是sunny，也可以是solar，这里就有个辨义和确定词义的问题。 另外，语言使用中还普遍存在着一义多词的现象，即同一意思对应不同的词语。现代英语中不仅有许多词汇是从古英语演变而来，还有约80%的词汇从外国输入，经过历史变迁，这些词汇并存和融合，使英语一词多义，一义多词的现象特别普遍。因此译者除了具有辨义这项本领外，还要具备“择词”这方面的技巧。 无论是“选义”，还是“择词”，都离不开具体的语境。英国翻译理论家纽马克说，没有词是完全孤立的(No word is an island entire to itself.)，词的意义必然受到前后相邻词句的影响。 从词语与语境的关系看，有些词基本不受语境影响(context-free)，如意义相对固定单一的专有名词、科技术语、数量词等；有些词则受语境制约(context-bound)，如那些含有感情色彩、价值判断且意义极为丰富的普通名词、形容词、动词、副词等。对于这些词语，先利用各种手段确定其意，然后恰当措辞表达。下面介绍两种确定词义的方法。 一、根据上下文和汉语习惯搭配来确定词义 理解原文是整个翻译过程的第一步。这是最关键、也是最容易出问题的一步。以下我们通过翻译实例来具体讲解在理解原文的前提下如何根据上下文确定词义： A．意群拆分确定词义： “In short”， a leader of the new school contends，“the scientific revolution，as we call it， was largely the improvement and invention and use of a series of instruments that expanded the reach of science in innumerabl e directions.” 本句可以分四个意群来确定词义： 第一个意群：in short 简言之 school 学派 contend 坚持认为，争辩，讨论 第二个意群：the scientific revolution 科学革命（不可译为“科技革命”）as we
1.Health is above wealth, for this cannot give so much happiness as that. 健康比财富更重要，因为财富不能像健康那样给人以幸福。 2.Here great disturbances at the heart of the earth caused mountains and volcanoes to rise above the water. For hundreds of years tiny coral creatures have worked and died to make thousands of ring-shaped islands called atolls （环礁）. 在那里，由于地心引力的剧烈干扰，一道道山脉，一座座火山升出水面。千百年来，微小的珊瑚虫在这里繁衍、死亡，形成了数不胜数的被称为环礁的环状岛屿。 3.Old lines and methods of communication do not work easily or efficiently with as much information as we now have. 由于我们今天的信息太多，那些旧的通讯线路和方法已不能灵便有效地处理他们了。 4. Scarcely can any law be made which is beneficial to all; but if it benefits the majority, it is useful. 法律难顾及所有人，于大多数人有利足矣。 5.The water spread out for miles in places in Kenya and Somalia, cutting off villages and forcing herders to crowd with their livestock onto a few patches of dry land. 在肯尼亚和索马里的某些地方，河水漫出河床，宽达数英里。洪水切断了村与村之间的联系，迫使牧民们和家畜挤在一起，困缩在一块块狭小的陆地上动弹不得。 6. The snow falls on every wood and field, and no crevice is forgotten; by the river and pond, on the hill and in the valley. 雪，在四处飘落着。雪花撒在树上，撒在田野里，撒在河边、湖畔、山上、谷底——没有一条岩缝墙隙里不飘满雪花。 7. When his door opened they saw a slender man of more than average height with gleaming eyes and a face so striking that it bordered on the beautiful.
翻译技巧（二）：加词法和减词法 加（增）词法 英汉两种语言，由于表达方法不尽相同，有些词在英语中可以省略而不会影响全句意思的完整表达，但译成汉语后就可能出现意思不够明确的语言现象；还有些词虽然在原文中意义明确而完整，但译成汉语后文字却不甚通顺流畅。在这种情况下，就需要使用增词译法。增词法就是在翻译时按照意义、修辞或句法上的需要，在原文的基础上添加必要的单词、词组、分句或完整句，从而使得译文在语法、语言形式上符合译文习惯和在文化背景、词语联想方面与原文一致，使得译文与原文在内容、形式和精神等三方面都对等起来，更忠实通顺地表达原文的思想内容。 S y n t a c t i c a l A m p l i f i c a t i o n（从句法结构上考虑的增词） This kind of amplification includes: amplification by supplying such kinds of words as verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, numerals, category words, generalization words, and the plural forms of nouns. (1) 增加量词（classifier） 英语中数词与可数名词往往可以直接连用，不用加量词。而汉语往往要加量词。 It was a nova! 这是一颗新星！ The sun rose thinly from the sea. 一轮红日从海边淡淡升起。 A stream was winding its ways through the valley into the river. 一弯溪水蜿蜒流过山谷，汇到江里去了。 (2) 增加表达复数的词(convey the concept of plurality)
绪论 一、翻译小史： 学史以明智，翻译亦如此。据《圣经》记载，人类的祖先们曾经说同一种语言，在足以强大的时候，想要建造一座通天塔（the Babel）上天，从而激怒了上帝。上帝盛怒之下，摧毁通天塔，将人类分散到世界各地，由此产生了不同的种族和不同的语言。此后，人类各民族间的交流就要靠翻译了。事实上，不管是中国还是西方，翻译的历史都是源远流长的。 1.中国翻译史简述 中国的翻译活动源远流长，最早的传译之事可上溯至西周（C.1100-771B.C.）之前。“《礼记?王制》载：‘中国，夷、蛮、戎、狄……五方之民，言语不同，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方曰象，西方曰狄，北方曰译。’寄、象、狄、译都是指通译言语的人。”（毛荣贵，2002∶3） 翻译事件对于一个国家的历史和社会发展往往产生重大影响。我国历史上翻译影响社会发展最大的有三次翻译高潮。 1）汉唐时期佛经的传译：西汉张骞；东汉安世高；时至唐代，佛经翻译达到了登峰造极的程度，玄奘（600－664）先后主持译出经论75部1335卷1300万字佛经，占唐代新译佛经总数的一半以上。（关键词：佛经，梵语，安世高，支谦，玄奘） 2）明末清初西欧科技翻译：利玛窦（Matteo Ricci, 1552-1660）组织翻译了相当数量的西方天文、数学、水法、测量等方面的著述；徐光启和利玛窦合译《测量法义》。力图使国人能借鉴西方的先进思想、文化或科技，从而富国强民。 3）清末民初西方思潮的翻译：严复《天演论》(T. H. Huxley: Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays)、《原富》(Adam Smith: An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth and Nations)；康有为、梁启超、林纾（林琴南）、王国维等。马列主义经典著作、文艺理论、苏俄及各国的进步文艺作品，如鲁迅、瞿秋白等。 新中国成立后，文革前和文革中以俄语为主，改革开放后以英语为主；我们几乎所有学科的理论框架、术语都译自英语；西方文化进入我们的方方面面很大程度上来自翻译。2.西方翻译史要略 西方翻译史可以简要地分为三个阶段：古典翻译，近代翻译和当代翻译。 1）古典翻译（公元前三世纪――文艺复兴时期13－14世纪）。贺拉斯（Quintus Horatius Flaccus 前65年－前8年），罗马帝国奥古斯都统治时期著名的诗人、批评家，代表作有《诗艺》等。西塞罗（Marcus Tullius Cicero前106年—前43）古罗马著名政治家、演说家、雄辩家、法学家和哲学家。总的来说，西方的古典翻译活动主要围绕圣经进行。比如公元前三世纪七十二名犹太学者就翻译的《圣经?旧约》后被称为《七十子希腊文本圣经》。公元405年，哲罗姆（St. Jerome）对照希伯来原文翻译出了《通俗拉丁文本圣经》（The Vulgate），后来成为罗马天主教承认的唯一文本。中世纪时，由于宗教势力的加强，教会神职人员纷纷用自己的民族语言翻译《圣经》，以使普通老百姓也能读懂《圣经》。14世纪80年代，约翰?威克利夫（John Wyclif）翻译了《圣经》，《圣经》的英译本就此问世。1611年，英国国王詹姆斯一世同意的钦定本《圣经》正式问世。当然，古典翻译活动除了圣经翻译以外，还翻译古希腊、罗马的文学、艺术、科学等名家著作。至文艺复兴时期，圣经翻译和古典文学作品和其他人文科学著作的翻译达到了一个高潮。 近代翻译时期主要是从十七世纪至二十世纪初。在这一时期，翻译的规模虽然不比文艺复兴时期，但是翻译的题材不再局限于圣经或文学翻译，而是呈现了多样化的趋势。同时，