Chapter 3 the Development of the English Vocabulary In the study of words, it is of great importance to know something about the origin and growth of the vocabulary. The English language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles. Then where does it come from? In what way is English related to other languages? A synchronic overview of the Indo-European Language Family will answer these questions.
3.1 The Indo-European Language Family
The world has 3,000 (some put it 5,000) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.
The Indo-European, one of these, is made up of most languages of Europe, the Near East and India. Most of the Indo-European languages are dead. The surviving Indo-European languages fall into ten principal groups, which fall into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic, Hittite, and Tocharian.
The Germanic family, which is our chief concern as English and its nearest relations are all members of this family. First, we have the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then come German, Dutch, Flemish and English.
3.2 Three Phases of the Historical Development of English
English has been the language of England for a comparatively short period. Since its introduction into the island about the middle of the fifth century it has had a career extending through only fifteen hundred years. The first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts. Their languages Celtic were dialects of still another branch of the Indo-European language family. The second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions.
葡萄牙语 Potuguese 古法语 Old French 罗马尼亚语 Romanian 诺曼法语 Norman French 现代法语 Modern French 印欧语系 Indo-European （消亡） 意大利语族 Italic 奥斯干语支 Oscan 拉丁语支 Iatin 温布利安语支 Umbrian （消亡） 凯尔特语族 Celtic 盖尔语 Gallic 不列颠语支 Brittanic 盖尔语支 Gaelic 古爱尔兰语 Old Irish 古威尔士语 Old Welsh 哥特语 Gothic 东部语支 East 西部语支 West 日耳曼语族 Germanic 北部语支 North 东部语支 East 古诺尔斯语 Old Norse 冰岛语 Icelandic 挪威语 Norwegi 皮克特语 Pictish 威尔士语 Welsh 布列特尼语 Breton 科尼什语 Cornish 西部语支 West 德语 German 低地德语 Low German 高地德语 High German 现代标准德语 Modern German 荷兰语 Dutch 佛兰芒语 Flemish 古撒克逊语 Old Saxon 古低地弗兰克尼语 Old Low Franconian 肯特方言 Kentish 诺森布里亚方言 Northumbrian 默西亚方言 Mercian 西撒克逊方言 West Saxon 现代英语
Modern English
南部方言 Southern Dialect (盎格鲁人) Angles
北部方言 Northern Dialect 中部方言
Midland Dialect 东中部方言
East Midland Dialect
早期现代英语
Early Modern English
瑞典语 Swedish 丹麦语
Danish 苏格兰盖尔语 Scottish Gaelic 爱尔兰盖尔语 Irish Gaelic 曼克斯语 Manx 古英语 Old English 西班牙语 Spanish 意大利语 Italian 盎格鲁·弗里西亚语
Anglo-Frisian 古弗里西亚语 Old Frisian
3.2.1 Old English (450-1150)
The withdrawal of Roman troops virtually invited the invasion of the rich lowlands by the Picts and Scots from the North. The Celts appealed to Germanic warriors from across the North Sea for assistance in defending their land. Soon these German tribes, called Angles, Saxons and Jutes, came in great numbers and became their conquerors.
The Germanic speakers took permanent control of the land that was later to be called England (the land of Angles). Their language, historically known as Anglo-Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the Celtic.
Though the Saxons were numerically superior to the Angles, the latter were influential enough to impose their name on the whole. That is why the country was called England, and the language English. It is from this language that our present-day English is derived.
Old English (the Anglo-Saxon) has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60,000 words, which are almost monogeneous and entirely Germanic with only a few borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian.
Old English was a highly inflected language, which differ greatly from the language that we use today.
3.2.2 Middle English (1150-1500)
The Danish rule continued from 1016 to 1042. Then the Saxon Dynasty was restored and Edward the Confessor, who had no children, came to the English throne and reigned over a united England until 1066. At his death, Harold succeeded him as king of the country. As he was not in the direct line of succession, his rule was opposed by William, Duke of Normandy, first cousin of Edward, for William considered himself the rightful heir to the throne. The English nobles disagreed, so William invaded the island. At the battle of Hastings (1066), the power of Harold was crushed and William became master of England. This event was known in history as the Norman Conquest. However, the influx of French words into English did not occur until after 1300. Norman French became the polite speech. The native tongue was a despised language which was left to the use of boors and serfs.
In the next hundred years or so, with the separation of the two nations, the nobility of England still spoke French, but bit by bit English came back into the schools, the law courts and government and regained social status. It made the final step back to a position of importance when it emerged once again as a respected literary medium with the Wycliff translation of the Bible and the writings of Chaucer, Langland and others. Norman French was a class language, never the speech of England.
The Middle English period was one of great changes, changes more extensive and fundamental than those that had taken place at any time before and since. The single most significant fact of this period was the steady erosion of the Old English inflectional systems. If we say that the Old English was a period of full endings, the Middle English was a period of leveled endings. Another significant point is the French influence on English vocabulary. The number of French words that poured into English was unbelievably great and covered every realm of culture and society.
3.2.3 Modern English (1500-up to the present )
Modern English dates from the Caxton and the establishment of printing in England. It may be subdivided into Early Modern English (1500-1700) and Late Modern English (1700- up to the present).
In the early period of Modern English, enormous numbers of Latin words became English words because of the Renaissance. These contributed to the decidedly Latinate flavour of Modern English. Now the rapidly expanding use of printing and the needs of the schools began to set standard spellings for most words.
Since the mid-seventeenth century, England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power, thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.
Since the beginning of 20th century, particularly after World War II, thousands and thousands of new words have been created to express new ideas, inventions and scientific achievements.
3.3 General Characteristics of English
3.3.1 Receptivity, Adaptability and Heterogeneity
English has taken to itself material from all other languages and has made the new elements its own. Having received all kinds of foreign elements, the English vocabulary is copious and heterogeneous.
3.3.2 Simplicity of Inflection
Old English was characterized by ‘full endings’, Middle English by ‘leveled endings’ and Modern English by ‘lost endings’.
3.3.3 Relatively Fixed Word-order
In an analytic language like Modern English, the word order is required to be relatively fixed. The semantic relation is closely connected to the positions of the words. The change of word-order may result in a change of meaning.
3.4 Foreign Elements in the English Vocabulary
Of all the foreign languages from which words have been borrowed into English, Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian stand out as the major contributors, which have had great influence on the English language vocabulary.
3.4.1 Latin
For 2,000 years Modern English vocabulary has borrowed so heavily and complexly from Latin.
1) The Pre-Anglo-Saxon Period
During the Pre-Anglo-Saxon Period the words borrowed naturally reflected the new conceptions and experience in war and agriculture, e.g. battle, banner, cheese, pepper, butter, etc.
2) The Old English Period
Borrowings of this period came in the wake of the introduction of Christianity into Britain in 597. In the four hundred years or more up to the Norman Conquest, a variety of additional Latin words were adopted. Among the church terms are altar, candle, creed, disciple, nun, etc.
3) The Middle English Period
The Norman Conquest marked the beginning of the third period of borrowing
from Latin, though many of them made their way through French. The lexical settlers of Latin via French are generally more popular than those borrowed directly from Latin. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were especially prolific in Latin borrowings under the influence of Renaissance. The following is a list of direct Latin borrowings in this period: gesture, history, include, incredible, individual, innumerable, necessary, nervous, picture, polite, popular, prevent, private, solar, temporal, etc. It is noticeable that some of the Latin suffixes, -able, -ible, -al, -ous, -ive and others now become common in English.
4) The Modern English Period
Words borrowed since 1,500 are late ones, which are mostly of abstract and scientific character. These words generally retain their Latin forms: focus, status, circus, apparatus, genius, esteem, minimum, maximum, via, criteria, species, series, protest, enterprise, etc.
Many of the frequently used abbreviations are from Latin:
i.e. (id est) = that is to say
e.g. (exempli gratia) = for example
a.m. (ante meridiem) = before noon
etc. (et cetera) = and so on
p.m. (post meridiem) = after noon
cf. (confer) = compare
ibid. (ibidem) = in the same place
3.4.2 Greek
The influx of Greek words into English began with the revival of learning from Greek classics. Here is a selection of such borrowings, which, even if through Latin and French, remain identifiably Greek in form, e.g. democracy, politics, logic, philosophy, atom, geography, mathematics, clinic, diagnosis, alphabet, drama, grammar, idiom, poem, poet, rhythm, athlete, marathon, architect, hero, idiot, method, music, mystery, etc.
The greatest influence of Greek perhaps lies in its loan of word-building elements into English. The Greek and Latin elements are assimilated with native elements in such a way that they can be mixed to form new words, known as hybrids. For example, anti- and hyper-, which are Greek prefixes, meaning ‘against’and ‘beyond’ respectively, can be added to English root as in anti-British and to Latin root as in hypersensitive. The Greek verb suffix –ize can be fixed at the end of words of any origin to form verbs, e.g. popularize, westernize, etc.
3.4.3 French
It is estimated that about one fourth of modern English vocabulary has come from French. Until the Norman Conquest, the exchange of words between English and French had been minimal. But when William the Conqueror ascended the English throne, French suddenly became the language of government. Almost overnight English had become a second class language in its native land. In the one and the half centuries immediately after the Conquest, a number of probably fewer than 1,00 French words were absorbed into the permanent vocabulary of English.
The supremacy of French began to recede in the mid-13th century, when the
acculturated descendants of the invaders at last began to think of themselves more as Englishmen than French and with it Norman French gave way to English. Borrowing from French now was free. Between 1250 and 1500 an approximate 9,000 words of French origin poured into the language, of which at least 75 percent are still in use today, e.g. govern, crown, country, power, council, people, nation, prince, duke, judge, jury, court, angel, sacrifice, miracle, preach, virtue, duty, conscience, war, battle, captain, soldier, beef, mutton, pork, bacon, roast, soup, supper, feast, tower, castle, fashion, dress, coat, fur, joy, pleasure, leisure, sport, etc.
Although the rate of foreign borrowings tapered off to a certain extent during the 15th century, it sharply revived in the 16th and the English Renaissance. Nevertheless, new French borrowings during this period tended to be supplementary rather than central to the English vocabulary as there was a resistance that grew on the part of the English to borrowing of any kind. In the 150 years between 1650 and 1800, less than half as many French words were brought into English as had been added in the preceding years of the same length of time. Such words as ballet, dentist, cartoon, publicity, ridicule, routine are representatives of the hundreds of words absorbed in the period under discussion.
Contemporary French influence on English since 1800 is difficult to define. But one thing is certain that the rate at which we have borrowed has increased considerably over that of the 18th century though the rate is still a fraction of what it was in the Middle Ages.
3.4.4 Scandinavian
The Scandinavian languages: Norwegian, Swedish, Danish and Icelandic, constitute the northern branch of the Germanic group. The earliest recorded form of Scandinavian is Old Norse. The Vikings, who were first to raid Britain in A.D. 787, were a Germanic people closely related to the Anglo-Saxons, who had originally lived just south of them on the Continent. Their languages known as Old Norse were very similar to Old English. Sharing a stock of basic words, the two peoples could understand each other quite well. In the 200 years that followed from the Norsemen invasion, Norsemen swarmed into the British Isles and occupied the greater part of the land, which remained bilingual. However, the English element eventually prevailed and the descendants of the Norsemen gradually forgot Norse and spoke English. The English then was the result of the fusion of the two peoples and cultures. Accordingly, hundreds of words were permanently absorbed into the English vocabulary. Many of these were basic and everyday words, often displacing original English ones such as skill, husband, sister, bag, bank, club, both, they, them, get, take, die, hit, happy, low, tight, ugly, wrong, etc.
Numerically, the Scandinavian words in the English vocabulary are not many as compared with those of French.
3.4.5 Other Foreign Elements
As we have mentioned above, English is a heavy borrower, which has absorbed words from all the major languages of the world with which it has had contact. Apart from Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian, the other elements are much less important. Even among the minor languages, Italian, German, Dutch and Spanish
have made considerable contributions to the English vocabulary. All the others are felt to be superficial.
1)Italian
Some of the Italian words borrowed into English are: corridor, balcony, design, sonnet, model, picturesque, piano, violin, concert, opera, spaghetti, macaroni, broccoli, campaign, cannon, attitude, casino, influenza, jeans, umbrella, volcano, etc.
2) German
The number of German borrowings is limited, some of them are nickel, Fahrenheit, ecology, hamburger, noodle, dollar, kindergarten, semester.
3)Dutch
Dutch is closely related to English. As the Dutch were leaders in the sea and the seafaring as well as industry, and transportation, especially in the golden ages in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, three quarters of the Dutch borrowings occurred during this period: yacht, sledge, stove, landscape, sketch, skate, boss, Santa Claus, etc.
4)Spanish and Portuguese
Words from Portuguese are mainly associated with slave culture. The more recent loanwords coming directly from Portuguese include Negro, potato, cafeteria, zebra, apricot, banana, etc.
5)Celtic
Celtic is the language spoken by the earliest people in the British Isles, but unfortunately it has hardly had any influence on English vocabulary. Only a meager handful of Celtic words are left in English: dun, slough etc. the Celtic element is also found largely in place names such as rivers (Thames, Avon) and city names (York, London, Kent).
There are some other loan words borrowed from other languages.
Arabic: alcohol, coffee, cotton, magazine, muslin, sofa etc.
Indian: candy, pajamas, shampoo etc.
Russian: czar, vodka etc.
Czech: robot.
Bulgarian: coach
Persian: bazaar, orange, check, lilac etc.
Turkish: turkey, yoghurt etc.
Malay: bamboo, caddy etc.
Polynesian: taboo, tattoo
Japanese: kimono, karate, judo, tatami, etc.
Australian aboriginal dialect: kangaroo, koala
American Indian: moose, raccoon etc
Mexican: chocolate, tomato etc.
Caribbean: barbecue, canoe, hurricane, maize etc.
African: lion, paper, sack etc.
Chinese: typhoon, tea, china, chopsticks, tofu, yin-yang, zongzi, etc.
In earlier times, borrowing was a very important means of vocabulary development. While in modern times, the role of borrowing is diminishing and can hardly compare with some of the means of word-creation such as affixation,
compounding and conversion.
旅游常用英语词汇及句型整理 下面为大家带来出国旅游常用英语词汇及句型整理，欢迎大家学习!旅游常用英语词汇：姓family name名First (Given) Name性别sex男male女female国籍nationality国籍country of citizenship护照号passport No.原住地country of Origin(Country where you live)前往目的地国destination country登机城市city where you boarded签证签发地city where visa was issued签发日期date issue前往国家的住址address while in街道及门牌号number and street城市及国家city and state出生日期date of Birth(Birthdate)年year月month日day偕行人数accompanying number职业occupation专业技术人员professionals & technical行政管理人员legislators &administrators办事员clerk商业人员commerce (Business People)服务人员service农民farmer工人worker其他others 无业jobless签名signature官方填写official use only旅游常用英语句型：麻烦请给我你的护照。 May I see your passport, please?这是我的护照。 Here is my passport / Here it is.旅行的目的为何?What’s the purpose of your visit?观光(公务、学习)。 Sightseeing (Business、Study).在哪个学校?Which University?学习什么课程?What course will you take?预计在英国停留多久?How long will you be staying in the UK?预计停留约1年。 I plan to stay for about 1 year.我只是过境而已。
小学英语单词大全(人教版) 姓名______________ 一、学习用品( school things ) pen钢笔pencil铅笔pencil-case（pencil-box）铅笔盒ruler尺子book书bag(schoolbag)书包dictionary字典comic book连环漫画册word book单词书postcard明信片Chinese book 语文书math book数学书story-book故事书eraser（rubber）橡皮crayon 蜡笔sharpener卷笔刀notebook笔记本newspaper 报纸magazine杂志 二、人体( body ) head头face脸nose鼻子mouth嘴eye眼睛ear耳朵hand 手arm胳膊leg 腿foot脚hair头发tail尾巴shoulder肩膀finger手指knee膝盖toe脚趾 三、颜色（colours） colour 颜色red红色blue蓝色yellow黄色green绿色white白色black黑色orange橘色pink粉色purple紫色brown棕色grey灰色 四、动物( animals ) cat猫dog狗pig猪duck鸭子rabbit兔子horse马fish鱼elephant大象panda熊猫monkey猴子kangaroo袋鼠ant蚂蚁bird鸟bear熊lion狮子tiger 老虎sheep绵羊goat山羊cow奶牛donkey驴mouse老鼠squirrel 松鼠dinosaur 恐龙 五、食品、饮料（food & drinks） rice米饭bread面包chicken鸡肉milk牛奶water水beef牛肉egg蛋fish 鱼肉breakfast早餐lunch午餐dinner（晚餐，正餐) hot dog热狗hamburger汉堡包cake蛋糕tea茶coffee咖啡French fries 炸薯条Coke可乐juice果汁tofu豆腐noodles面条meat肉pork猪肉mutton羊肉vegetable蔬菜soup汤ice-cream冰激凌pizza比萨饼六、数词（numbers） one一two二three三four四five五six六seven七eight八nine九ten 十eleven十一twelve十二thirteen十三fourteen十四fifteen十五sixteen十六seventeen十七eighteen 十八nineteen十九twenty二十thirty三十forty四十fifty 五十sixty 六十seventy七十eighty八十ninety九十twenty-one二十一 first（1st）第一second(2nd)第二third （3rd）第三fourth(4th)第四fifth(5th)第五sixth(6th)第六seventh(7th)第七eighth(8th)第八ninth(9th)第九tenth(10th)第十eleventh(11th) 第十一twelfth(12th)第十二twentieth(20th)第二十 七、人物( people ) people人friend朋友boy男孩girl女孩teacher教师student 学生sister姐妹brother兄弟mother（mom）妈妈father（dad）爸爸uncle叔叔；舅舅grandpa 爷爷，外公grandma奶奶，外婆baby 婴儿man男人woman女人Mr先生Miss 小姐，老师lady女士parents父母grandparents (外)祖父母aunt阿姨；姑妈；伯母；舅妈son儿子cousin堂兄弟姊妹；表兄弟姊妹classmate同班同学pen pal 笔友 八、水果和蔬菜( fruit & vegetables) fruit 水果apple苹果banana香蕉pear梨orange橘子grape葡萄watermelon西瓜peach 桃子strawberry草莓pineapple菠萝eggplant茄子green beans青豆，绿豆，四季豆tomato 番茄potato土豆cucumber 黄瓜onion 洋葱carrot胡萝卜cabbage 卷心菜 九、交通工具（vehicles） on foot步行by plane乘飞机bus公交车train火车ship轮船taxi出租车subway （underground）地铁bike（bicycle）自行车boat小船jeep吉普车sled雪橇ferry轮
all in all 总的说来 and so on 等等 as a matter of fact =in fact 其实，实际上 at present 目前现在 date back to 追溯到 for the future 从今以后，在今后 from now on 今后，从现在起 in short 总之，总而言之 in a word 简言之、一句话、总之 in the end 最后，终于 most important of all 最重要的是 about all 首先 for one thing,for another thing 首先…，再者… first of all, next then, lastly 首先，然后，最后 firstly,secondly,thirdly…finally 第一，第二，第三…最后in addition 另外 in addition to 除…之外 according to 根据 as far as I am concerned 据我所知 generally spesking 一般说来 what’s more 更多的是 therefore 因此，从而 furthermore =moreover再者 otherwise 另外 in my opinion 我认为，我的意见是 not only …but also 不但…而且… in spite of 不管 for example 例如… different from 与……不同 as a result (of) 结果 in order to do 为了 There is no doubt that 毫无疑问 It is well known that 大家都知道 to tell the true 说实话 however 然而 therefore 因此 since then 自从那时起 as soon as 一……就…… thanks to 多得，幸亏 英语作文常用句型：1.表示原因
2B单词及句型 M1U1： What colour is it ? It’s pink.它是什么颜色？它是粉红色。 What colour are they ？They are yellow.它们是什么颜色？它们是黄色。 What can you see ? I can see a butterfly.你看到了什么？我看到了一只蝴蝶。 M1U2： watch 手表,bag 书包,soft 软的,hard 硬的,rough 粗糙的,smooth 光滑的, touch摸, feel感觉, open打开, close关上, tall高的, short矮的, fat胖的, thin瘦的, long长的, young年轻的, old年老的, big大的, small小的, new新的, Is it a watch ? Yes, it is. / No, it’s a pencil case.它是一块手表吗？是的。/不，它是一只铅笔盒。 Do you like it ? Yes.你喜欢它吗？是的，我喜欢。 What is it ? It’s a bag.它是什么？它是一只包。 M1U3： Is it smooth ? Yes, it is.No, it’s rough. 它光滑吗？是的。不，它粗糙的。 What is it ? It’s a van.它是什么？它是一辆货车。 What can you hear ? I can hear a train. 你能听到什么？我能听到火车的声音。 I can’t hear the bus.我听不见公共汽车声。 M2U1：
run 跑,skate 玩滑板,hop 单脚跳,skip 跳绳,swim 游泳,ride a bicycle 骑自行车, fly飞, together一起, too也, kite风筝, write写字,sing 唱歌,dance 跳舞,book 书,girl 女孩,frog 青蛙,sing with me 跟我唱, dance with me跟我跳, write with me 跟我写, Do you like running ? Yes, I like running. No, I like skating. 你喜欢跑步吗？是的，我喜欢跑步。不，我喜欢玩滑板。 M2U2： salad 色拉,carrot 胡萝卜,fish 鱼,chicken 鸡肉,bana 香蕉,soup 汤,meat 肉,hamburger 汉堡,pizza 比萨,noodles 面条,rice 米饭,cake 蛋糕, biscuit饼干, hand手, hen母鸡, steak牛排, vegetable蔬菜, plane飞机, mop拖把, listen to听, look at看, What do you like eating ? I like eating salad.你喜欢吃什么？我喜欢吃色拉。 M2U3： giraffe 长颈鹿,snake 蛇,elephant 大象,zebra 斑马,bear 熊,panda 熊猫,pig 猪,dog 狗,cat 猫,fish 鱼,wolf 狼,van 货车,five 五,parrot 鹦鹉,pigeon 鸽子,in the toy shop 在玩具店里,have 有,has 有, tail尾巴, like喜欢, them他们（宾格）, all全部, may可以,help 帮助, please请, love爱, lovely可爱, very much非常, thank谢谢, thanks谢谢, thank you谢谢你, what什么, what colour什么颜色What are they ? They are giraffes.它们是什么？它们是长颈鹿。 Do you like pigs ? Yes, I do. / No, I don't.你喜欢猪吗？是的，我喜欢。 /不，我不喜欢。May I have one? O.K..我可以要一个吗？好的。 M3U1： spring 春天,summer 夏天,autumn 秋天,winter 冬天,green 绿色,red 红 色,yellow 黄色,white 白色,nice and warm 宜人暖和的,sunny and hot 晴朗炎热的,windy and cool 刮风凉爽的,cloudy and cold 多云冷的, ride my bicycle, riding my bicycle 骑自行车, inthe park 在公园里,very hot 非常热,swim in the
了解连续函数的性质和初等函数的连续性，理解闭区间上连续函数的性质（有界性、最大值和最小值定理、介值定理），并会应用这些性质. 无穷大量和无穷小量 无穷大量 我们先来看一个例子： 已知函数，当x→0时，可知，我们把这种情况称为趋向无穷大。为此我 们可定义如下：设有函数y=，在x=x0的去心邻域内有定义，对于任意给定的正数N(一个任意大的数)，总可找到正数δ，当 时，成立，则称函数当时为无穷大量。 记为：（表示为无穷大量，实际它是没有极限的） 同样我们可以给出当x→∞时，无限趋大的定义：设有函数y=，当x充分大时有定义，对于任意给定的正数N(一个任意大的数)，总可以找到正数M，当时，成立，则称函 数当x→∞时是无穷大量，记为：。 无穷小量 以零为极限的变量称为无穷小量。 定义：设有函数，对于任意给定的正数ε(不论它多么小)，总存在正数δ(或正数M)，使得对于适合不等式(或)的一切x，所对应的函数值满足不等式，则称函数当(或x→∞)时为无穷小量. 记作：(或) 注意：无穷大量与无穷小量都是一个变化不定的量，不是常量，只有0可作为无穷小量的唯一常量。无穷大量与无穷小量的区别是：前者无界，后者有界，前者发散，后者收敛于0.无穷大量与无穷小量是互为倒数关系的.。 关于无穷小量的两个定理 定理一：如果函数在(或x→∞)时有极限A，则差是当(或x→∞)时的无穷小量，反之亦成立。 定理二：无穷小量的有利运算定理 a)：有限个无穷小量的代数和仍是无穷小量； b)：有限个无穷小量的积仍是无穷小量；c)：常数与无穷小量的积也是无穷小量. 无穷小量的比较 通过前面的学习我们已经知道，两个无穷小量的和、差及乘积仍旧是无穷小.那么两个无穷小量的商会是怎样的呢？好！接下来我们就来解决这个问题，这就是我们要学的两个无穷小量的比较。
PEP小学英语单词总汇 每天记忆5个单词, 请同学们坚持! PEP英语三年级（上册）三会单词 Unit 1 pen 钢笔pencil 铅笔pencil-case 铅笔盒ruler 尺子eraser 橡皮crayon 蜡笔book 书bag 书包sharpener 卷笔刀school 学校 Unit 2 head 头face 脸nose 鼻子mouth 嘴eye 眼睛ear 耳朵arm 胳膊finger 手指leg腿foot 脚body 身体 Unit3 red 红色的yellow 黄色的green 绿色的blue 蓝色的purple 紫色的white 白色的black 黑色的orange 橙色的pink 粉色的brown 棕色的 Unit 4 cat 猫dog 狗monkey 猴子panda 熊猫rabbit 兔子duck 鸭子pig 猪bird 鸟bear 熊elephant 大象mouse 老鼠squirrel 松鼠 Unit 5 cake 蛋糕bread 面包hot dog 热狗hamburger 汉堡包chicken 鸡肉 French fries 榨薯条Coke 可乐juice 果汁milk 牛奶water 水tea 茶coffee 咖啡Unit 6 one 一two 二three 三four 四five 五six 六seven 七eight 八 nine 九ten 十doll 玩具娃娃boat 小船ball 球kite 风筝 balloon 气球car 小汽车plane 飞机 PEP英语三年级（下册）三会单词 Unit 1 boy 男孩girl 女孩teacher 教师student 学生this 这个my 我的friend 朋友I’m=I am 我是nice 好的；愉快的good morning 早上好good afternoon 下午好meet 遇见；碰见goodbye 再见too 也；太 Unit 2 father 父亲；爸爸dad 爸爸（口语）mother 母亲；妈妈mom 妈妈（口语）man 男人woman 女人grandmother （外）祖母 grandma （口语）（外）祖母grandfather （外）祖父 grandpa （口语）（外）祖父sister 姐妹brother 兄弟
Data Bank of Oral English Unit 1 Campus life https://www.doczj.com/doc/5c12831642.html,eful Sentences: 1.Greetings: ●Good morning/ afternoon/ evening. ●How are you doing?/ How’s everything?/ How’s going?/ How are you getting on these days? ●Fine, thank you./ Pretty good./ So-so./ It’s good. / Everything’s all right. ●Haven’t seen you for ages/ for some time. How’s everything? ●Just fine. ●Glad to meet you./ How nice to meet you!/ What a pleasant surprise! 2.Introduction: ●May I introduce myself? ●Excuse me, I don’t think we’ve met. My name’s … ●My name’s David. I study in English Department. ●By the way, do you know each other? James Martin, Susan Smith. ●I want you to meet my friend, James Martin. ●Allow me to introduce James Martin. 3.In the library ●I’d like to apply for a library card.
剑桥少儿英语二级上重点句型和词汇 Unit 1 I’ve got many new friends 重点句型： I’ve got many new friends. I like to do sth. My Chinese name is… My English name is… Can I help you…? 重点词汇： Chinese, English, friend, American, maybe, tomorrow, sure, robot, piano, crayon, puppy, strong, weak, fat, thin, garden Unit 2 Is this book yours? 重点句型： Is this book yours? This book is not yours. Which one is different? No, it’s not mine. 重点词汇： mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, its, scarf, sweater, pet, socks, circle, bat, fan, tank, bank, hand Unit 3 Our school is beautiful.
重点句型： This is our school. It’s very beautiful. We’ve got… Where do you often play sports? Where is… 重点词汇： beautiful, library, bank, shop, cafe, garden, dining room, classroom, swimming pool, sports centre, playground, round, square, quiet, hungry, thirsty, tired Unit 4 Miss, can I ask you a question? 重点句型： Can I ask a question? What does this word mean? What’s the English for…? What’s the Chinese for…? Excuse me, can I use the bathroom for a minute? Who wants have a try? 重点词汇： question, sure, riddle, picture, straight, plus, minus, curly, try, address, video, comic, film, jungle, balcony, town, laugh, enjoy Unit 5 How about coming with us? 重点句型：
牛津小学三年级上册英语单词和句型 公司内部档案编码：[OPPTR-OPPT28-OPPTL98-OPPNN08]
第一课 Hello你好 morning早上 fine健康的 too也 afternoon中午 evening傍晚 night晚上 today 今天 new新的 teacher老师 thanks谢谢 very well很好 Miss Fang 方小姐 Mr Zhang张先生 Mrs Wang王太太 cake蛋糕 table桌子 How are you你好吗Fine，thanks.很好，谢谢。/I’m fine too.我也很好。 第二课 Your你的 name名字write写stand up起立sit down坐下open the door开门close the door关门blackboard黑板 please请 clean干净card卡片pick捡pencil钢笔 paper纸 jam果酱 jar广口瓶 hand手 Hello ,what’s you name？你好，你叫什么名字。My name’s Wei Weizhang.我叫卫维章。How are you你好吗Fine，thanks.很好，谢谢。/I’m fine too.我也很好。 What’s you name你叫什么名字My name’s Wei Weizhang.我叫卫维章。 第三课 birthday生日 one一 two二 three三 four四 five五 six六 seven七 eight八Nine九 ten十 eleven十一 twelve十二 thirteen十三 fourteen十四 fifteen十五 Sixteen十六 seventeen十七 eighteen十八 nineteen十九 twenty二十only只有Blow吹 cut切 count数 write写 he他 she她 with和 happy快乐 How old are you你几岁了I’m ten.我十岁了./I’m ten years old.我十岁了。 第四课 fat胖的 thin瘦的 tall高的 short矮的 boy男孩 girl女孩 is是的isn’t不是friend朋友 dirty脏的 who谁 your你的 play football踢足球 ten十 pen钢笔bow弯腰 baby宝宝 mother妈妈 small小的 big大的 He’s tall.他是高的。He’s fat.他是胖的。He’s eight.他八岁了。He can piay football.他会踢足球。 My friend is eight。我的朋友八岁了。She’s short.她是矮的。She’s thin.她是瘦的。She can sing.but she con’t swin.她会唱歌，但是她不会游泳。Is she Mary？ 她是玛丽吗？No,she isn’t.不，她不是。Is she Alice她是艾莉丝吗Yes,she is.是的，她是。 第五课 grandfather爷爷 grandmother奶奶 father爸爸 mother妈妈 brother兄弟sister
剑桥少儿英语二级(单词、句型，单元重点) Unit1:Chinese 中国人,中文English 英国人,英语American 美国人robot机器人 play the piano 弹钢琴draw pictures 画画learn English 学英语puppy 小狗 Unit2: mine 我的…yours 你的…hers 她的…his他的…its 它的…ours 我们的… theirs 他们的…pet 宠物scarf 围巾beard 山羊胡moustache 八字胡blonde 金色的curly 卷曲的straight 笔直的 Unit3:library 图书馆bank 银行shop 商店playground 操场café咖啡馆sports centre 体育中心dining room 餐厅round 圆的square 方的quiet 安静的strong 强壮的weak 虚弱的thirsty 口渴的tired 累的hungry 饿的different 不同的famous 著名的slow 慢的quick 快的beautiful 漂亮的 Unit4: blanket 毯子bathroom 浴室cupboard 碗柜crocodile 鳄鱼comic 滑稽的kitchen 厨房lamp 台灯lizard 蜥蜴shark 鲨鱼mirror 镜子spider 蜘蛛street 街道sweater 毛衣television 电视towel 毛巾balcony 阳台 Unit5:waterfall 瀑布forest 森林jungle 丛林island 岛屿lake 湖泊river 河流mountain 山city 城市village村庄hospital医院cinema 电影院supermarket 超市see a film 看电影 Unit6:read a newspaper 看报纸eat fruit 吃水果wash up 洗碗cook a meal 做饭story book 故事书music book 音乐书cookery book 烹饪书 Unit7: drop litter 扔垃圾drive 驾驶throw 扔, 投grass 草pick flowers 摘花dolphin 海豚mustn’t 不允许 Unit8: work hard 努力学习boring 枯燥的lovely 可爱的 Unit9: 1.big bigger fat fatter hot hotter thin thinner; 2. brave braver late later nice nicer large larger ; 3. busy busier easy easier dry drier early earlier happy happier heavy heavier； 4. good/well better bad/badly worse far farther/further many/much more 5. beautiful more beautiful interesting more interesting building 大楼kilometers 千米 Unit10:travel 旅游snowman 雪人blue whale 蓝鲸the Nile 尼罗河sailfish 帆鱼,旗鱼difficult 困难的centimeter 厘米ladder 梯子choose 选择basement 地下室lift 电梯shoulder 肩膀apartment 公寓 Unit11, 12: is/am was are were see saw give gave ride rode speak spoke take took buy bought go went eat ate swim swam sleep slept sit sat draw drew catch caught say said find found drink drank run ran sing sang fly flew write wrote put put come came get got meet met video-camera 摄像机digital camera 数码相机London Bridge伦敦桥Big Ben大本钟river Thames 泰晤士河unit13:Monday 星期一Tuesday星期二Wednesday星期三Thursday 星期四Friday 星期五Saturday星期六Sunday 星期日tie the shoes 系鞋带rest 休息after在---之后before 在---之前 Unit14: beef steak 牛排sea food 海鲜French fries 法式薯条vegetable 蔬菜pasta 意大利面食move away 搬走walk the dog 遛狗look out of the window 向窗外看all the time 一直sometimes 有时候earth 地球,土地once 一次twice 两次every other day每隔一天 Unit15: poor 穷的（rich 富有的）sell 卖throw threw 扔beanstalk 豆茎meter 米monster 魔鬼fairy 精灵仙女castle 城堡golden金的fall down 摔下来 Unit16: snowy下雪的snowflake雪花have a snowball fight 打雪仗winter 冬天snowman 雪人
小学生英语单词及句型 一、学习用品(school things)pen钢笔pencil铅笔pencil-case铅笔盒ruler尺子book书bag包post card明信片newspaper报纸schoolbag书包eraser橡皮crayon蜡笔sharpener卷笔刀story-book故事书notebook笔记本Chinese book语文书English book英语书math book数学书magazine杂志dictionary词典二、人体(body)foot脚head头face脸hair头发nose鼻子mouth嘴eye眼睛ear耳朵arm手臂hand手finger手指leg腿tail尾巴三、颜色(colours)red红blue蓝yellow黄green绿white白black黑pink 粉红purple紫orange橙brown棕四、动物(animals)cat猫dog狗pig猪duck鸭rabbit兔horse马elephant大象ant蚂蚁fish鱼bird鸟snake蛇mouse老鼠monkey猴panda熊猫bear熊lion狮子tiger老虎fox狐狸zebra 斑马deer鹿giraffe长颈鹿goose鹅hen母鸡turkey火鸡lamb小羊sheep 绵羊goat山羊cow奶牛donkey驴五、人物(people)friend朋友boy男孩 girl女孩mother母亲father父亲sister姐妹brother兄弟uncle叔叔；舅舅man男人woman女人Mr.先生Miss小姐lady女士；小姐mom妈妈dad爸爸parents父母grandparents祖父母grandma/grandmother(外)祖母 grandpa/grandfather(外)祖父aunt姑姑cousin堂(表)兄弟；堂(表)姐妹son儿子daughter女儿baby婴儿kid小孩classmate同学queen女王 visitor参观者neighbour邻居principal校长university student大学生pen pal笔友tourist旅行者people人物robot机器人六、职业 (jobs)teacher教师student学生doctor医生nurse护士driver司机farmer 农民singer歌唱家writer作家actor男演员policeman(男)警察cleaner清洁工baseball player棒球运动员police警察七、食品、饮料
英文合同常用词汇和句型 1、开场白（合同的当事人背景介绍） 2、过渡条款 Now therefore, in consideration of the premises and covenants described herein-after, Party A and Party B agree as follows: 参考译文：因此，双方基于各自提供之对价订立本合同，并做如下约定： 注释和说明:”in consideration of premises and covenants”表示“在当事人提供的对价基础上”而非仅指“考虑到…”。读者应重点理解“premise”这个词。在一般场合下它是指与房屋相关的基础不动产或处所，但是在英文合同里边它却变成了“前提条件”。 3、结尾条款： IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto have caused this Agreement to be executed by duly authorized representatives of both parties on the date and year first written above. 参考译文：本合同由被正当授权之人，于本协议于上述记载之日期代表双方当事人订立，特此证明。 注释和说明： （1）“in witness whereof”的含义类似于中文合同中常见的“口说无凭，立此为证”。 （2）“execute”在英文合同中常解为“签署”，而非“执行”。 4、favor, “in favor of somebody”= ”in one’s favor”的意思主要有两种： 以某人为受益人、有利于某人 5、subject to sth. 1) 遵从、遵守： This letter of Credit is subject to the Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits (1983 Revision), international Chamber of commerce, Publication No.400. 2) 根据（法律、法规、合同） 3) 作动词用，意思是“服从于…”，“率属于…”，“使经受…” 4) 办理、存在。 5、Without prejudice to “在不损坏……”。 6、Any person who does... shall …表示任何做某人之人应。 7、For the purpose of “就……而言”。 8、Provided that 但是 9、Notwithstanding “即使，表示一种让步”。 10、in question “表示该” 11、including but not limited to “包括但不限于” 12、常理解为“有权利做某事” 1）have the right to do 2）be entitled to do 3）do sth. at one’s option or/ and discretion 4）have the authority to do 13、合同英语中“因为”的表达方法 1）owing to 2）attributable to 3）due to 4）in view of 5）by virtue of 14、notify sb. Of sth. in writing: 书面通知某人某事 15、in lieu of: 替代 16、关联企业： 1）affiliate: 广义上的具有法人人格的子公司，只要有参股关系即可，常翻译为“关联公司”
2B 单词及句型 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
Do you like it ? Yes. 你喜欢它吗？是的，我喜欢。 What is it ? It’s a bag. 它是什么？它是一只包。 M1U3： train 火车, bus 公共汽车, car 小汽车, van 厢式货车, bicycle ,bike自行车, ship 轮船, can 能，会, can't 不能，不会, hear 听见, listen 听, what 什么, outside 在外面, inside 在里面, beside 在旁边, beside the window 在窗户旁边, tiger 老虎, cat 猫, dog 狗, red 红的, down 向下，沿着, up 向上, down by... 沿着..., bus stop 公共汽车站, here 这里, come 来, go 去, station 车站, wait for 等待, road 马路, Is it smooth ? Yes, it is. No, i t’s rou gh. 它光滑吗？是的。不，它粗糙的。 What is it ? It’s a van. 它是什么？它是一辆货车。 What can you hear ? I can hear a train. 你能听到什么？我能听到火车的声音。 I can’t hear the bus. 我听不见公共汽车声。 M2U1： run 跑, skate 玩滑板, hop 单脚跳, skip 跳绳, swim 游泳, ride a bicycle 骑自行车, fly 飞, together 一起, too 也, kite 风筝, write 写字, sing 唱歌, dance 跳舞, book 书, girl 女孩, frog 青蛙, sing with me 跟我唱, dance with me 跟我跳, write with me 跟我写, Do you like running ? Yes, I like running. No, I like skating. 你喜欢跑步吗？是的，我喜欢跑步。不，我喜欢玩滑板。 M2U2： salad 色拉, carrot 胡萝卜, fish 鱼, chicken 鸡肉, banana 香蕉, soup 汤, meat 肉, hamburger 汉堡, pizza 比萨, noodles 面条, rice 米饭, cake 蛋糕, biscuit 饼干, hand 手, hen 母鸡, steak 牛排, vegetable 蔬菜, plane 飞机, mop 拖把, listen to听, look at看, What do you like eating ? I like eating salad. 你喜欢吃什么？我喜欢吃色拉。 M2U3：
小学英语词汇不完全归类表 1.学习用品(school things)：pen钢笔pencil铅笔pencil-case铅笔盒ruler尺子book书bag包newspaper报纸schoolbag书包eraser橡皮crayon蜡笔sharpener卷笔刀story-book故事书notebook笔记本Chinese book语文书English book英语书math book数学书dictionary词典 2.人体（body）：foot(feet)脚head头face脸hair头发nose鼻子mouth嘴eye眼睛ear耳朵arm手臂hand手leg腿 tooth(teeth) 牙齿 3.颜色（colors）：red红blue蓝yellow黄green绿white白black 黑pink粉红orange橙brown棕grey 灰 4.动物（animals）：cat猫dog狗pig猪duck鸭rabbit兔horse 马elephant大象ant蚂蚁fish鱼bird鸟mouse老鼠kangaroo袋鼠monkey猴panda熊猫bear熊lion狮子tiger老虎fox狐狸deer鹿giraffe长颈鹿hen母鸡turkey火鸡sheep绵羊
5.人物（people）：friend朋友boy男孩girl女孩mother母亲father 父亲sister姐妹brother兄弟uncle叔叔；舅舅man男人woman 女人Mr.先生Miss小姐lady女士；小姐mom妈妈dad爸爸parents父母grandparents祖父母grandma/grandmother（外）祖母grandpa/grandfather（外）祖父aunt姑姑cousin堂（表）兄弟；堂（表）姐妹son儿子daughter女儿baby婴儿kid小孩classmate同学 6.职业（jobs）：teacher教师student学生doctor医生nurse护士driver司机farmer农民singer歌唱家writer作家actor男演员actress女演员artist画家 7.食品、饮料（food & drink）：rice米饭bread面包beef牛肉milk 牛奶water水egg蛋fish鱼tofu豆腐cake蛋糕hot dog热狗hamburger汉堡包biscuit饼干noodles面条meat肉chicken鸡肉vegetable蔬菜salad沙拉soup汤ice冰ice-cream冰淇淋Coke可乐juice果汁tea茶coffee咖啡breakfast早餐lunch午餐dinner/supper晚餐meal一餐 8.水果、蔬菜(fruit & vegetables)：apple苹果banana香蕉pear梨orange橙子watermelon西瓜grape葡萄tomato西红柿potato 土豆strawberry草莓carrot胡萝卜cabbage卷心菜