Network Working Group F. Andreasen Request for Comments: 5503 Cisco Obsoletes: 3603 B. McKibben Category: Informational CableLabs B. Marshall AT&T March 2009 Private Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) Proxy-to-Proxy Extensions for Supporting the PacketCable Distributed Call Signaling Architecture
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Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 1]
Abstract
In order to deploy a residential telephone service at a very large
scale across different domains, it is necessary for trusted elements owned by different service providers to exchange trusted information that conveys customer-specific information and expectations about the parties involved in the call. This document describes private
extensions to the Session Initiation Protocol, RFC 3261, for
supporting the exchange of customer information and billing
information between trusted entities in the PacketCable Distributed
Call Signaling Architecture. These extensions provide mechanisms for access network coordination to prevent theft of service, customer
originated trace of harassing calls, support for operator services
and emergency services, and support for various other regulatory
issues. The use of the extensions is only applicable within closed
administrative domains, or among federations of administrative
domains with previously agreed-upon policies where coordination of
charging and other functions is required.
Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 2]
Table of Contents
1. Applicability Statement (4)
2. Introduction (4)
3. Trust Boundary (6)
4. Conventions Used in This Document (7)
5. P-DCS-TRACE-PARTY-ID (7)
5.1. Syntax (8)
5.2. Procedures at an Untrusted User Agent Client (UAC) (9)
5.3. Procedures at a Trusted User Agent Client (UAC) (9)
5.4. Procedures at an Untrusted User Agent Server (UAS) (9)
5.5. Procedures at a Trusted User Agent Server (UAS) (9)
5.6. Procedures at Proxy (10)
5.6.1. Procedures at Originating Proxy (10)
5.6.2. Procedures at Terminating Proxy (11)
6. P-DCS-OSPS (11)
6.1. Syntax (11)
6.2. Procedures at an Untrusted User Agent Client (UAC) (12)
6.3. Procedures at a Trusted User Agent Client (UAC) (12)
6.4. Procedures at an Untrusted User Agent Server (UAS) (13)
6.5. Procedures at a Trusted User Agent Server (UAS) (13)
6.6. Procedures at Proxy (14)
7. P-DCS-BILLING-INFO (14)
7.1. Syntax (16)
7.2. Procedures at an Untrusted User Agent Client (UAC) (18)
7.3. Procedures at a Trusted User Agent Client (UAC) (18)
7.4. Procedures at an Untrusted User Agent Server (UAS) (18)
7.5. Procedures at a Trusted User Agent Server (UAS) (18)
7.6. Procedures at Proxy (19)
7.6.1. Procedures at Originating Proxy (19)
7.6.2. Procedures at Terminating Proxy (20)
7.6.3. Procedures at Tandem Proxy (21)
8. P-DCS-LAES and P-DCS-Redirect (21)
8.1. Syntax (23)
8.2. Procedures at an Untrusted User Agent Client (UAC) (24)
8.3. Procedures at a Trusted User Agent Client (UAC) (24)
8.4. Procedures at an Untrusted User Agent Server (UAS) (25)
8.5. Procedures at a Trusted User Agent Server (UAS) (25)
8.6. Procedures at Proxy (26)
8.6.1. Procedures at Originating Proxy (26)
8.6.2. Procedures at Terminating Proxy (28)
9. Security Considerations (29)
10. IANA Considerations (29)
11. Changes since RFC 3603 (31)
12. Acknowledgments (32)
13. References (32)
13.1. Normative References (32)
13.2. Informative References (33)
Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 3]
1. Applicability Statement
The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) [RFC3261] extensions described in this document make certain assumptions regarding network topology, linkage between SIP and lower layers, and the availability of
transitive trust. These assumptions are generally not applicable in the Internet as a whole. The use of these headers is only applicable within closed administrative domains, or among federations of
administrative domains with previously agreed-upon policies where
coordination of charging and other functions is required, as in, for example, the architecture presented in [DCSARCH]. Use outside such a domain could result in the leakage of potentially sensitive or
private information. User consent to the privacy implications of the policies in [DCSARCH] is strongly encouraged in those domains as
well.
Although [RFC2119] language is used in this document, the scope of
the normative language is only for the area of applicability of the
document and, like the technology, it does not apply to the general
Internet.
2. Introduction
In order to deploy a SIP based residential telephone service at very large scale across different domains, it is necessary for trusted
elements owned by different service providers to exchange trusted
information that conveys billing information and expectations about
the parties involved in the call.
There are many billing models used in deriving revenue from telephony services today. Charging for telephony services is tightly coupled
to the use of network resources. It is outside the scope of this
document to discuss the details of these numerous and varying
methods.
A key motivating principle of the Distributed Call Signaling (DCS)
architecture described in [DCSARCH] is the need for network service
providers to be able to control and monitor network resources;
revenue may be derived from the usage of these resources as well as
from the delivery of enhanced services such as telephony.
Furthermore, the DCS architecture recognizes the need for
coordination between call signaling and resource management. This
coordination ensures that users are authenticated and authorized
before receiving access to network resources and billable enhanced
services.
Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 4]
DCS Proxies, as defined in [DCSARCH], have access to subscriber
information and act as policy decision points and trusted
intermediaries along the call signaling path. Edge routers provide
the network connectivity and resource policy enforcement mechanism
and also capture and report network connectivity and resource usage
information. Edge routers need to be given billing information that can be logged with Record-Keeping or Billing servers. The DCS Proxy, as a central point of coordination between call signaling and
resource management, can provide this information based on the
authenticated identity of the calling and called parties. Since
there is a trust relationship among DCS Proxies, they can be relied
upon to exchange trusted billing information pertaining to the
parties involved in a call. See [DCSARCH] for a description of the
trust boundary and trusted versus untrusted entities.
For these reasons, it is appropriate to consider defining SIP header extensions to allow DCS Proxies to exchange information during call
setup. The extensions only appear on trusted network segments, are
inserted upon entering a trusted network region, and are removed
before leaving trusted network segments.
Significant amounts of information are retrieved by an originating
DCS Proxy in its handling of a connection setup request from a user
agent. Such information includes location information about the
subscriber (essential for emergency services calls), billing
information, and station information (e.g., coin-operated phone). In addition, while translating the destination number, information such as the local-number-portability office code is obtained and will be
needed by all other proxies handling this call.
For Usage Accounting records, it is necessary to have an identifier
that can be associated with all the event records produced for the
call. The SIP Call-ID header field cannot be used as such an
identifier since it is selected by the originating user agent, and it may not be unique among all past calls as well as current calls.
Further, since this identifier is to be used by the service provider, it should be chosen in a manner and in a format that meets the
service provider’s needs.
Billing information may not necessarily be unique for each user
(consider the case of calls from an office all billed to the same
account). Billing information may not necessarily be identical for
all calls made by a single user (consider prepaid calls, credit card calls, collect calls, etc). It is therefore necessary to carry
billing information separate from the calling and called party
identification. Furthermore, some billing models call for split-
charging where multiple entities are billed for portions of the call. Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 5]
The addition of a SIP General Header Field allows for the capture of billing information and billing identification for the duration of
the call.
The billing extensions only appear on trusted network segments and
MAY be inserted by a DCS Proxy in INVITE and REFER requests and
INVITE responses in a trusted network segment, and removed before
leaving trusted network segments.
In addition to support for billing, current residential telephone
service includes the need for customer-originated trace (of harassing or obscene calls), for operator services such as busy line
verification and emergency interrupt (initiated by an operator from
an Operator Services Position System (OSPS)), for emergency services such as 9-1-1 calls to a Public Service Access Point (PSAP) and the
subsequent call handling, and for support of Electronic Surveillance and Law Enforcement access as required by applicable legislation and court orders. In all of these cases, additional information about
the call and about the subscribers involved in the call needs to be
exchanged between the proxies.
3. Trust Boundary
The DCS architecture [DCSARCH] defines a trust boundary around the
various systems and servers that are owned, operated by, and/or
controlled by the service provider. These trusted systems include
the proxies and various servers such as bridge servers, voicemail
servers, announcement servers, etc. Outside of the trust boundary
lie the customer premises equipment and various application and media servers operated by third-party service providers.
Certain subscriber-specific information, such as billing and
accounting information, stays within the trust boundary. Other
subscriber-specific information, such as endpoint identity, may be
presented to untrusted endpoints or may be withheld based on
subscriber profiles.
The User Agent (UA) may be either within the trust boundary or
outside the trust boundary, depending on exactly what function is
being performed and exactly how it is being performed. Accordingly, the procedures followed by a user agent are different depending on
whether the UA is within the trust boundary or outside the trust
boundary.
Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 6]
The following sections giving procedures for user agents therefore
are subdivided into trusted user agents and untrusted user agents.
Since UAs may support client and server functions, the UA sections
include procedures for the User Agent Client (UAC) and User Agent
Server (UAS).
4. Conventions Used in This Document
The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
"SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in this document are to be interpreted as described in BCP 14, [RFC2119].
The term "private-URL" used in this document refers to a SIP URI that is generated by a proxy, contains a "hostport" that identifies the
proxy, and contains a "userinfo" string that is generated by the
proxy. The userinfo typically contains (or points to) information
that is not to be disclosed outside the trusted domain of the
proxies, such as billing account numbers, electronic surveillance
indication, electronic surveillance parameters, and call redirection information. Consequently, the information is either stored locally by the proxy, or encrypted with a private key known only to the proxy and encoded in a character string in the userinfo portion of the URL.
A checksum is included in the userinfo data to detect tampering. The mechanism by which a proxy recognizes a userinfo as a private-URL and decodes and recovers the original information is local to the proxy
and is not subject to standardization. Some possible implementations include an initial magic cookie (e.g., z9hG4Bk followed by the
pointer/information), or use of a reserved "user" name (e.g.,
"private") with the optional "password" containing the pointer/
information.
5. P-DCS-TRACE-PARTY-ID
In the telephone network, calling identity information is used to
support regulatory requirements such as the Customer Originated Trace service, which provide the called party with the ability to report
obscene or harassing phone calls to law enforcement. This service is provided independently of caller-id, and works even if the caller
requested anonymity. The calling party is here identified as the
station originating the call. In order for this service to be
dependable, the called party must be able to trust that the calling
identity information being presented is valid. One way to achieve
this is described in [RFC3325].
To initiate a customer-originated-trace from an untrusted User Agent Client (UAC), an additional header is defined for the INVITE request. This header is called P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID, and does not appear in
any other request or response. The untrusted UAC also includes the Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 7]
Target-Dialog header field, defined in [RFC4538], in the INVITE
request in order to explicitly identify the call to be traced. The
entity addressed by the Request-URI performs the service-provider-
specific functions of recording and reporting the caller identity in the P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID for law enforcement action. It then
forwards the call to either an announcement server or to the service provider’s business office to collect further information about the
complaint. A trusted UAC does not use this header, as it initiates
this action locally.
5.1. Syntax
The ABNF description of this header is (some terms used in this ABNF are defined in [RFC3261]):
P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID = "P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID" HCOLON name-addr
*1(SEMI timestamp-param) *(SEMI trace-param) timestamp-param = "timestamp=" 1*DIGIT ["." 1*DIGIT]
trace-param = generic-param ; defined in RFC 3261
This document adds the following entry to Table 2 of [RFC3261]:
Header field where proxy ACK BYE CAN INV OPT REG PUB
------------ ----- ----- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID R dmr - - - o - - -
SUB NOT REF INF UPD PRA MSG
--- --- --- --- --- --- ---
- - - - - - -
The addr-spec contained in name-addr contains a URL that identifies
the remote endpoint. Addr-spec typically contains a tel URL or SIP
URI giving the identity of the remote endpoint, as provided in the
signaling messages that established the session to be traced.
The timestamp-param contains the value of the time the UA determines it received the session initiation request of the call requested to
be traced. The timestamp-param is populated using the Network Time
Protocol timestamp format defined in RFC 1305 [RFC1305] and used by
the Simple Network Time Protocol [RFC4330]. The timestamp SHOULD be encoded in UTF-8 Format per [RFC3629]. The trace-param is a generic parameter for future extensions.
An example of the P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID header is shown as follows:
P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID:
timestamp=3434688831.2327
Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 8]
5.2. Procedures at an Untrusted User Agent Client (UAC)
The UAC MUST insert a P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID header into the initial
INVITE message for a customer-originated-trace request. The trace
request from the Untrusted User Agent Client is able to be initiated during the dialog or after the release of the dialog or call that is requested to be traced. The UAC MUST use a SIP URI in the Request-
URI with userinfo set to "call-trace" and hostport identifying the
call tracing entity for the untrusted UA. The [RFC3603] version of
the P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID did not include the timestamp-param
parameter; however, the syntax is backwards compatible with
[RFC3603]. A UAC compliant to this updated specification MUST insert the timestamp and the Target-Dialog header field defined in [RFC4538] if known to the UAC.
In case of an anonymous malicious call, where the remote party is not known to the Untrusted UAC, the Untrusted UAC SHOULD indicate the
user as anonymous in the P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID, for example, as
follows: sip:anonymous@anonymous.invalid.
5.3. Procedures at a Trusted User Agent Client (UAC)
A trusted UAC performs the customer-originated-trace in a manner
similar to the trusted User Agent Server (UAS), described below. A
trusted UAC MUST NOT include this header in any request.
5.4. Procedures at an Untrusted User Agent Server (UAS)
This header MUST NOT appear in any response sent by a UAS.
5.5. Procedures at a Trusted User Agent Server (UAS)
If the P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID header is present in the initial INVITE
request from a UAC, and the Request-URI of the INVITE has userinfo
set to "call-trace" and hostport set to the UAS, the UAS MUST perform the service-provider-specific functions of recording and reporting
the caller identity and associated trace parameters (if any) from the Target-Dialog header field for law enforcement action. The UAS then MUST redirect the call, via a 3xx response, to either an announcement server or to the service provider’s business office to collect
further information about the complaint.
This header MUST NOT appear in any response sent by a UAS.
If the P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID header is not present in the initial
INVITE request from a UAC, and the Request-URI of the INVITE has
userinfo set to "call-trace" the UAS MUST reject the request. Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 9]
5.6. Procedures at Proxy
Two sets of proxy procedures are defined: (1) the procedures at an
originating proxy, and (2) the procedures at a terminating proxy.
The originating proxy is a proxy that received the INVITE request
from an untrusted endpoint.
The terminating proxy is a proxy that sends the INVITE request to an untrusted endpoint.
A proxy that both receives the INVITE request from an untrusted
endpoint, and sends the INVITE request to an untrusted endpoint,
performs both sets of procedures.
5.6.1. Procedures at Originating Proxy
If the P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID header is present in the initial INVITE
request from the UAC, and the Request-URI of the INVITE has userinfo other than "call-trace" and hostport set to other than a potentially provisioned call tracing entity, then the proxy MAY reject the
request, or it MAY remove the P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID header from the
request. If the header is present in a valid request, and contains a private-URL that identifies the proxy in the hostport, then the
originating proxy SHOULD replace the private-URL with its original
contents (i.e., the verified identity of the caller of the session
that is being traced and trace parameters from the Target-Dialog
header fields defined in [RFC4538]).
The proxy records the caller URL and target dialog IDs on sessions
directed toward the untrusted UAC if provisioned to do so by the
network operator. If the is P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID header is present
in a valid request, and contains an anonymous caller indication in
the name-addr parameter, the originating proxy MUST replace the
anonymous URL with the verified identity of the caller of the session that is being traced if available and recorded by the proxy.
Otherwise, the proxy does not replace the anonymous URL.
If the origination proxy is provisioned to store URLs and target
dialog IDs for incoming calls, and if the proxy detects that the URL and target dialog ID in a trace request does not match a recorded
incoming dialog request, then the proxy MUST reject the trace call
request.
The origination proxy does not add the P-DCS-Trace-Party-ID header
from a request that does not already contain the header.
Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 10]
5.6.2. Procedures at Terminating Proxy
This header MUST NOT appear in any request or response sent by a
terminating proxy to an untrusted endpoint.
6. P-DCS-OSPS
Some calls have special call processing requirements that may not be satisfied by normal user agent call processing. For example, when a user is engaged in a call and another call arrives, such a call might be rejected with a busy indication. However, some Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN) operator services require special call
processing. In particular, the Busy Line Verification (BLV) and
Emergency Interrupt (EI) services initiated by an operator from an
Operator Services Position System (OSPS) on the PSTN network have
such a need. Similarly, emergency calls to a 9-1-1 Public Service
Access Point (PSAP) may result in trunk signaling causing operator
ringback using a howling tone or sustained ring on the originating
line (country-specific variations may exist).
In order to inform the SIP user agent that special treatment should
be given to a call, we use a new P-DCS-OSPS header, with a field that may be set to a value indicating when a special type of call
processing is requested. We define three values in this header
field, namely "BLV" for busy line verification, "EI" for emergency
interrupt, and "RING" for operator ringback (e.g., howling/sustained tone ring in the US).
If the user agent decides to honor such a request, the response of
the user agent to an INVITE with either "BLV" or "EI" will not be a
busy indication. Since "EI" and "RING" only occur on established
dialogs, they may also appear in UPDATE requests.
6.1. Syntax
The ABNF description of the P-DCS-OSPS header is as follows (some
terms used in this ABNF are defined in [RFC3261]):
P-DCS-OSPS = "P-DCS-OSPS" HCOLON OSPS-Tag
OSPS-Tag = "BLV" / "EI" / "RING" / token
Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 11]
This document adds the following entry to Table 2 of [RFC3261]:
Header field where proxy ACK BYE CAN INV OPT REG PUB ------------ ----- ----- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- P-DCS-OSPS R dr - - - o - - - SUB NOT REF INF UPD PRA MSG --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - - - - o - - The OSPS-Tag value of "token" is defined for extensibility, and is
reserved for future use.
6.2. Procedures at an Untrusted User Agent Client (UAC)
The P-DCS-OSPS header MUST NOT be sent in a request from an untrusted UAC.
6.3. Procedures at a Trusted User Agent Client (UAC)
This header is typically only inserted by a Media Gateway Controller [DCSARCH] that is controlling a Media Gateway with special trunks to a PSTN OSPS system or PSAP. This trunk group is usually referred to as a BLV-trunk group and employs special signaling procedures that
prevent inadvertent use. Calls originating at the PSTN OSPS system
are sent over this trunk group, and result in an INVITE request with the P-DCS-OSPS header.
This header MAY be sent in an INVITE request, and MUST NOT appear in any message other than those listed below.
OSPS-Tag value "BLV" MUST NOT appear in any request other than an
initial INVITE request establishing a new dialog.
OSPS-Tag value "EI" MUST NOT appear in any request or response other than (1) a subsequent INVITE within a preexisting dialog established with the OSPS-Tag value of "BLV", or (2) an UPDATE request within a
preexisting dialog established with the OSPS-Tag value of "BLV".
OSPS-Tag value "RING" MUST NOT appear in any request or response
other than (1) a subsequent INVITE within a preexisting dialog
established by a UAC to an operator or PSAP, or (2) an UPDATE request within a preexisting dialog established by a UAC to an operator or
PSAP.
Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 12]
6.4. Procedures at an Untrusted User Agent Server (UAS)
If the UAS receives an INVITE request with an OSPS-Tag of "BLV",
dialog identification that matches an existing dialog, it MUST reject the request with a 403 (Forbidden) response.
If the UAS receives an INVITE/UPDATE request with an OSPS-Tag value
of "EI" or "RING", with dialog identification that does not match an existing dialog that was established with the OSPS-Tag value of
"BLV", it MUST reject the request with a 403 (Forbidden) response.
If the UAS receives an INVITE that contains an OSPS-Tag value of
"BLV" and is not willing to cooperate in offering this service, it
MUST reject the request with a 403 (Forbidden) response.
The UAS SHOULD NOT reject an INVITE with a "BLV" OSPS-Tag due to a
busy condition. The UAS MUST NOT respond with a 3xx-Redirect
response code to an INVITE with a "BLV" OSPS-Tag. The UAS SHOULD NOT alert the user of the incoming call attempt if the "BLV" OSPS-Tag is present in the INVITE.
If an INVITE with OSPS-Tag of "BLV" is accepted (e.g., meeting all
quality-of-service (QoS) pre-conditions, etc.), the UAS MUST send an audio stream on this connection to the address and port given in the Session Description Protocol (SDP) of the INVITE. The UAS MAY
perform a mixing operation between the two ends of an existing active call and send the resulting media stream to the address and port
indicated. Alternatively, the UAS MAY send a copy of the local voice stream, and (if there is no activity on the local voice stream) send a copy of the received voice stream of an existing call. If the
state of the UAS is idle, the UAS SHOULD send a stream of silence
packets to OSPS. If the state of the UAS is ringing or ringback, the UAS SHOULD send a ringback stream to OSPS.
If an INVITE/UPDATE with OSPS-Tag of "EI" is accepted, the UAS MUST
enable communication between the UAC and the local user. The UAS MAY put any existing call on hold, or initiate an ad hoc conference.
If an INVITE/UPDATE with OSPS-Tag of "RING" is accepted, the UAS MUST perform operator ringback in accordance with local procedures, e.g., generate a 3-second howling tone or a sustained ring, depending on
the state of the user equipment.
6.5. Procedures at a Trusted User Agent Server (UAS)
The procedures at a trusted UAS MUST be identical to those described in 6.4.
Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 13]
6.6. Procedures at Proxy
In the DCS architecture, the OSPS is considered a trusted UAC. If a proxy receives a P-DCS-OSPS header in a request from an untrusted
source, it MUST either remove the header or reject the request with a 403 (Forbidden) response.
A proxy that implements a call-forwarding service MUST NOT respond to an INVITE request with a 3xx response, if the request contained the
P-DCS-OSPS header.
7. P-DCS-BILLING-INFO
There are many billing models used in deriving revenue from telephony services today. Charging for telephony services is tightly coupled
to the use of network resources. It is outside the scope of this
document to discuss the details of these numerous and varying
methods.
Proxies have access to subscriber information and act as policy
decision points and trusted intermediaries along the call signaling
path. Edge routers provide the network connection and resource
policy enforcement mechanism and also capture and report network
connection and resource usage information. Edge routers need to be
given billing information that can be logged with Record-Keeping or
Billing servers. The proxy, as a central point of coordination
between call signaling and resource management, can provide this
information based on the authenticated identity of the calling and
called parties. Since there is a trust relationship among proxies,
they can be relied upon to exchange trusted billing information
pertaining to the parties involved in a call.
For Usage Accounting records, it is necessary to have an identifier
that can be associated with all the event records produced for the
call. The SIP Call-ID header field cannot be used as such an
identifier since it is selected by the originating user agent, and
may not be unique among all past calls as well as current calls.
Further, since this identifier is to be used by the service provider, it should be chosen in a manner and in a format that meets the
service provider’s needs.
Billing information may not necessarily be unique for each user
(consider the case of calls from an office all billed to the same
account). Billing information may not necessarily be identical for
all calls made by a single user (consider prepaid calls, credit card calls, collect calls, etc). It is therefore necessary to carry Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 14]
billing information separate from the calling and called party
identification. Furthermore, some billing models call for
split-charging where multiple entities are billed for portions of the call.
The addition of a SIP General Header Field allows for the capture of billing information and billing identification for the duration of
the call.
The billing extensions only appear on trusted network segments, and
MAY be inserted by a proxy or trusted UA in INVITE and SUBSCRIBE
requests in a trusted network segment, and removed before leaving
trusted network segments. The P-DCS-Billing-Info header extension is used only on requests and responses between proxies and trusted UAs. It is never sent to an untrusted UA. It is expected that untrusted
UAs do not send this header.
Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 15]
7.1. Syntax
The DCS-Billing-Info header is defined by the following ABNF (some
terms used in this ABNF are defined in [RFC3261]):
P-DCS-Billing-Info = "P-DCS-Billing-Info" HCOLON
Billing-Correlation-ID "/" FEID
*(SEMI Billing-Info-param)
Billing-Correlation-ID = 1*48(HEXDIG)
FEID = 1*16(HEXDIG) "@" host
Billing-Info-param = RKS-Group-ID-param / Charge-param /
Calling-param / Called-param /
Routing-param / Loc-Routing-param /
JIP-param / generic-param
RKS-Group-ID-param = "rksgroup" EQUAL RKS-Group-ID
RKS-Group-ID = token
Charge-param = "charge" EQUAL Acct-Charge-URI
Acct-Charge-URI = LDQUOT addr-spec RDQUOT
Calling-param = "calling" EQUAL Acct-Calling-URI
Acct-Calling-URI = LDQUOT addr-spec RDQUOT
Called-param = "called" EQUAL Acct-Called-URI
Acct-Called-URI = LDQUOT addr-spec RDQUOT
Routing-param = "routing" EQUAL Acct-Routing-URI
Acct-Routing-URI = LDQUOT addr-spec RDQUOT
Loc-Routing-param = "locroute" EQUAL Acct-Loc-Routing-URI
Acct-Loc-Routing-URI = LDQUOT addr-spec RDQUOT
JIP-param = "jip" EQUAL jip
jip = LDQUOT 1*phonedigit-hex jip-context RDQUOT jip-context = ";jip-context=" jip-descriptor
jip-descriptor = global-hex-digits
global-hex-digits = "+" 1*3(phonedigit) *phonedigit-hex
phonedigit = DIGIT / [ visual-separator ]
phonedigit-hex = HEXDIG / "*" / "#" / [ visual-separator ]
visual-separator = "-" / "." / "(" / ")"
This document adds the following entry to Table 2 of [RFC3261]:
Header field where proxy ACK BYE CAN INV OPT REG PUB
------------ ----- ----- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
P-DCS-Billing-Info admr - - - o - - -
SUB NOT REF INF UPD PRA MSG
--- --- --- --- --- --- ---
- - - - - - -Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 16]
The P-DCS-Billing-Info extension contains an identifier that can be
used by an event recorder to associate multiple usage records,
possibly from different sources, with a billable account. It further contains the subscriber account information, and other information
necessary for accurate billing of the service. This header is only
used between proxies and trusted UAs.
The Billing-Correlation-ID, BCID, is specified in [PCEM] as a 24-byte binary structure, containing 4 bytes of NTP timestamp, 8 bytes of the unique identifier of the network element that generated the ID, 8
bytes giving the time zone, and 4 bytes of monotonically increasing
sequence number at that network element. This identifier is chosen
to be globally unique within the system for a window of several
months. This MUST be encoded in the P-DCS-Billing-Info header as a
hexadecimal string of up to 48 characters. Leading zeroes MAY be
suppressed.
The Financial-Entity-ID (FEID) is specified in [PCEM] as an 8-byte
structure, containing the financial identifier for that domain,
followed by a domain name. FEID can be associated with a type of
service and could be assigned to multiple domains by the same
provider. A domain could contain multiple assigned FEIDs. This
8-byte structure MUST be encoded in the P-DCS-Billing-Info header as a hexadecimal string of up to 16 characters. Trailing zeroes MAY be suppressed. "Host" contains the domain name.
The RKS-Group-ID specifies a Record-Keeping server (or group of
cooperating servers) for event messages relating to this call. It is used to control certain optimizations of procedures when multiple
event message streams are being sent to the same Record-Keeping
server.
Additional parameters contain the information needed for generation
of event message records. Acct-Charge-URI, Acct-Calling-URI, Acct-
Called-URI, Acct-Routing-URI, and Acct-Loc-Routing-URI are each
defined as URLs; they should all contain tel URLs with E.164
formatted addresses. These fields are further defined in [PCEM]
under the element identifiers "Charge_Number" (element ID 16),
"Calling_Party_Number" (element ID 4), "Called_Party_Number" (element ID 5), "Routing Number" (element ID 25), and
"Location_Routing_Number" (element ID 22).
The JIP-param contains the calling jurisdiction information, or
numbering plan area, of the network in which the call originated.
The field is further defined in [PCEM] under the element identifier
"Jurisdiction_Information_Parameter" (element ID 82). An older
[RFC3603] compliant implementation may not use the JIP-param. Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 17]
7.2. Procedures at an Untrusted User Agent Client (UAC)
This header is never sent to an untrusted UA. It is expected that
untrusted UAs do not send this header.
7.3. Procedures at a Trusted User Agent Client (UAC)
The UAC MUST generate the Billing-Correlation-ID for the call, and
insert it into the P-DCS-Billing-Info header in the initial INVITE or SUBSCRIBE message sent to the terminating entity, along with the
charging information for the call. The UAC MUST include its FEID,
and the RKS-Group-ID for the Record-Keeping server being used by the UAC. If the UAC performed a Local Number Portability (LNP) query, it MUST include the Routing Number and Location Routing Number returned by the query. If available to the UAC, the UAC MUST include the JIP- param.
If the response to the initial INVITE is a 3xx-Redirect, the UAC
generates a new initial INVITE request to the destination specified
in the Contact header field, as per standard SIP. If a UAC receives a 3xx-Redirect response to an initial INVITE, the new INVITE
generated by the UAC MUST contain the P-DCS-Billing-Info header field values from the 3xx-Redirect response. If the UAC is acting as a
back-to-back user agent (B2BUA), instead of generating a new INVITE
it MAY generate a private-URL and place it in the Contact header
field of a 3xx-Redirect response sent to the originating endpoint.
This private-URL MUST contain (or contain a pointer to) the P-DCS-
Billing-Info value, which indicates the charging arrangement for the new call, and an expiration time very shortly in the future, to limit the ability of the originator to re-use this private-URL for multiple calls.
A UAC that includes a Refer-To header in a REFER request MUST include a P-DCS-Billing-Info header in the Refer-To’s URL. This P-DCS-
Billing-Info header MUST include the accounting information of the
initiator of the REFER.
7.4. Procedures at an Untrusted User Agent Server (UAS)
This header is never sent to an untrusted UAS, and is never sent by
an untrusted UAS.
7.5. Procedures at a Trusted User Agent Server (UAS)
The UAS MUST include a P-DCS-Billing-Info header in the first
reliable 1xx (except 100) or 2xx response to an initial INVITE or
SUBSCRIBE message. This P-DCS-Billing-Info header MUST include the
Billing-Correlation-ID generated by the UAS, the FEID of the UAS, and Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 18]
the RKS-Group-ID of the Record-Keeping server being used by the UAS. The UAS MAY change the values of Acct-Charge-URI if it wishes to
override the billing information that was present in the INVITE
(e.g., for a toll-free call). The decision to do this and the
contents of the new Acct-Charge-URI MUST be determined by service
provider policy provisioned in the UAS. If the UAS performed an LNP query, it MUST include the Routing Number and Location Routing Number returned by the query.
The UAS MUST add a P-DCS-Billing-Info header to a 3xx-Redirect
response to an initial INVITE, giving the accounting information for the call forwarder, for the call segment from the destination to the forwarded-to destination.
7.6. Procedures at Proxy
Three sets of proxy procedures are defined: (1) the procedures at an originating proxy, (2) the procedures at a terminating proxy, and (3) the procedures at a tandem proxy.
The originating proxy is a proxy that received the INVITE or
SUBSCRIBE request from an untrusted endpoint.
The terminating proxy is a proxy that sends the INVITE or SUBSCRIBE
request to an untrusted endpoint.
A proxy that is neither an originating proxy nor a terminating proxy is a tandem proxy.
For purposes of mid-call changes, such as call transfers, the proxy
that receives the request from an untrusted endpoint is considered
the initiating proxy; the proxy that sends the request to a non-
trusted endpoint is considered the recipient proxy. Procedures for
the initiating proxy are included below with those for originating
proxies, while procedures for the recipient proxy are included with
those for terminating proxies.
A proxy that both receives the request from an untrusted endpoint,
and sends the request to an untrusted endpoint, performs both sets of procedures.
7.6.1. Procedures at Originating Proxy
The originating proxy MUST generate the Billing-Correlation-ID for
the call, and insert it into the P-DCS-Billing-Info header in the
initial INVITE or SUBSCRIBE message sent to the terminating entity,
along with the charging information for the call. The originating
proxy MUST include its FEID and the RKS-Group-ID for the
Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 19]
Record-Keeping server being used by the originating proxy. If the
originating proxy performed an LNP query, it MUST include the Routing Number, Location Routing Number, and JIP-param returned by the query. Any P-DCS-Billing-Info header present from an untrusted UA MUST be
removed.
If the Request-URI contains a private-URL, and the decoded username
contains billing information, the originating proxy MUST generate a
P-DCS-Billing-Info header with that decrypted information.
Otherwise, the originating proxy MUST determine the accounting
information for the call originator and insert a P-DCS-Billing-Info
header including that information.
If the response to the initial INVITE is a 3xx-Redirect, received
prior to a non-100 provisional response, the originating proxy
generates a new initial INVITE request to the destination specified
in the Contact header field, as per standard SIP. If an originating proxy receives a 3xx-Redirect response to an initial INVITE prior to a non-100 provisional response, the INVITE generated by the proxy
MUST contain the P-DCS-Billing-Info header from the 3xx-Redirect
response.
If the response to the initial INVITE is a 3xx-Redirect, received
after a non-100 provisional response, the originating proxy generates a private-URL and places it in the Contact header of a 3xx-Redirect
response sent to the originating endpoint. This private-URL MUST
contain (or contain a pointer to) the P-DCS-Billing-Info value, which indicates the charging arrangement for the new call, and an
expiration time very shortly in the future, to limit the ability of
the originator to re-use this private-URL for multiple calls.
An originating proxy that processes a REFER request from an untrusted UA MUST include a P-DCS-Billing-Info header in the Refer-To’s URL.
This P-DCS-Billing-Info header MUST include the accounting
information of the initiator.
7.6.2. Procedures at Terminating Proxy
The terminating proxy MUST NOT send the P-DCS-Billing-Info header to an untrusted destination.
The terminating proxy MUST include a P-DCS-Billing-Info header in the first reliable 1xx (except 100) or 2xx response to an initial INVITE or SUBSCRIBE message. This P-DCS-Billing-Info header MUST include
the Billing-Correlation-ID generated by the terminating proxy, the
FEID of the terminating proxy, and the RKS-Group-ID of the Record-
Keeping server being used by the terminating proxy. The terminating proxy MAY change the values of Acct-Charge-URI if it wishes to Andreasen, et al. Informational [Page 20]
第十讲坚定不移贯彻新发展理念 党的十八大以来，习近平总书记顺应时代和实践发展的新要求，坚持以人民为中心的发展思想，鲜明提出要坚定不移贯彻创新、协调、绿色、开放、共享的新发展理念，引领我国发展全局发生历史性变革。新发展理念集中体现了我们党对新的发展阶段基本特征的深刻洞察和科学把握，标志着我们党对经济社会发展规律的认识达到了新的高度，是我国经济社会发展必须长期坚持的重要遵循。 一、引领我国发展全局深刻变革的科学指引 创新、协调、绿色、开放、共享的新发展理念不是凭空得来的，而是在深刻总结国内外发展经验教训、分析国内外发展大势的基础上形成的，也是针对我国发展中的突出矛盾和问题提出来的。新发展理念深刻揭示了实现更高质量、更有效率、更加公平、更可持续发展的必由之路，是引领我国发展全局深刻变革的科学指引，对于进一步转变发展方式、优化经济结构、转换增长动力，推动我国经济实现高质量发展具有重大指导意义。 新发展理念是针对我国经济发展进入新常态、世界经济复苏乏力形势提出的治本之策。党的十八大以来，面对极其错综复杂的国内外经济形势，以习近平同志为核心的党中央审时度势，从我国经济发展的阶段性特征出发，作出我国经济发展进入新常态的战略判断。世界经济在大调整大变革之中也出现了一些新的变化趋势，2008年国际金融危机深层次影响持续蔓延，西方国家结束黄金增长期，世界经济进入深度调整期，国际贸易低迷，金融市场跌宕起伏，保护主义明显抬头。面对这种新变化新情况，再沿袭粗放发展模式、简单地追求增长速度，显然行不通，必须确立新发展理念来引领和推动我国经济从高速增长阶段转向高质量发展阶段，不断开创经济发展新局面。 新发展理念是针对当前我国发展面临的突出问题和挑战提出的战略指引。我国物质基础雄厚、人力资本丰富、市场空间广阔、发展潜力巨大，经济发展方式加快转变，新的增长动力正在孕育形成，经济长期向好基本面没有改变。同时，发展不平衡不充分的一些突出问题尚未解决，发展质量和效益还不高，创新能力不够强，实体经济水平有待提高，生态环境保护任重道远；民生领域还有不少短板，脱贫攻坚任务艰巨，城乡区域发展和收入分配差距依然较大，群众在就业、教育、医疗、居住、养老等方面面临不少难题；等等。这些问题，必须着力加以解决。新发展理念就是针对这些问题提出的。创新发展注重解决发展动力问题，
管理学原理 管理学是一门综合性的交叉学科，是系统研究管理活动的基本规律和一般方法的科学。管理学是适应现代社会化大生产的需要产生的，它的目的是:研究在现有的条件下，如何通过合理的组织和配置人、财、物等因素，提高生产力的水平。 管理是指在特定的环境下，管理者通过执行计划、组织、领导、控制等职能，整合组织的各项资源，实现组织既定目标的活动过程。 它有三层含义: (1) 管理是一种有意识，有目的的活动，它服务并服从于组织目标。 (2)管理是一个连续进行的活动过程，实现组织目标的过程，就是管理者执行计划组织领导控制等职能的过程。由于这一系列职能之间是相互关联的，从而使得管理过程体现为一个连续进行的活动过程。 (3)管理活动是在一定的环境中进行的，在开放的条件下，任何组织都处于千变万化的环境之中，复杂的环境成为决定组织生存与发展的重要因素。 折叠相关书籍 目前还没有一套普遍公认的完整的管理学原理体系。不同版本的管理学教科书和辞书，各有一套不同的管理学原理体系。 折叠《现代管理科学词库》
朱新民、李永春、周吉主编《现代管理科学词库》（上海交通大学出版社1986年9月） 中提出了下列管理原理体系：《现代管理科学词库》 ⑴系统原理：为了达到最佳管理，必须进行系统分析，抓住系统的三个环节：目的性、全局性、层次性。 ⑵整分合原理：现代高效率的管理，必须在整体规划下明确分工，在分工基础上有效地综合。 ⑶反馈原理：面对不断变化的客观实际，必须做到灵敏、准确、有力的反馈。 ⑷封闭原理：任一系统内的管理手段必须构成一个连续封闭的回路。 ⑸能级原理：将不同的个人，根据其能力大小，分别安排在适当层次的组织机构中，做到人尽其才，能者多劳。 ⑹弹性原理：管理必须保持充分的弹性，以适应各种可能的变化，实现动态管理。 ⑺动力原理：管理必须有强大的动力，包括物质动力、精神动力，信息动力，才能持续有效地进行。 折叠《管理学》 张正河、陆娟主编《管理学》的原理体系为： ⑴人本原理：以人（员工）为中心，以人为本。
周三多版《管理学》 周三多版《管理学》是教育部“面向世纪教学内容和课程体系改革计划”以及高等教育出版社“高等教育百门精品课程教材建设计划”的研究成果, 是国内最受欢迎的标准管理学教材之一，并被全国余所高等院校广泛采用并作为管理学教学及研究生入学考试、博士生入学考试的典范教材。 周三多版《管理学》章节目录编排包括按照管理职能划分的总论、决策与计划、组织、领导、控制、创新等六个内容部分，分为十八章。文都网校考研《管理学》在授课过程中，教师会依次深入剖析专业课核心知识点对应的复习资料、基础知识框架梳理及其解析内容等。目的是帮助学生发现题目设置和解答的规律性，掌握题目对应的知识点和熟悉解题的金钥匙。从而降低考研专业课的复习难度，迅速提高专业课知识水平，为下一阶段的学习做好储备与铺垫。 考试重点难点早知道: 一、德尔菲法的特点；法约尔的跳板原则；切斯特.巴纳德对组织理论的贡献；管理的理念和方法对管理过程和结果的影响；管理的效率和效果的区别；社会人假设；管理科学理论。 二、终极性价值观与工具性价值观；管理者的责任；管理伦理；：跨文化管理；组织外部环境。 三、组织中的信息管理工作；信息系统；与Ⅱ；；虚拟团队；非确定性决策；群体决策；程序和非程序决策。 四、计划；计划与决策的关系；“计划跟不上变化，所以制定计划没有意义”如何理解这句话；在企业中怎样进行计划管理。 五、战略计划；分析法；企业战略；计划审评技术；企业目标与企业的宗旨和使命的关系；目标管理利弊；有效推行目标管理的条件。 六、委员会;有机式组织;直线人员与参谋人员;矩阵组织结构;虚拟组织;组织扁平化;授权;组织“横向化”;非正式组织;管理幅度与管理层次。 七、素质模型;弹性福利计划;组织氛围;雇员援助计划;纯基薪计划;评价中心;周边绩效;薪酬水平;劳动关系;团队管理;人力资源管理与人事管理;人本管理;薪酬管理的外部公平、内部公平与员工公平;培训效果评估;员工福利;培训需求分析;工作分析。 八、建设性冲突;组织层面变革;减少破坏冲突的方法;对建设有中国特色的组织文化的看法;企业文化。 九、变革型领导;概念技能;领导与管理;领导应该具备的技能;权力在行使领导职能的作用。
Nginx 设置rewrite规则 Windows下环境为wamp ，在wamp 环境下，设置rewite规则时，很是简单，只需要打开Apache配置中的rewrite规则，项目中使用rewrite规则时只需创建.htaccess文件，在文件中编写规则，Apache会自动进行解析，但是在linux下则有些不一样。 Linux下环境若是lamp，则和wamp下是相同的，但当环境为lnmp时，需要注意进行如下配置方法： 根据所安装的环境情况，如果环境是lnmp集成环境，在配置rewrite规则时，因为集成环境，在安装完毕后，在安装的目录/usr/local/nginx/conf下，会生成一个文件“wordparss”，这个文件中是专门用于写rewrite规则所用，你可以在这个文件中书写rewrite规则，nginx 的rewrite规则与Apache的规则基本是相同的，只是在文件中书写的方法不同，wordpaess 问件中默认是有一个规则的，如： 利用location加载访问路径，“/”，指代由访问路径的根目录开始， 用if对加载的路径$request_filename 进行验证： 1 、-f 和！-f 用来判断文件是否存在 2、-d 和！-d 用来判断目录是否存在 3 、-e 和！-e 用来判断文件或目录是否存在 4、-x 和！-x 用来判断文件是否可执行 Flag标记： 1、last 相当于Apache里的[L]标记，表示完成rewrite 2、break 终止匹配, 不再匹配后面的规则 3、redirect 返回302临时重定向地址栏会显示跳转后的地址 4、permanent 返回301永久重定向地址栏会显示跳转后的地址 因为在lnmp集成环境下要配置虚拟域名是可以进行自动生成的，生成后会在/usr/local/nginx/conf/vhost 下生成一个以虚拟域名的名字的文件，如：lin_hp.its.conf,而所对应的rewrite规则最好在与域名相对应的配置文件中进行配置，这样不会说，如果有多个域名时，他们所对应的rewrite规则不同，在公共的wordpress文件中配置引起冲突，所配置的方法与在wprdpress文件中是相同的，如：
管理学原理（第二版）2012年4月考试考前练习题 一、单选题 1．在现实中我们经常能够看到这样一种现象：一所高校的校长往往是在某学科造诣很高的学术专家，一所医院的院医学专家。但是，有些学术专家家却未能成为称理者。针对上述象，正确的评价是（D ）。 A．就管理层次而言，技能重要B．搞技术的人往往不善于与弱，难以担当管理之职C．对高层管理者来念技不重要D．就管理层次而言，越往上概念技能越重要，越往下技术技能越重要 2．对组织内外部条件各方面内容进行综合和概括，进而分析和威胁的环境分析方法是指（ A ）。 A．SWOT分析B．PEST分析C．行业竞争结构分析D．波士顿矩阵分析 3．某公司总经理除了直接指挥几个地区分公司经理之外，他还设立了人事助理、财务顾问、公共关系顾问等职，并配备了相应的人顾问授予了直权限。这个过程反映了哪两种职权之间的转换？（D ） A．从职能职权到直线职权B．从职能职权到参谋职权C．从参谋职权到直线职权 D．从参谋职权到职能职权 4．某企业有较强的产品研究开发和市场营销能力，能够在产品设计、工艺技术和营销上不断发挥创造性；在产品质量、技术以及营销和服务等方面有着良好声誉。该企业适宜采用的竞争战略是（B ）。 A．低成本战略B．差异化战略C．重点化战略D．集中化战略5．车间主任老王最近发现，质检员小林一有空就与机关的小刘、设计室老张和门卫老杨等一起谈足球，个个眉飞色舞，而参加例会却经常没精打采。对此，车间主任老王最好采取什么措施？（C ） A．批评小林，并对他提出要求，以后不许在厂里和他人谈足球B．严格执行车间工作制度，对擅自违反规定者加以严厉惩罚C．在强调必须遵守工作制度的同时，在车间搞一个球迷协会，并亲自参加协会活动D．对上述情况不闻不问，任其自由发展 6．在组织绩效管理中，核心环节是（ C ）。 A．绩效设计B．绩效改进C．绩效评估D．绩效反馈 7．某公司为了扭转销售不力的局面，提升销售能手张先生出任销售部经理。到了年末，销售部业绩虽然较上一年略有下降，但张经理一人完成的订单占部门完成任务总量的53%。在如何评价张经理的工作一致。下述哪种评价最恰当？（ D ） A．"能抓住耗子的猫就是好猫"。张经理个人能予大力表彰 B．产品的销售客观上依赖张经理的努力他特别奖励 C．对张经理的奖惩应该依据部门部门目标，所以必须对张经理予以严惩D．张先生是一个优秀的销售人员，但不是一个合格的经理人员。公司需要尽可能在不影响其积极性的基础上重新调整其工作 8．《孙子兵法》是一部不朽的军事著作，时至今日，对企业经营战略仍有重要指导作用。孙子认为：作战的势态的。他指出“故兵无常势，水，谓之神”。从管理角度看，这一描述更符合（ C ）。 A．权责对等原则B．系统理论原则C．权变理论原则D．统一指挥原则 9．某公司随着经营规模的扩大，由王副总经理直管的营销队伍人数也从3人增加到近100人。最近，公司发现营，但又找不到确切的原因。从管理的角度看，出现这种情况的主要原因是（C ）。 A．营销人员太多，产生了鱼龙混杂的情况 B．副总经理投入管理的时间不够，致使营销人员产生了看法 C．副总经理的管理幅度太宽，以至于无法对营销队伍实行有效的管理 D．营销队伍的管理层次太多，使得副总经理无法与营销人员实现有效的沟通10．风险型决策与不确定型决策的区别主要在于（ D ）。 A．风险型决策承担的风险相对于不确定型决策来说要小 B．风险型决策面临的是多种可能的自然状态，而非确定型决策面临的是无法预知的自然状态 C．二者的区别不明显 D．风险型决策可以预测未来自然状态出现的概率，而非确定型决策不能预测概率 11．目标管理的基本过程为（B ）。 A．奖励和开始新的目标循环—建立目标体系—检查和评价—组织实施 B．建立目标体系—组织实施—检查和评价—奖励和开始新的目标循环 C．检查和评价—奖励和开始新的目标—建立目标体系—组织实施 D．奖励和开始新的目标循环—建立目标体系—组织实施—检查和评价12．在以下几项管理业务中，哪一项该由公司总经理亲自处理和拍板？（C ）A．关于公司各部门办公电脑的分配方案B．对一位客户投诉的例行处理C．对一家主要竞争对手突然大幅降价做出反应D．对一位公司违纪员工按规章进行处理 13．在管理决策中，许多管理人员认为只要选取满意的方案即可，而无须刻意追求最优的方案。对于这种观点，以下哪种解释最有说服力？（ D ）A．现实中不存在所谓的最优方案，所以选中的都只是满意方案 B．现实管理决策中常常由于时间太紧而来不及寻找最优方案 C．由于管理者对什么是最优决策无法达成共识，只有退而求其次 D．刻意追求最优方案，常常会由于代价太高而最终得不偿失 14．刚进公司的几个大学生很自然地形成了一个团队，大家兄弟相待，一起解决各自遇到的难题，包括各自负责的经营工作。几年下来，这个团队的凝聚力很强，每个人都非常珍视这个团队。又过了几年，这个团队的成员普遍得到较好的发展，但地位、收入等方面并没有形成多大的差距，然而大家却都感到团队的凝聚力没有以前那么强大了。造成这个团队松散的原因是什么？（B ）A．团队成员的能力增强了，独立性提高了B．没有更高层次的目标推动C．团队成员之间因工作繁忙而沟通太少D．没有及时吸收新的团队成员 15．曹雪芹虽食不果腹，仍然坚持《红楼梦》的创作，是出于其（C ）。 A．自尊需要B．情感需要C．自我实现的需要D．以上都不是 二、多选题 1．组织结构的内容主要包括（BCDE）。 A．计划结构B．职能结构C．层次结构D．部门结构 E．职权结构 2．法约尔首先对企业管理职能做了科学的概括，他认为企业管理职能包括（ABCDE）。 A．计划B．组织C．指挥D．协调 E．控制 3．组织常用的控制手段有（ABCD ）。 A．计划控制B．时间控制C．数量控制D．质量控制 E．政策控制 4．学习型组织强调的修炼内容有（ABCE）。 A．不断地追求自我超越B．善于改善心智模式C．善于为组织建立共同愿景 D．彻底改造流程E．善于学会系统思考 5．常见的部门划分方法有（ABCDE）。 A．职能部门化B．产品部门化C．地区部门化D．服务对象部门化E．工艺过程部门化 6．团队精神包含的内容有（ABC ）。 A．团队凝聚力B．团队合作意识C．团队士气D．团队组织E．团队领导 三、判断题 1．利用波士顿矩阵分析方法，当产品的市场增长上应投入必要的资金，力求提高自己的市场份额。错 2．从赫兹伯格的双因素理论看，组织的政策员之报酬、工作环境等因素属于激励因素。错 3．信息沟通必须具备的要素有三个：发送者、接收者、所传递的内容。错 4．体现了“集中政策，分散经营”原则的组织结构形式是事业部制组织。对 5．平衡计分卡法最突出的特点是：将组织的远景、使命和发展战略与组织的绩效评价系统联系起来，它把组织的使命和战略转变展战略有明确认识，以实现战略和绩效的有机结合。对 6．管理者应具备的技能被划分为三类：技术技能、人际技能和概念技能。就管理层次而言，越往上人际技能越重要，越往下概念技能越重要。错 7．非程序性决策，是指对经常出现的重复性问题,并生产作本控制、对员工奖惩的实施等。错 8．横向一体化战略是指从产品的供、产、销等一系列相关业现有经营业务和规模的发展战略。错 9．组织的一般环境因素是指对组织目标的实现有直接影响的外部环境因素，一般包括资源供应者、竞争者、服务对象、政府管理部门及社会上的各种利益代表组织。错 10．企业的社会责任就是使利润最大化。错 11．马克斯·韦伯对管理理论的突出贡献是：从理论上把管理科学提到一个新的高度。错 12．有的观点认为组织应该鼓励冲突，认为冲突不突对于组织有效运作是绝对必要的。对
Nginx安装手册 1nginx安装环境 nginx是C语言开发，建议在linux上运行，本教程使用Centos6.5作为安装环境。 ?gcc 安装nginx需要先将官网下载的源码进行编译，编译依赖gcc环境，如果没有gcc环境，需要安装gcc：yum install gcc-c++ ?PCRE PCRE(Perl Compatible Regular Expressions)是一个Perl库，包括perl 兼容的正则表达式库。nginx的http模块使用pcre来解析正则表达式，所以需要在linux上安装pcre库。yum install -y pcre pcre-devel 注：pcre-devel是使用pcre开发的一个二次开发库。nginx也需要此库。 ?zlib zlib库提供了很多种压缩和解压缩的方式，nginx使用zlib对http包的内容进行gzip，所以需要在linux上安装zlib库。 yum install -y zlib zlib-devel ?openssl OpenSSL 是一个强大的安全套接字层密码库，囊括主要的密码算法、常用的密钥和证书封装管理功能及SSL协议，并提供丰富的应用程序供测试或其它目的使用。 nginx不仅支持http协议，还支持https（即在ssl协议上传输http），所以需要在linux 安装openssl库。 yum install -y openssl openssl-devel 2编译安装 将nginx-1.8.0.tar.gz拷贝至linux服务器。 解压： tar -zxvf nginx-1.8.0.tar.gz cd nginx-1.8.0 1、configure ./configure --help查询详细参数（参考本教程附录部分：nginx编译参数） 参数设置如下： ./configure \
经济与管理学院 《管理学原理》实习报告 系别 专业班级 学生姓名 学号 实习报告题目参观海马汽车有限公司报告 实习课程名称管理学原理 课程实习形式参观学习 课程实习时间2009年12月31日 课程实习地点海马汽车有限公司 指导教师 二ΟΟ九年一月三日
实习目的：了解现代先进生产技术，开拓视野，领略现代企业管理模式，体会《管理学原理》所授课程的实践内涵 实习内容： 1、海马汽车公司整体简介，了解汽车企业文化 2、参观汽车总装车间，通晓汽车生产装配流程 3、观看跑道试车，体验汽车质量和风采 单位调查： 一汽海南汽车有限公司(FHC)位于海南省海口市，是以1988年购进的美国福特汽车公司菲律宾冲压厂和装配厂的全套设备为基础，引进美国、英国、日本的自动焊装及涂装等工艺生产线，建设而成的国有大型企业。经过十余年的发展，已拥有技术先进的冲压、焊装、涂装、总装汽车工艺生产线，机械加工、动力、理化试验、全自动综合立体仓库等辅助生产设施，和计算机管理系统，计算机辅助设计、制造系统，成为国家轻型客车与轿车的整车定点生产基地。年设计生产能力为整车5万辆。1992年，公司与日本马自达汽车公司(MC)合资成立海南马自达汽车冲压有限公司，引进开发323轿车、海马旅行车、面包车和MPV 系列车型，树立起高品质的海南马自达品牌。集团化发展是增强企业竞争力、实现产业结构调整的必经之路，公司于1998年1月18日进入一汽集团，轿车、MPV等产品纳入了集团和国家汽车产业统一规划。 海南马自达销售有限公司成立于1996年，注册资本1000万元。总经销海南马自达系列产品。公司在北京、上海、广州和成都设立了4个区域办事机构和一个车辆中转储运中心，在全国几十座大中城市都建立起集整车销售、配件供应、售后服务、信息反馈四位一体的海南马自达销售服务店，形成了全国性销售服务网络。公司率先推出“保姆式”服务方案，以顾客和产品为核心，梳理从市场调研、产品定位、运输保养、现场销售到售后服务全过程，创新人性化、制度化、精细化的市场销售与服务方式。 参观实习过程：
管理学课程简介（一） 1 管理学研究的四大职能不包括（）。 A、计划 B、组织 C、控制 D、反馈 正确答案：D 2 德鲁克的管理学思想是以（）为导向的。 A、目标 B、过程 C、控制 D、综合 正确答案：A 3 应用型管理学的内容有管理学历史、管理学流派、管理学前沿。（）正确答案：× 管理学课程简介（二） 1 管理学所要培养的四个能力不包括（）。 A、科研能力 B、应用能力 C、阅读能力 D、沟通能力
正确答案：C 2 问题导向的课堂中以（）为主体。 A、教师 B、教材 C、教具 D、学生 正确答案：D 3 下面哪一项不是导向性课程的课程要求（）。 A、个人意见 B、课前预习 C、课堂参与 D、多项沟通 正确答案：A 4 问题导向的课堂讨论重点在于逻辑分析。（） 正确答案：√ 5 普华永道变革整合小组编著的《管理悖论》是管理学的入门教材。（）正确答案：× 管理学课程简介（三） 1 （）是我们组织的基本的社会单元。 A、政府 B、家庭 C、学校
D、军队 正确答案：B 2 下面不属于读书报告内容的是（）。 A、著作基本信息 B、作者主要观点 C、问题描述 D、个人心得 正确答案：C 3 政府、企业、慈善机构和学校都是组织。（）正确答案：√ 4 成员目标是共同目标的实现基础。（） 正确答案：× 组织及其机理（一） 1 创建组织的根本目的是（）。 A、达成共同目标 B、单纯盈利 C、对抗其他组织 D、行使行政职能 正确答案：A 2 组织低效、混乱的表现不包括（）。 A、资源浪费 B、内部消耗
C、精诚合作 D、争权夺利 正确答案：C 3 研究归纳推理的逻辑被称为归纳逻辑。（） 正确答案：√ 4 组织的形成完全依赖于外部环境。（） 正确答案：× 组织及其机理（二） 1 影响公司创业的关键因素不包括（）。 A、销售渠道 B、共同目标 C、创业团队 D、组织规范 正确答案：A 2 最先开创组织管理理论研究的美国著名管理学家是（）。 A、法约尔 B、巴纳德 C、泰罗 D、德鲁克 正确答案：B 3一个组织形成的外围促成因素不包括（）。 A、领导人
龙源期刊网 https://www.doczj.com/doc/555322367.html, 全面从严治党是全面建成小康社会的根本保证 作者：张明学 来源：《青年时代》2018年第02期 摘要：中国共产党“四个全面”战略布局之间是既相互贯通又紧密联系的统一体，即“全面建成小康社会”是处于统领地位的战略目标，而“全面深化改革”、“全面推进依法治国”、“全面从严治党”是实现这一目标的三大战略举措。本文试从全面从严治党和全面建成小康社会两个维度作为重点阐述二者之间的辩证关系，深刻理解全面从严治党是全面建成小康社会的根本保证这一原理。 关键词：四个全面；中国梦；党的建设 实现全面建成小康社会是一个需要打组合拳的新模式过程，我国是一个拥有13多亿人口的发展中大国，全面深化改革是实现全面建成小康社会的不竭动力，但是改革的过程是破旧立新，存在着“阵痛”，会“牵一发而动全身”，涉及的利益冲突和矛盾是方方面面的。常言说：“打铁还需自身硬”。要确保党始终成为推进各项事业改革的坚强领导核心，就必须全面从严治党，加强和改善党的领导。 一、全面深化改革必须不断加强和改善党的领导 首先，要牢牢把握全面深化改革的正确方向，必须在思想上从严治党，因为只有思想一致，才能步调一致。全面深化改革，就必须下狠心，开猛药，对一些已经固化的利益集团开炮，在整个过程中必须要认识到改革的艰难，如果不形成合力，就不可能获得真正的成功。要必须把广大党员干部的思想认识统一到中央的决策上来，把中央的各项部署分解和落实到广大干部群众实际工作中，确保全面深化改革能够沿着有利于党和人民事业发展的方向不断前进。一是要在思想上从严治党，就必须以思想理论建设为根本，重点抓好学习中央的各项决议决策和习近平总书记的系列讲话精神，引导和教育党员干部政治素养不断提高，促使大家矢志不渝为中国特色社会主义共同理想而奋斗；二是要以党性教育为抓手，以“三严三实”精神和“两学一做”活动为契机重点抓好党的优良传统和作风建设，教育引导党员干部特别是领导干部要牢固树立正确的世界观、权力观、事业观；三是要以道德建设为基础，重点抓好四德素养的提高，培育和践行各级干部对社会主义核心价值观的高度认同，教育引导党员干部做社会主义道德的示范者和维护者。 其次，全面深化改革过程中各项决策的形成和推进，必须加强和突显各级领导的责任意识。全面深化改革会牵涉到经济、政治、文化、社会、生态文明和党的建设等多个领域，会对一系列体制机制进行大刀阔斧的改革，是一项事关复杂利益进行不断调整的系统工程。因此，每一项改革措施的决策和推进，都需要站在全局的高度进行整体谋划、协调推进，在决策的过
nginx配置解析详解(一) 现在针对nginx源码分析的blog和文章已经很多了，之前我也看过不少，大家的分析都很不错。太多重复的内容就不写了，主要想针对在我分析代码和查阅blog的过程中，发现的一些比较晦涩或者某些细节有待展开讨论的地方，给出我的自己理解和看法，希望跟大家交流和学习。 使用的nginx版本是nginx-1.0.6，我最开始看的代码是0.7.62，新的版本在功能和稳定性上做了很多的工作。在分析的时候，我尽量简单明了，不太重要的地方一带而过，具体地大家可以去读代码。相对复杂或者晦涩的地方，将详细展开。 首先我们从配置文件开始，下面的分析是建立在网友对nginx的配置文件结构有大概熟悉为前提，这样才可以很好的理解代码。这里有必要提醒一点：原始代码目录中 ngx_modules这个结构，是找不到它的定义和初始化，要看到它，你必须执行configure，make，在原来的代码目录下会出现一个objs文件夹，里面的3个文件ngx_auto_config.h，ngx_auto_headers.h，ngx_modules.c，需要在建source insight工程时也包含进去，这样有利于我们把握整个代码结构。有意思的是，nginx的configure文件是作者手工写的，里面有许多管理代码工程的方法，有时间的话，也是值得学习下的。 1.ngx_cycle_t *ngx_init_cycle(ngx_cycle_t *old_cycle); 配置文件的解析相关的处理主要在ngx_init_cycle函数中被调用。既然如此，我们就先说说ngx_init_cycle函数吧。 它需要一个参数类型为ngx_cycle_t *，返回值也是一个ngx_cycle_t*，与此同时我们注意到参数名为old_cycle，那么这个函数的作用是啥呢？很明显是由old得到一个new。其中ngx_cycle_t的结构保存一些全局的配置和信息。 这个函数具体作用将在reconfig(重读配置文件)的时候得到体现，可以理解为old_cycle 是当前正在使用的配置信息，当配置文件做了某些修改之后，ngx_init_cycle通过old_cycle 中的一些数据，对new_cycle进行一些设置，在经过进一步的配置解析之后，就可以得到一个new cycle。 2.char *ngx_conf_parse(ngx_conf_t *cf, ngx_str_t *filename) 当我们使用sourceinsight查看这个函数的调用情况时，会发现调用它的地方很多。其实，入口点就在ngx_init_cycle中对ngx_conf_parse调用，后面的所有的调用可以看作是在此之后的递归调用。为什么会是这个样子呢？原因在于nginx是一边读取配置信息，一边解析执行相关的处理，具体一点讲，就是“读一行，执行一行”，一行的定义在这里是指以分号或者是“{”和“}”等结尾的一行，例如：我们解析到http {}，我们就调用针对httpblock的处理，在处理的时候我们又会碰到server {}，自然就会调用server block的处理。。。以此类推！。
对“全面从严治党”的理解与体会 常言道：基础不牢，地动山摇。基层党组织发挥着战斗堡垒作用，基层党组织战斗力的强弱直接关系着党的整体战斗力的强弱。推动全面从严治党向基层延伸，认真落实习总书记讲话精神，才能厚植党的执政根基。 全面从严治党，必须加强基层组织建设，夯实基层基础。党的工作最坚实的力量支撑在基层，最突出的矛盾问题也在基层，必须把抓基层、打基础作为长远之计和固本之策，扎实推进“双基”建设，推动基层组织全面进步、全面过硬。 全面从严治党，必须推动党纪党规教育向基层延伸，唤醒党员党纪意识。开展“两学一做”学习教育，推动教育覆盖每一个基层党组织和党员，唤醒党员意识，促使党员干部尊崇党章、坚定理想信念，树立看齐意识，自觉培养高尚道德情操，守住纪律底线。 全面从严治党，必须把惩治腐败向基层延伸，维护群众切身利益。要教育引导党员干部强化规则意识、规矩意识，培养法治思维、法治理念、法治精神，带头遵守国家法律，带头遵守党规党纪，加强对违反制度行为的监督和查处。 全面从严治党，必须将管党治党意识，管党治党责任深入基层。首先基层党组织要树立正确的政绩观，把抓好党建作为最大的政绩，强化党建意识，对全面从严治党主动担责，认真履责，扎实尽责。坚持党建工作和中心工作一起谋划、
一起部署、一起考核，把每条战线、每个领域、每个环节的党建工作抓具体、抓深入，坚决防止“一手硬、一手软”。其次基层党组织主要责任人对党建工作要亲自抓、负总责，班子其他成员要切实落实党建工作责任和工作部署，细化到人，量化到岗，以责任落实推动工作落实。最后对工作不力，党建工作落后的地方和单位负责人，要及时进行诫勉谈话，对管党治党不力造成不良影响和严重后果的要严格问责，严肃处理。
管理学专业介绍 管理学是系统研究管理活动的基本规律和一般方法的科学，学科分类上属一级学科。管理学是适应现代社会化大生产的需要产生的，它的目的是：研究在现有的条件下，如何通过合理的组织和配置人、财、物等因素，提高生产力的水平。管理学是一门综合性的交叉学科，更是现目前研究生报考的一大热点，更是跨专业报考的热点，每年都有相当数量的同学报考管理学。 管理学下设的二级学科有：企业管理，工商管理，会计学，，运筹与管理，旅游与酒店管理，公共事业管理，人力资源管理、市场营销等。 就业情况 适应在大中型企业特别是合资类与外向型企业、金融机构、政府机关、其它社会经济单位的信息管理部门、综合管理部门、计算中心等相关部门从事信息管理与信息系统的建设、运营等管理工作。 工商管理类 企业管理：各类工商企业、银行、证券公司等金融机构，会计师事务所等中介机构，以及政府经济管理部门。从事管理以及教学、科研方面的工作。 市场营销：到企业、科研院所、高等院校等从事管理决策、营销管理、销售、公关、品牌传播、理论研究与教学，或者是实际操作与管理性工作。 会计学：主要到企事业单位及政府部门从事会计实务以及教学、科研方面的工作。 财务管理：在高等院校和科研机构从事学术研究，在工商企业、金融机构、政府与事业单位、中介机构从事财务管理、咨询服务及其他相关经济管理工作。 人力资源管理：到企业、事业单位及政府部门从事人力资源管理以及教学、科研方面工作。 旅游管理：主要到各级旅游行政管理部门、旅游企事业单位从事旅游管理、经营或研究工作。 就业前景观察
管理学中部分二级学科近几年就业情况比较理想，比如工商管理里面的市场营销、会计学、企业管理、财务管理、人力资源管理等专业就业情况一直不错。公共管理类专业的研究生早些年就业非常一般，大部分到高校任教或者从事理论研究，但在未来几年估计公务员及协会等事业单位的就业会成为一个亮点。 具体来讲，在未来几年内，其就业前景主要包括： (1)传统管理职位，有很大一部分职业经理人的成长最开始来自基层锻炼经验。虽然说很多企业(一部分外资企业除外)目前开出的待遇水平让人难以接受，但从长远来看，对我们的发展还是非常有帮助的。特别是那些有心又有条件上MBA的同学来说——研究生就业环境恶化，但是具有一定年限工作经验的MBA毕业生在人力市场还是很受欢迎，如质量管理、专业项目管理等； (2)人力资源管理职位，以前的大学是没有专门开设人力资源管理专业的，它只是工商管理专业的一门专业课。近几年来，人力资源管理人员的地位一直是水涨船高，在公司的人员配置、战略决策、发展规划等关键问题上都处于智囊团位置，比如人力资源总监、薪酬经理、招聘经理、培训经理等； (3)市场营销职位，从历年人才市场统计数据来看，市场营销职位的需求经久不衰。销售职位的供需两旺一直是职场的一道风景线，即使在不同行业，市场营销类职位也总是招聘的热门，比如营销总监、营销主管、管理培训生、销售培训生等。 (4)物流管理职位，北京奥运会和上海世博会推动了中国物流业的进一步发展，招贤绣球四处高挂。而且，国内企业对物流行业成本压缩的诉求也刺激了物流人才的需求。目前，市场对物流人才的需求量超过600余万，被列为我国12类紧缺人才之一。可以说，中国的物流业正处在蓄势待发的阶段，极具市场潜力，前景十分广阔。大家可以报考报关员考试，或者是跟单员资格认证等。 (5)公共管理职位，这主要是公务员以及协会、学校等事业单位提供的就业机会，这也是管理学专业研究生的一个去向。尤其是目前一些机构推动改革，实现工作人员的知识化、年轻化，相信这部分就业会很快成为一大亮点。 (6)咨询类职位，这部分涉及到人力资源、市场营销、企业管理、物流管理等多个层面，除MBA、EMBA外，硕士研究生到咨询公司就业的也是比较多的。中国本土的咨询业还处于一个初步发展时期，文都教育认为，在未来五年内，大多数大中型企业都会需要外脑的帮助，咨询人员的需求会进一步扩大，更多管理学专业方面的高级人才会进入这个就业领域。
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管理的定义： 1泰勒的定义：管理是一门怎样建立目标,然后用最好的方法经过他人的努力来达到的艺术。2法约尔的定义：管理就是计划,组织,控制,指挥,协调。3西蒙的定义：管理就是决策。4马克斯韦伯定义：管理就是协调活动。5美国管理协会的定义：管理是通过他人的努力来达到目标6本课程的定义：管理，就是通过计划、组织、领导和控制，协调以人为中心的组织资源与职能活动，以有效实现目标的社会活动。对管理定义的归纳 1强调作业过程：管理是计划、组织、领导、控制的过程；2强调管理的核心环节：管理就是决策；3强调对人的管理：管理就是通过其他人把事办好；4强调管理者个人作用：管理就是领导；5强调管理的本质：管理就是协调。 管理的属性 1管理二重性原理：管理既有自然属性，又有社会属性。2自然属性：同生产力相联系的管理的普遍性，是由生产力决定的。3社会属性：同生产关系相联系的管理的特殊性，是由生产关系决定的4管理的科学性：强调其客观规律性；5管理的艺术性：强调其灵活性与创造性。 管理者的定义 1关于管理者的传统观点：强调职位、职权、下属。2关于管理者的现代观点：强调对组织富有贡献的责任。3管理者的定义：管理者是指履行管理职能，对实现组织目标负有贡献责任的人。 管理者的分类
（1）按管理层次划分：高层管理者：决策层负责制定企业的现行政策，并计划未来的发展方向中层管理者：执行层执行企业组织政策，指挥一线管理人员或操作人员工作基层管理者：作业层一般只限于督导操作人员的工作，不会指挥其他管理人员 （2）按管理工作的性质与领域划分综合管理者；职能管理者。（3）按职权关系的性质划分直线管理人员；参谋人员。 管理者的素质：是指管理者的与管理相关的内在基本属性与质量。管理者的素质主要表现为品德、知识、能力与身心条件（管理者的技能，管理者的基本素质详情看书） 管理的环境：是指存在于社会组织内部与外部的影响管理实施和管理功效的各种力量、条件和因素的总和。2管理环境的分类：经济环境；技术环境；政治环境；社会与心理环境。一般环境与任务环境内部环境与外部环境管理与环境的关系：对应，交换，影响 管理的机制：是指管理系统的结构及其运行机理。2管理机制的特征：(1)客观性(2)自动性(3)可调性3管理机制的重要性：管理机制是决定管理功效的核心问题4管理机制以客观规律为依据。5管理机制以管理结构为基础和载体。一个组织的管理结构主要包括以下方面：(1)组织功能与目标；(2)组织的基本构成方式；(3)组织结构；(4)环境结构。分析内容：1有什么样的管理结构，就有什么样的管理机制。2有什么样的管理机制，就有什么样的管理行为，就有什么样的管理效果 1管理机制本质上是管理系统的内在联系、功能及运行原理。2类型：主要包括运行机制、动力机制和约束机制三个子机制。3运行机制的涵义。
深入理解新发展理念 创新、协调、绿色、开放、共享的发展理念，我在党的十八届五中全会和其他场合已经讲了不少，今天不从抓工作的角度全面讲了，而是结合历史和现实，结合一些重大问题，从理论上、宏观上讲讲。 第一，着力实施创新驱动发展战略。把创新摆在第一位，是因为创新是引领发展的第一动力。发展动力决定发展速度、效能、可持续性。对我国这么大体量的经济体来讲，如果动力问题解决不好，要实现经济持续健康发展和“两个翻番”是难以做到的。当然，协调发展、绿色发展、开放发展、共享发展都有利于增强发展动力，但核心在创新。抓住了创新，就抓住了牵动经济社会发展全局的“牛鼻子”。 坚持创新发展，是我们分析近代以来世界发展历程特别是总结我国改革开放成功实践得出的结论，是我们应对发展环境变化、增强发展动力、把握发展主动权，更好引领新常态的根本之策。 回顾近代以来世界发展历程，可以清楚看到，一个国家和民族的创新能力，从根本上影响甚至决定国家和民族前途命运。 16世纪以来，人类社会进入前所未有的创新活跃期，几百年里，人类在科学技术方面取得的创新成果超过过去几千年的总和。特别是18世纪以来，世界发生了几次重大科技革命，如近代物理学诞生、蒸汽机和机械、电力和运输、相对论和量子论、电子和信息技术发展等。在此带动下，世界经济发生多次产业革命，如机械化、电气化、自动化、信息化。每一
次科技和产业革命都深刻改变了世界发展面貌和格局。一些国家抓住了机遇，经济社会发展驶入快车道，经济实力、科技实力、军事实力迅速增强，甚至一跃成为世界强国。发端于英国的第一次产业革命，使英国走上了世界霸主地位；美国抓住了第二次产业革命机遇，赶超英国成为世界第一。从第二次产业革命以来，美国就占据世界第一的位置，这是因为美国在科技和产业革命中都是领航者和最大获利者。 中华民族是勇于创新、善于创新的民族。前面说到我国历史上的发展和辉煌，同当时我国科技发明和创新密切相关。我国古代在天文历法、数学、农学、医学、地理学等众多科技领域取得举世瞩目的成就。这些发明创造同生产紧密结合，为农业和手工业发展提供了有力支撑。英国哲学家培根这样讲到：印刷术、火药、指南针，这3种发明曾改变了整个世界事物的面貌和状态，以致没有一个帝国、教派和人物能比这3种发明在人类事业中产生更大的力量和影响。一些资料显示，16世纪以前世界上最重要的300项发明和发现中，我国占173项，远远超过同时代的欧洲。我国发展历史上长期处于世界领先地位，我国思想文化、社会制度、经济发展、科学技术以及其他许多方面对周边发挥了重要辐射和引领作用。近代以来，我国逐渐由领先变为落后，一个重要原因就是我们错失了多次科技和产业革命带来的巨大发展机遇。 当今世界，经济社会发展越来越依赖于理论、制度、科技、文化等领域的创新，国际竞争新优势也越来越体现在创新能力上。谁在创新上先行一步，谁就能拥有引领发展的主动权。当前，新一轮科技和产业革命蓄势
1、管理过程之父法约尔法国1841-1925 西方古典管理理论在法国的最杰出代表亨利·法约尔（Henry Fayol）法国科学管理专家。管理学先驱之一 法约尔的管理功能理论认为管理功能包括计划、组织、命令、协调和控制。管理企业的六项基本活动是：技术、商业、财务、安全、会计和管理（核心）。管理不是专家或经理独有的特权和责任，而是企业全体成员（包括工人）的共同职责，只是职位越高，管理责任越大。他在实践基础上总结出14条管理原则，即分工、职权与职责、纪律、统一指挥、统一领导、公益高于私利、个人报酬、集中化、等级链、秩序、公正、保持人员的稳定、首创精神、集体精神。其主要内容包括：任何一个下属组织只应该接受一个上级的命令，这是组织统一行动，协调力量和一致努力的必要条件；从最高权力层直至低层管理人员应组成类似金字塔式的组织，使发出命令、解决争端和传递信息都经过法定的渠道；一个管理者能有效地直接领导、指挥和监督的下属人数的极限一般为12个；组织应自上而下地管理，最终的管理责任在上层，而不是将管理责任分散，甚至消失在下层；管理的权力和责任共存，责任是权力的自然结果和必不可少的对等物，责任下放了，权力也必须下放。法约尔的管理功能理论在欧洲有深远的影响，也曾为美国传统行政学派所接受。 2、彼得·德鲁克(Peter F．Drucker) （1909.11.19~2005.11.11)一生共著书39本，在《哈佛商业评论》发表文章30余篇，被誉为“现代管理学之父” 1954年，德鲁克提出了一个具有划时代意义的概念——目标管理(Management By Objectives，简称为MBO)，它是德鲁克所发明的最重要、最有影响的概念，并已成为当代管理学的重要组成部分。 目标管理的最大优点也许是它使得一位经理人能控制自己的成就。自我控制意味着更强的激励：一种要做得最好而不是敷衍了事的愿望。它意味着更高的成就目标和更广阔的眼界。目标管理的主要贡献之一就是它使得我们能用自我控制的管理来代替由别人统治的管理。 3、赫伯特·西蒙(Herbert·A·Simon，1916～?)美国管理学家和社会科学家 为决策贯彻管理的全过程，管理就是决策，组织就是决策，组织是由作为决策者的个人所组成的系统。综观其著作，除上述观点为组织方面的外，其余主要是发展了决策的科学方法体系。 4.哈罗德·孔茨（H．Koontz）；美国管理学家，管理过程学派的主要代表人物之一 孔茨利用这些管理职能对管理理论进行分析、研究和阐述，最终得以建立起管理过程学派。孔茨是管理过程学派的集大成者，他继承了法约尔的理论，并把法约尔的理论更加系统化、条理化，使管理过程学派成为管理各学派中最具有影响力的学派。 管理过程学派的主要特点是将管理理论同管理人员所执行的管理职能，也就是管理人员所从事的工作联系起来。他们认为，无论组织的性质多么不同(如经济组织、政府组织、宗教组织和军事组织等)，组织所处的环境有多么不同，但管理人员所从事的管理职能却是相同的，管理活动的过程就是管理的职能逐步展开和实现的过程。因此，管理过程学派把管理的职能作为研究的对象，他们先把管理的工作划分为若干职能，然后对这些职能进行研究，阐明每项职能的性质、特点和重要性，论述实现这些职能的原则和方法。管理过程学派认为，应用这种方法就可以把管理工作的主要方面加以理论概括并有助于建立起系统的管理理论，用以指导管理的实践。 5、亚当·斯密（1723～1790）是经济学的主要创立者。 6、泰罗（Frederick Winslow Taylor）（1856-1915）是美国古典管理学家，科学管理理论的主要倡导者，被后人尊称为“科学管理之父”。科学管理原理》是他的代表作，较为全