Int.JournalforHousingScience,Vol.32,No.4pp.301-309,2008
PublishedintheUnited States
RECENTTRENDSINSINGLEFAMILYHOUSEDESIGN:ISTHE
CHARACTERISTICSLOVENIANTRADITIONALHOUSEUNDERTH
REAT?
R.Sendi
UrbanPlanningInstituteoftheRepublicofSlovenia
Slovenia
ABSTRACT
Throughouttheyears,ithasalwaysbeenpossibletoidentifyspecificformsofarchitecturaldesign offamilyhousesthatareauthentictospecificregionsofSlovenia.Thesecharacteristicformspres entsomeoftheimportanthistoricalmorpho!ogical elementsthat mark theindividualidentityofthedifferentterritorialregions.Inrecent-
years,however,therehasbeenanoticeablechangeinthewayfamilyhousesarebeingdesigned.N ew,completelydifferentarchitecturaldesignsarerapidlyreplacingthepreviouscharacteristicfo rms.
Theresultsofoursurveyshowthatthese…modern?designapproaches,initiallyintroducedinurb anandsuburbanareas,arerapidlyspreadingtocountrysideandruralareas.OJdfarm-housesarebeingtomdownaridreplacedbynewbui ldingsofentirely…foreign?design.Wearguet hat,ifallowedtocontinueunchecked,theseprocessespresenta dangeroftraditionalarchitecturaldesignsbecomingextinctihthenear future.
Keywords:Single-family house,self-build,architecturaldesign,builtenvironment,housingstandards.
0146-6518/04/301-309,2008
Copyright?2008 IAHS
2 Sendi
Introduction HousebuildinginSloveniaischaracterisedbytwomainhousingtypologies.Onthe onehandi stheconstructionofindividualfamilyhomes,dispersedatvery
lowdensity,andontheotheristheorganised housingconstructionofhousingestates,predominantlyconsistingofblocksofflatsandhigh-risebuildingsathighdensity.Thelatterusedtobereferredtoassocialhousingbeforemostofthed wellingsinthesehousingestatesweresoldofftothesittingtenantsduringthe privatisationprocessintheearly1990s.Thisdiscussionfocusesontheformertypology,thesingl e-familyhouse.
Statistical data from the 2002 population census show that more than two-thirds ofSlovenia'spopulation live insingle-family houses. Oneexplanation forthe relativelyhigh proportion ofsingle-family houses isthegenerally recognisedfact(supported
by variousresearchfindings)thatthemajorityofSlovenianhouseholdsaspiretoliveina single-family house, often situated inthe middle ofa large plot surrounded by welllandscaped gardens. Another explanation isthatbefore the introduction ofthemarket system in the early l990s, housebuilding presented the only form of
capital investment that was available to private individuals since there were no
otherprofitable formsofinvestment. Itisalso importanttopoint outthatthemajority (85 %)of single-familyhousesareconstructedthroughself-helpmeans,orself-build approaches,asmorecommonlyreferred tointheliterature.Itistheself-buildsingle-familyhousewhichweconcentrateoninthispaper.
AccordingtoGol l andandBlake(2004)self-buildpracticeishighlysignificant.inmainlandEurope(forexampleinGermany,Franceandt heNetherlands)whileit playsalesserroleintheUK,wherepeoplenormallybuyaplotofland,co mmission an architect to draw up the plans and hire a contractor to build the house. The motivation forundertakingthiscumbersometaskisthestrongdesireforhouseholds toacquirea…dreamhome?andtoprovidegreaterchoiceinthewayinwhichhousingis developed.
Self-build practicein Slovenia is undoubtedly firmly seated in
the mainlandEuropecontextwherethehouseholdhasasignificantphysicalinputtothe constr uctionprocess. InthecaseofSlovenia,thisinvolveshigh levelsofpersonalparticipation
whereby self-builders build all or the largest part of the dwelling themselves.Thisisusuallydonewiththehelpoffriends,neighbours,relativesandthecommunit yatlarge,apracticedescribedbyBarlow(2001)as'group'or'community' self-
build.Thehighproportion ofpro-activehouse-building practice inSloveniais,aboveall,duetothefactthatmanyhouseholdssimplycannotaffordtopaythecostof constructioncompanies.Itisaformofcommunityself-buildpracticesimilartotheone described by Bhattiet al.(1994) which is characterisedby the self-builders carryingoutthemajority oftheactualconstruction workthemselves incontrasttothosewhoonlyretainresponsibilityforthemanagementofthebuildingproject—thebuilding work itselfbeingcarried outby anumber ofsubcontractors. Bhattietal(ibd.)observethatthishousebuildingmethodinvolvespeopleworkingtogetherasa
Characteristic SlovenianTraditional House 303 group,and theysuggestthatitmaybedescribedas…social?housingbecauseitisaimedathousehol dswhowouldnotgenerallybeabletoraisethefinancenecessarytobuylandandthematerialsfora house.
Self-
buildasamodeofhousingdevelopmentmeetsseveralobjectives.Inadditionto costsaving,s elf-
buildalsoprovidessignificantadvantagesintermsofimproved managementofthebuildingpr ocessandcontroloverthelayoutandappearanceofthe dwelling.Itprovidesawayforpeopleto expresstheirownindividualityinahousingproject.AsEdgeandDuncanhavesuggested,"self-buildhousingisfarmoreconsistentwiththecultoftheindividualthanmanyconventionalmodel sofhousingprovision....Thehomeswhichareproducedarelikelytobeindividualandtailoredto particularneeds.Self-buildostensiblyoffersanexpressroutefromtheunderclasstothemiddleclass"(EdgeandDunca n,1998,quotedinGollandandBlake,2004,p.328). Inotherwordsself-buildempowershouseholdstotakeadvantageoftheirownhousingdestinies. Itispossiblythemostdiversehousingsolution
asitallows householdchoice,viatheopportunitytodeCldetheplot on whichthehouseholds wantstoliveand,assuch,enableseachdifferentgroupto'gainandaddsomething differenttotheprocess'(GollandandBlake,2004). Butbesidesthepositiveaspectspresentedbythis'gainingandadding'somethingtotheprocess,t hereisalsoevidenceofseveralundesiredconsequencesthatresultfromthesehousebuildingme thods.Thisdiscussionisanattemptathighlightingthenegativeeffectsofthesepracticeswhich,i nouropinion,needtobeurgentlyaddressedandforwhichappropriatesolutionsneedto befoundpromptly.
Single-Family HouseBuilding in Slovenia
Ashasalreadybeenstated,livinginasingle-familyhouseisoneofthemajorlifeambitionsoftheaverageSlovenianhousehold.Mostofthesi
ngle-
familyhousingistobefound,ofcourse,inthecountrysideandinruralsettlements.Duetoinadeq uateplanningcontrolandinappropriateplanningpolicy,thesingle-
familyhousehasalsobeenallowed,throughoutthepost-
warperioduptothepresentday,tograduallyeataway at the fringes of urban areas thus contributing to urban sprawl
and suburbanisation.Intheselocations,thesingle-familyhouseisoftenextravagantly implanted inthe middle ofexpansive plots (sometimes lacking basic communalinfrastructure).Inthe ma J rityofcases,theplotsexceed 1hainsize.Theaveragesingle-family isnormally anover-dimensioned detachedstructurecharacterisedbypoor design, built accordingto a'standard architectural plan' that may be foundscatteredalloverthewholecountry.Giventhefact thatmostsingle-
familyhousesareself-
builtwithminimumfinancialresources,theplansforthehouseshavetobecheap and
readilyavailable.Allthepotentialhouse-builderhastodoistoapproachanyofthedesignoffices,browsethroughandchooseoneofthe
Sendi
304
standardplansincirculation.The draughtsmenin the design offices are always willing to
make a few minor
Characteristic SlovenianTraditional House 305 adjustmentstothe'typicalplan'(asitispopularlyreferredto)inordertosatisfysomeinsignificantde mandsmadebytheclientwhowouldnormallyhappily accept the designofferedata verycheapprice.Inthemajorityof
cases,housebuildersthenmake theirownadditionaladjustmentstotheplanduringconstruction,on ceplanningpermissionhasbeengranted.Someofthealterations tothe plan aremade withtheaimofreducingconstructioncosts,othersareintendedforacquiringmorespace(for exampl ebyerecting partitionstogainanextraroom)orinorderto'improve'the aestheticquality ofdesign. Thesehousebuildingpracticeshaveseveralnegativeconsequences.First,thesingle-familyhousephenomenonpresentsproblemsrelatedtotherationaluseofscarcelandresources, especiallyinurbanareas,andhighcostsofprovisionofcommunalinfrastructureinthedispersed settlementsinsuburbanareasandthecountryside. Second,dispersed single-familyhousingcontributestoenvironmentaldegradationas aresultofunplannedanduncontr olledwastedisposalinthedispersedsettlement areas.Davis(1995)warnsusnottobeuncritica llyzealousaboutthesingle-family house.Hehasdrawnupalistof'half-
truths,mythsandmisunderstandings
aboutthedesignofaffordablehousing'whichareoftenadvocatedbysomeexperts.Thelistinclu des,amongothers,thenotionthat'thesingle-
familyhouseisthebestformofhousing,andeverythingoughttobedonetomakeitaffordable'.D espitethemanyvirtuesofthesingle-
familyhouse,hepointsoutthatitisanenvironmentallyunsustainableform."Wecannotcontinu etoconvertagriculturallandintotractsof single-familyhousingandtheroadwaysthatconnectthosehousestojobcentres.Thecostoftranspo rtation,
utilities,andservicenetworks,aswellastheresultingair pollutlonandenvironmentaldegrad ation,precludeconstructionofasingle-
family homeforeveryhouseholdinAmerica.”(Davis,1995,p.4).Andashasalreadybeen sta ted,thethirdnegativecharacteristicofSlovenia'ssingle-familyhouseisitspoorarchitecturaldesignwiththealmost-identicalfapadesevidentinallregionsofthe country. Housingconstructionandthequalityoflivingconstitutesomeofthemost vitalaspectsofhumanneeds.Thelevelofprovisiondependsonvariouscircumstanceswhich,g enerally,
includethelevelofeconomicdevelopment,traditionalandsocialaspectsandtheplanningandr egulatorysystem.Practicehasshownthatthehigherthe levelof developmentofaparticularsociety,thehigherarethedemandsforabetter qualityofhousinga ndlivingstandards. Irrespectiveofthespecificcircumstancesandculturalandeconomiccharacteristicsofaparticu larsocietyitmaybepossibletoidentifygeneral,constantandbasicrequirementswhichhousing andthelivingenvironmentmustfulfil.Housingmust,aboveall,provideappropriateshelter,sec urity,protection,comfort,andafulfilling senseofbelongingtoonesplaceofhabitation.
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306
Traditionally,thedesignofsettlementsinSlovenia(interrelationshipsbetween individualbuil dings,methodofconstructionanddesignofindividualbuildings)depended,primarilyonthec onfigurationoftheterrainandstructureoftheground, theclimateandothernaturalfeaturesandthebuildingmaterialsavailableintheparticularareaori tsvicinity.Thesizeandlayoutofspaceswithinthedwellingswereadaptedtothewayoflivingand theworkthatwasperformedbytheresidents.Andsince,initially,thewayoflivingandmajoroccu pationintheSloveniancountrysidewasagricultural,thefunctionalconceptofdwellingswasada ptedtotheseconditions (Dev,2001).
Overtheyears,lifestyleshaveofcoursechangedduetochangesintheformsofoccupationsa ndtechnologicalinnovations.Thesechangeshaveconsequentlyledtochangesinpeoplesn eedsand,assuch,alsotochangesinapproachestothedesignof dwellingsinordertoadapttothe newneedsoftheusers.Andthisiswheretheissueofawarenessandsensitivitytoculturalvaluesst epsin. Culturally-sensitive approacheshavebeenapplied,atdifferenttimesthroughouthistory,tointroduce variousfor eignarchitecturalstylesintotraditionalsettlements.Duringtheseprocessesspecialcarehasbee ntakeninthepastnottodestroytheoriginaldesignconcepts, whichrepresenttheuniquecharacteristicmorphologicalelementsofaspecificarea.Variousstu dieshavebeenconductedonthesedevelopmentsinSlovenia,identifyingthevariousautochtho noiisarchitecturalformsthatmaybefoundinspecificregions acrossthecountry(Zadnikar,19 59;Mus?ié,1963;Fister,1993;Dev,2001).Therichnessoftraditionaldesignsoffamilyhous esandfarm-
buildingsisalsoareflection ofSlovenia?sgeographicallocation,extendingtotheAlpsintheno rth,thePannonianplaininthenorth-eastandeastandtheMediterraneaninthewest.TherearealsostrongMediterraneanandcentral-Europeanculturalinfluences.
Itmay,however, beobservedthattherehavebeenmajorchangesinsingle-familyhousedesignoverthelastdecadesandthesechangesarebecomingmoreandmoreradical .Thegeneraltrendofgrowingsocietaldifferentiationaftertheintroductionofchangesinthesoci o-
economicsystemintheearly1990shasledtothedifferentiationofhousebuildingpracticesinSl oveniainrecentyears.Thechangesbroughtaboutby theintroductionofanewpoliticalandeco nomicorderhaveconsequentlyledtochangesinthewayofliving,people'saspirations,andh ousingneedsanddemands.Culturechangehasledtochangesinlifestylesandhencehousingpr eferencesand designapproaches.AsRapoport(1982)hasobserved,“onetypicalchangein tr aditionalsocietiesisagreatincreaseinpossessions;people begintoaccumulatethings.Thisapparentlytrivialchangecanbeshowntohaveawholesetofcon sequencesforhousing,includingincreasedneedtocommunicateresultingstatusvariations,in creasedamountofspaceneededandthenumberandspecialisationofsettings,andincreasedphy sicalenclosuretoprotectpossessions”(Rapoport,1982).
The previous…sociallyoriented?modelsofmasshousingprovisioncharacterisedby
high-density housinginhighhigh-riseconstructionneighbourhoodsarenolongera
Characteristic SlovenianTraditional House 307 popularmeansofsolvinghousingproblems.Althoughaconsiderableproportionofhouseh oldsseekinghousingarestillnotinapositiontobuildtheir
ownhouse,those whocanaremaking surethattheirlife-longhousingaspirationsarefullyrealisedwhentheopportunity finallyarrivesforthephysical implementation oftheirplan.Politicalandeconomicliberalisation inSloveniaofferedconsumerstheopportunityforwhatBarlowandOzaki(2003)havecalledthe
customisation
ofhousingdesign.Theydescribecustomisationasthecreationofproductsthatareins omewaytailored toindividualneeds.Theysuggestthatthehome,asabundleofattributesfulf illing diverse housing—related needs, offers housebuilders
several opportunities for customisationwhich includecustomisingthedesignanddecorativefeaturesofthe home.Thenotionofhousingqual itynowmeans,tothemajorityofpeople,notonlythetypologyofhousinganditssize butalsothearchitecturaldesignofthedwelling anditsexternalimage.Roofdesignsandcurve dporchesandbalconiesaresomeoftherecentpopularformsofarchitecturalexpression.Thebig gestprobleminallthisis thattherearenoclearlydefinedstandardsregardingtheformsofdesig nthatare desirable, front t he aesthetic point of view, and acceptable with respect to geographicallocation.Theuniformsingle—familyhousedesignofthepost-warperiod isbeingreplacedbyauniformsingle-familyhousedesignofthepost-socialistperiod.Thenewarchitectural
designformsarebeingubiquitously implanted without
anycritical J udgement.Theyareveryaggressiveandrepresentadangerousvirusthatis graduallyeatingawayatthetraditionalfabric.Surprisingly,andsadly,itappearsthat nobodyisnoticing,noteventheexperts fromthephysicalplanningandculturalheritageprofessions.
AsBrierley(1993)hasobserved,aconceptualapproachtodesigntheoryderivedfrcimhousingr esearchhasbeenthatofsettingoutpossibilitiesavailabletodesigntheorists incontrastto indicatingdeterministcontrolsoverdesigndecisions.ThisappearstobethecaseinSlovenia.Asimil arviewisexpressedbyBulosand
Teymur(1993)who contendthatstudiesoftheneedsofpeopleindicatethatstandardsofdesignare often basedupontheminimumwhichpeoplewill accept ortolerate. Thistherefore meansthatthechangesthatoccurinsocietyandpersonalityfactorsmayhaveaconsiderable influenc eonarchitecturaldesignapproachesespeciallyonthedesignofthesingle-
familyhouse.BulosandTeymur(ibd.)makereferencetoSusanLangerwhoargues thatthetraditi onalconceptofplaceasanindependentuniversedistinguishedbyaparticulargeniuslociisbreaking down.ThesameauthorsquoteNorberg-
Schulz?sobservationthatwhile,inthepast,thepurposeofarchitecturewasto“makeanethnicdomai n?visible,thegeneralcharacteristicofourdayis the open, …global? world,wherethe…ethnicdomains?loosetheirdefinitionandwe,sotospeak,experiencea simultaneit yofplaces”(BulosandTeymur,1993,p.49).Single-familyhousebuildingpracticeinSloveniaissteadilyheadinginthisdirection. Thestandardsingle-
familyhousehas,deservedly,haditsshareofcriticisminthe literature.Carmonaetat.(2003)m akereferencetooneoftheharshestcriticismsof thesepracticeswhichwasexpressedbyaUKS ecretaryofStatewhodeclaredthatitis
308 Sendi "aninsulttooursenseofplacetoofferpreciselythesamehouseinWarringtonasinWallingford, WadebridgeorWolverhampton.Toomanyofthesehousesaredesignedfornowherebutfounde verywhere."(Gummer,J.quotedinCarmonaetal.,2003,p.42).SimilardevelopmentsinSloven ianeedtobehaltedpromptlybeforetheyleadtotheeventualeradicationoftraditionalarchitectur alforms.
Conclusion Thedevelopmentsofthelastcoupledecades orsoshowthattheculturallandscapeisundergoingmajortransformationdue,especially,tothe global-design? single-familyhousewhichissteadilyandconsistentlycreepingintothetraditionalruralsettlements.Whileth esealienstructureshaveintroduced some important technological improvementstotheseareas(advancedheatingsystems,moderntelecommunicati on infrastructure,higherhousingstandardsetc)theyare,on the other hand, a manifestationofatotaldisregardfortraditionalhistoricalarchitecturalformswhichpreviously constituted thecharacteristic identity ofeachspecificcultural region.
Itis,however,importanttostressthatarchitectureisnotanabstractconcept.It?saliveanddynami cdisciplinethatisconstantlyevolving.Itmust,analogously,bededucedthatarchitecturaldesign isalsoanevolvingprocessthatconstantlychangesinaccordancewithchangesinlifestyles,techn ologicaladvancesandspecificneedswithinagivenhistoricalperiod.Thepioneersofarchitectur alModernism(amongthem,WalterGropius,LeCorbusierandMiesvanderRohe)createdanarc hitecture,
whichtookthegreatestadvantageofthepossibilitiesprovidedby the newtechnologies that were invented towards the end of the 19th Century. The new?architecturaldesignsthatweredevelopedwiththehelpofthenewbuildingmaterials(concrete,st eelandglass)laidthefoundationandopenedthewayforaglobaldesignapproachthatwouldbetot allyindependent oflocallyavailablebuilding materials.Suchdesignswouldalsonolongerhavetobeinconsonancewithexistingarchitectural forms.
Technologicaladvancesare,ofcourse,necessaryandhavealwaysconstitutedamajorfactorofd evelopmentofhumanity.Itis,assuch,illusionarytoexpectthatarchitectureandarchitecturaldes ignwouldremainunaffectedbymoderndevelopments.Andnoristhisentirelydesirable.Techno logicalinnovationsthatdictatenewapproachestoarchitecturaldesignareafactthatneedstobeac cepted.Buildings—dwellingsinthiscase-needtobedesignedinawaythatsatisfiestheneedsofusersandfulfilsthestandardsthataregeneral lyacceptedatagiventlmeinaspecificarea.Buildingandhousingstandardsare,toalargeextent,n ormallybasedontheprevailingtechnologicalstandardswhich,inturn,greatlyinfluencethestate -of- the-artarchitecturaldesignapproaches.Whatisvitallyimportantintheseprocessesisthecapabilityo fdesignerstoappropriatelyadaptandtranslatetheseapproachesintospace withoutcompletely destroying the existing fabric, especially in areas of
307 Characteristic SlovenianTraditional House historicaltraditionalheritage.Changesinarchitecturaldesignmustalwaysbe introducedcautiou slyandmustbesensitiveandtakeinto considerationthe basicnormsandvalues thathavetraditionallyprevailedinaparticularareathroughoutitshistoricaldevelopment. Inordertoensurethattraditionalformsaresustained,thenewarchitecturaldesignapproachesmustb eadaptedtothespecificcircumstancesthatconstitutetheconstantcharacteristicfeaturesofindividu alareas.As(Rapoport,1982)hasargued,allbuiltenvironmentsneedtobeculture-
specific,butthisapplies particularlytohousingwhich,astheprimarysettingforlife,needstobehigh lysupportiveofculture.Thechallengeforarchitectsistoensurethatmoderndesignsarenotaggressiv elyimposedinamanner thatmay leadtotheeventualtotaleradication oftraditionalforms.
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Database Management System Source：Database and Network Journal Author：David Anderson You know that a data is a collection of logically related data elements that may be structured in various ways to meet the multiple processing and retrieval needs of orga nizations and individuals. There’s nothing new about data base-early ones were chiseled in stone, penned on scrolls, and written on index cards. But now database are commonly recorded on magnetically media, and computer programs are required to perform the necessary storage and retrieval operations. The system software package that handles the difficult tasks associated with created, accessing, and maintaining database records is in a DBMS package establish an interface between the database itself and the users of the database. (These users may be applications programmers, managers and others with information needs, and various OS programmers.) A DBMS can organize, process, and present selected data elements from the database. This capability enables decision makers to search. Probe, and query data contents in order to extract answers to nonrecurring and unplanned questions that aren’t available in regular reports. These questions might initially be vague and/or poorly defined, but people can “browse” through the database until they have the needed information. In short, the DBMS will “manage” the stored data items and assemble the needed items from the common database in response to the queries of those who aren’t programmers. In a file-oriented system, users needing special information may communicate their needs to a programmers, who, when time permits, will information. The availability of a DBMS, however, offers users a much faster alternative communications patch (see figure). Special, direct, and other file processing approaches ate used to organize and structure data in single files. But a DBMS is able to integrate data elements from several files to answer specific user inquiries fir information. This means that the DBMS is able to structure and tie together the logically related data from several large files. Logical structures. Identifying these logical relationships is a job of the data administrator. A data definition language is used for this purpose. The DBMS may
项目成本控制 一、引言 项目是企业形象的窗口和效益的源泉。随着市场竞争日趋激烈，工程质量、文明施工要求不断提高，材料价格波动起伏，以及其他种种不确定因素的影响，使得项目运作处于较为严峻的环境之中。由此可见项目的成本控制是贯穿在工程建设自招投标阶段直到竣工验收的全过程，它是企业全面成本管理的重要环节，必须在组织和控制措施上给于高度的重视，以期达到提高企业经济效益的目的。 二、概述 工程施工项目成本控制，指在项目成本在成本发生和形成过程中，对生产经营所消耗的人力资源、物资资源和费用开支，进行指导、监督、调节和限制，及时预防、发现和纠正偏差从而把各项费用控制在计划成本的预定目标之内，以达到保证企业生产经营效益的目的。 三、施工企业成本控制原则 施工企业的成本控制是以施工项目成本控制为中心，施工项目成本控制原则是企业成本管理的基础和核心，施工企业项目经理部在对项目施工过程进行成本控制时，必须遵循以下基本原则。 3.1 成本最低化原则。施工项目成本控制的根本目的，在于通过成本管理的各种手段，促进不断降低施工项目成本，以达到可能实现最低的目标成本的要求。在实行成本最低化原则时，应注意降低成本的可能性和合理的成本最低化。一方面挖掘各种降低成本的能力，使可能性变为现实；另一方面要从实际出发，制定通过主观努力可能达到合理的最低成本水平。 3.2 全面成本控制原则。全面成本管理是全企业、全员和全过程的管理，亦称“三全”管理。项目成本的全员控制有一个系统的实质性内容，包括各部门、各单位的责任网络和班组经济核算等等，应防止成本控制人人有责，人人不管。项目成本的全过程控制要求成本控制工作要随着项目施工进展的各个阶段连续 进行，既不能疏漏，又不能时紧时松，应使施工项目成本自始至终置于有效的控制之下。 3.3 动态控制原则。施工项目是一次性的，成本控制应强调项目的中间控制，即动态控制。因为施工准备阶段的成本控制只是根据施工组织设计的具体内容确
转型衰退时期的土木工程研究 Sergios Lambropoulosa[1], John-Paris Pantouvakisb, Marina Marinellic 摘要 最近的全球经济和金融危机导致许多国家的经济陷入衰退，特别是在欧盟的周边。这些国家目前面临的民用建筑基础设施的公共投资和私人投资显著收缩，导致在民事特别是在民用建筑方向的失业。因此，在所有国家在经济衰退的专业发展对于土木工程应届毕业生来说是努力和资历的不相称的研究，因为他们很少有机会在实践中积累经验和知识，这些逐渐成为过时的经验和知识。在这种情况下，对于技术性大学在国家经济衰退的计划和实施的土木工程研究大纲的一个实质性的改革势在必行。目的是使毕业生拓宽他们的专业活动的范围，提高他们的就业能力。 在本文中，提出了土木工程研究课程的不断扩大，特别是在发展的光毕业生的潜在的项目，计划和投资组合管理。在这个方向上，一个全面的文献回顾，包括ASCE体为第二十一世纪，IPMA的能力的基础知识，建议在其他：显著增加所提供的模块和项目管理在战略管理中添加新的模块，领导行为，配送管理，组织和环境等；提供足够的专业训练五年的大学的研究；并由专业机构促进应届大学生认证。建议通过改革教学大纲为土木工程研究目前由国家技术提供了例证雅典大学。 1引言 土木工程研究（CES）蓬勃发展，是在第二次世界大战后。土木工程师的出现最初是由重建被摧毁的巨大需求所致，目的是更多和更好的社会追求。但是很快，这种演变一个长期的趋势，因为政府为了努力实现经济发展，采取了全世界的凯恩斯主义的理论，即公共基础设施投资作为动力。首先积极的结果导致公民为了更好的生活条件（住房，旅游等）和增加私人投资基础设施而创造机会。这些现象再国家的发展中尤为为明显。虽然前景并不明朗（例如，世界石油危机在70年代），在80年代领先的国家采用新自由主义经济的方法（如里根经济政策），这是最近的金融危机及金融危机造成的后果（即收缩的基础设施投资，在技术部门的高失业率），消除发展前途无限的误区。 技术教育的大学所认可的大量研究土木工程部。旧学校拓展专业并且新的学校建成，并招收许多学生。由于高的职业声望，薪酬，吸引高质量的学校的学生。在工程量的增加和科学技术的发展，导致到极强的专业性，无论是在研究还是工作当中。结构工程师，液压工程师，交通工程师等，都属于土木工程。试图在不同的国家采用专业性的权利，不同的解决方案，，从一个统一的大学学历和广泛的专业化的一般职业许可证。这个问题在许多其他行业成为关键。国际专业协会的专家和机构所确定的国家性检查机构，经过考试后，他们证明不仅是行业的新来者，而且专家通过时间来确定进展情况。尽管在很多情况下，这些证书虽然没有国家接受，他们赞赏和公认的世界。 在试图改革大学研究（不仅在土木工程）更接近市场需求的过程中，欧盟确定了1999博洛尼亚宣言，它引入了一个二能级系统。第一级度（例如，一个三年的学士）是进入
An Automatic MechanotronicsHorizontal Cutter 机电一体化全自动横切机 1.Say after70's in20centuries the our country sun float the method glass technique invention,our country of float method glass,the industry develops quickly.Currently,the our country is the world is the biggest to float the method glass production country,2006our country of float method glass,the production line has more than160s totally,adopting among them our country the sun float method glass to float method glass technically,the production line has more than130s totally, floating the method glass total yield already more than454,000,000,and yield annually all significant increment.But our country the洛sun float the method glass technique material and other nations to compare automation degree still very low,has been being placed in the half auto half artificial appearance,raise completely our country the洛sun float method glass a technique a material level,developing whole lineses allied lock follow produce the technique have already forced in the eyebrow.Currently,our country the sun float method glass a technique a material to mainly be placed in a single machine dispersion control stage(or part of llied lock control),rush through super nations float method glass a technique a material level, have to raise first our country the automation function of the single machine equipments.Horizontal slice machine conduct and actions to float method glass cold carry to produce one of the on-line important equipmentses,its automation degree and incise accuracy will influence the finished product rate that the glass produces,we introduce a kind of machine electricity integral whole to turn here full-automatic horizontal slice machine 1、述自20世纪70年代我国洛阳浮法玻璃技术发明之后,我国的浮法玻璃工业迅速发展。目 前,我国是世界最大浮法玻璃生产国,2006年我国的浮法玻璃生产线共有160多条,其中采用我国洛阳浮法玻璃技术的浮法玻璃生产线共有130多条,浮法玻璃总产量已超过4.54亿重量箱,而且产量每年都大幅度增加。但我国洛阳浮法玻璃技术装备与其它国家相比自动化程度还很低,一直处在半自动半人工状态,全面提高我国洛阳浮法玻璃技术装备水平,开发全线联锁跟踪生产技术已迫在眉捷。目前,我国洛阳浮法玻璃技术装备主要处于单机分散控制阶段(或部分联锁控制),要赶超国际浮法玻璃技术装备水平,首先必须提高我国单机设备的自动化功能。横切机作为浮法玻璃冷端生产线上的重要设备之一,其自动化程度及切割精度将影响玻璃生产的成品率,在此我们介绍一种机电一体化全自动横切机(见图1)。
企业数据建模外文翻译文献 (文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) 翻译： 信息系统开发和数据库开发 在许多组织中，数据库开发是从企业数据建模开始的，企业数据建模确定了组织数据库的范围和一般内容。这一步骤通常发生在一个组织进行信息系统规划的过程中，它的目的是为组织数据创建一个整体的描述或解释，而不是设计一个特定的数据库。一个特定的数据库为一个或多个信息系统提供数据，而企业数据模型（可能包含许多数据库）描述了由组织维护的数据的范围。在企业数据建模时，你审查当前的系统，分析需要支持的业务领域的本质，描述需要进一步抽象的数据，并且规划一个或多个数据库开发项目。图1显示松谷家具公司的企业数据模型的一个部分。 1.1 信息系统体系结构 如图1所示，高级的数据模型仅仅是总体信息系统体系结构(ISA)一个部分或一个组
织信息系统的蓝图。在信息系统规划期间，你可以建立一个企业数据模型作为整个信息系统体系结构的一部分。根据Zachman(1987)、Sowa和Zachman（1992）的观点，一个信息系统体系结构由以下6个关键部分组成: 数据（如图1所示，但是也有其他的表示方法）。 操纵数据的处理（着系可以用数据流图、带方法的对象模型或者其他符号表示）。 网络，它在组织内并在组织与它的主要业务伙伴之间传输数据（它可以通过网络连接和拓扑图来显示）。 人，人执行处理并且是数据和信息的来源和接收者（人在过程模型中显示为数据的发送者和接收者）。 执行过程的事件和时间点（它们可以用状态转换图和其他的方式来显示）。 事件的原因和数据处理的规则（经常以文本形式显示，但是也存在一些用于规划的图表工具，如决策表）。 1.2 信息工程 信息系统的规划者按照信息系统规划的特定方法开发出信息系统的体系结构。信息工程是一种正式的和流行的方法。信息工程是一种面向数据的创建和维护信息系统的方法。因为信息工程是面向数据的，所以当你开始理解数据库是怎样被标识和定义时，信息工程的一种简洁的解释是非常有帮助的。信息工程遵循自顶向下规划的方法，其中，特定的信息系统从对信息需求的广泛理解中推导出来（例如，我们需要关于顾客、产品、供应商、销售员和加工中心的数据），而不是合并许多详尽的信息请求（如一个订单输入屏幕或按照地域报告的销售汇总）。自顶向下规划可使开发人员更全面地规划信息系统，提供一种考虑系统组件集成的方法，增进对信息系统与业务目标的关系的理解，加深对信息系统在整个组织中的影响的理解。 信息工程包括四个步骤:规划、分析、设计和实现。信息工程的规划阶段产生信息系统体系结构，包括企业数据模型。 1.3 信息系统规划 信息系统规划的目标是使信息技术与组织的业务策略紧密结合，这种结合对于从信息系统和技术的投资中获取最大利益是非常重要的。正如表1所描述的那样，信息工程方法的规划阶段包括3个步骤，我们在后续的3个小节中讨论它们。 1.确定关键性的规划因素
专业资料 学院： 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：Structural Systems to resist (用外文写) Lateral loads 附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 抗侧向荷载的结构体系 常用的结构体系 若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。 这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。 如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类： 1.抗弯矩框架。 2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。 3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。 4.筒中框架。 5.筒中筒结构。 6.核心交互结构。 7. 框格体系或束筒体系。 特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。 将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。这并
不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。 虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中。 抗弯矩框架 抗弯矩框架也许是低，中高度的建筑中常用的体系，它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点。这种框架用作独立的体系，或者和其他体系结合起来使用，以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力。对于较高的高层建筑，可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系，这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度。 我们可以利用STRESS，STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析。所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地，由于柱梁节点固有柔性，并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点，所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的。当然，在设计的后期阶段，实际地评价结点的变形很有必要。 支撑框架 支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强，在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用。这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色，它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑，并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中。
英文原文出自《Advanced Technology Libraries》2008年第5期 Robot Robot is a type of mechantronics equipment which synthesizes the last research achievement of engine and precision engine, micro-electronics and computer, automation control and drive, sensor and message dispose and artificial intelligence and so on. With the development of economic and the demand for automation control, robot technology is developed quickly and all types of the robots products are come into being. The practicality use of robot products not only solves the problems which are difficult to operate for human being, but also advances the industrial automation program. At present, the research and development of robot involves several kinds of technology and the robot system configuration is so complex that the cost at large is high which to a certain extent limit the robot abroad use. To development economic practicality and high reliability robot system will be value to robot social application and economy development. With the rapid progress with the control economy and expanding of the modern cities, the let of sewage is increasing quickly: With the development of modern technology and the enhancement of consciousness about environment reserve, more and more people realized the importance and urgent of sewage disposal. Active bacteria method is an effective technique for sewage disposal，The lacunaris plastic is an effective basement for active bacteria adhesion for sewage disposal. The abundance requirement for lacunaris plastic makes it is a consequent for the plastic producing with automation and high productivity. Therefore, it is very necessary to design a manipulator that can automatically fulfill the plastic holding. With the analysis of the problems in the design of the plastic holding manipulator and synthesizing the robot research and development condition in recent years, a economic scheme is concluded on the basis of the analysis of mechanical configuration, transform system, drive device and control system and guided by the idea of the characteristic and complex of mechanical configuration,
英文翻译 数据库管理系统的介绍 Raghu Ramakrishnan 数据库（database,有时被拼作data base）又称为电子数据库，是专门组织起来的一组数据或信息，其目的是为了便于计算机快速查询及检索。数据库的结构是专门设计的，在各种数据处理操作命令的支持下，可以简化数据的存储、检索、修改和删除。数据库可以存储在磁盘、磁带、光盘或其他辅助存储设备上。 数据库由一个或一套文件组成，其中的信息可以分解为记录，每一条记录又包含一个或多个字段（或称为域）。字段是数据存取的基本单位。数据库用于描述实体，其中的一个字段通常表示与实体的某一属性相关的信息。通过关键字以及各种分类（排序）命令，用户可以对多条记录的字段进行查询，重新整理，分组或选择，以实体对某一类数据的检索，也可以生成报表。 所有数据库（除最简单的）中都有复杂的数据关系及其链接。处理与创建，访问以及维护数据库记录有关的复杂任务的系统软件包叫做数据库管理系统（DBMS）。DBMS软件包中的程序在数据库与其用户间建立接口。（这些用户可以是应用程序员，管理员及其他需要信息的人员和各种操作系统程序）DBMS可组织、处理和表示从数据库中选出的数据元。该功能使决策者能搜索、探查和查询数据库的内容，从而对正规报告中没有的，不再出现的且无法预料的问题做出回答。这些问题最初可能是模糊的并且（或者）是定义不恰当的，但是人们可以浏览数据库直到获得所需的信息。简言之，DBMS将“管理”存储的数据项和从公共数据库中汇集所需的数据项用以回答非程序员的询问。 DBMS由3个主要部分组成：（1）存储子系统，用来存储和检索文件中的数据；（2）建模和操作子系统，提供组织数据以及添加、删除、维护、更新数据的方法；（3）用户和DBMS之间的接口。在提高数据库管理系统的价值和有效性方面正在展现以下一些重要发展趋势： 1.管理人员需要最新的信息以做出有效的决策。 2.客户需要越来越复杂的信息服务以及更多的有关其订单，发票和账号的当前信息。
姓名： 学号： 10447425 X X 大学 毕业设计（论文）外文翻译 （2014届） 外文题目Developments in excavation bracing systems 译文题目开挖工程支撑体系的发展 外文出处Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 31 (2012) 107–116 学生XXX 学院XXXX 专业班级XXXXX 校内指导教师XXX 专业技术职务XXXXX 校外指导老师专业技术职务 二○一三年十二月
开挖工程支撑体系的发展 1.引言 几乎所有土木工程建设项目（如建筑物，道路，隧道，桥梁，污水处理厂，管道，下水道）都涉及泥土挖掘的一些工程量。往往由于由相邻的结构，特性线，或使用权空间的限制，必须要一个土地固定系统，以允许土壤被挖掘到所需的深度。历史上，许多挖掘支撑系统已经开发出来。其中，现在比较常见的几种方法是：板桩，钻孔桩墙，泥浆墙。 土地固定系统的选择是由技术性能要求和施工可行性（例如手段，方法）决定的，包括执行的可靠性，而成本考虑了这些之后，其他问题也得到解决。通常环境后果（用于处理废泥浆和钻井液如监管要求）也非常被关注（邱阳、1998）。 土地固定系统通常是建设项目的较大的一个组成部分。如果不能按时完成项目，将极大地影响总成本。通常首先建造支撑，在许多情况下，临时支撑系统是用于支持在挖掘以允许进行不断施工，直到永久系统被构造。临时系统可以被去除或留在原处。 打桩时，因撞击或振动它们可能会被赶入到位。在一般情况下，振动是最昂贵的方法，但只适合于松散颗粒材料，土壤中具有较高电阻（例如，通过鹅卵石）的不能使用。采用打入桩系统通常是中间的成本和适合于软沉积物（包括粘性和非粘性），只要该矿床是免费的鹅卵石或更大的岩石。 通常，垂直元素（例如桩）的前安装挖掘工程和水平元件（如内部支撑或绑回）被安装为挖掘工程的进行下去，从而限制了跨距长度，以便减少在垂直开发弯矩元素。在填充情况下，桩可先设置，从在斜坡的底部其嵌入悬挑起来，安装作为填充进步水平元素（如搭背或土钉）。如果滞后是用来保持垂直元素之间的土壤中，它被安装为挖掘工程的进行下去，或之前以填补位置。 吉尔- 马丁等人（2010）提供了一个数值计算程序，以获取圆形桩承受轴向载荷和统一标志（如悬臂桩）的单轴弯矩的最佳纵筋。他们开发的两种优化流程：用一个或两个直径为纵向钢筋。优化增强模式允许大量减少的设计要求钢筋的用量，这些减少纵向钢筋可达到50％相对传统的，均匀分布的加固方案。 加固桩集中纵向钢筋最佳的位置在受拉区。除了节约钢筋，所述非对称加强钢筋图案提高抗弯刚度，通过增加转动惯量的转化部分的时刻。这种增加的刚性可能会在一段时间内增加的变形与蠕变相关的费用。评估相对于传统的非对称加强桩的优点，对称，钢筋桩被服务的条件下全面测试来完成的，这种试验是为了验证结构的可行性和取得的变形的原位测量。 基于现场试验中，用于优化的加强图案的优点浇铸钻出孔（CIDH）在巴塞罗那的
中英文对照外文翻译文献 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) By integration of machinery development The modern science and technology unceasing development, impelled different discipline intersecting enormously with the seepage, has caused the project domain technological revolution and the transformation, in mechanical engineering domain, because the microelectronic technology and the computer technology rapid development and forms to the mechanical industry seepage the integration of machinery, caused the mechanical industry the technical structure, the product organization, the function and the constitution, the production method and the management system has had the huge change, caused the industrial production to enter into “the integration of machinery” by “the machinery electrification” for the characteristic development phase. First, the integration of machinery outline Integration of machinery is refers in the organization new owner function, the power function, in the information processing functio n and the control function introduces the electronic technology, u nifies the system the mechanism and the computerization design and the software which constitutes always to call.
学校 毕业设计（论文）附件 外文文献翻译 学号： xxxxx 姓名： xxx 所在系别： xxxxx 专业班级： xxx 指导教师： xxxx 原文标题： Building construction concrete crack of prevention and processing 2012年月日 .
建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理1 摘要 混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题，本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析，并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。 关键词：混凝土裂缝预防处理 前言 混凝土是一种由砂石骨料、水泥、水及其他外加材料混合而形成的非均质脆性材料。由于混凝土施工和本身变形、约束等一系列问题，硬化成型的混凝土中存在着众多的微孔隙、气穴和微裂缝，正是由于这些初始缺陷的存在才使混凝土呈现出一些非均质的特性。微裂缝通常是一种无害裂缝，对混凝土的承重、防渗及其他一些使用功能不产生危害。但是在混凝土受到荷载、温差等作用之后，微裂缝就会不断的扩展和连通，最终形成我们肉眼可见的宏观裂缝，也就是混凝土工程中常说的裂缝。 混凝土建筑和构件通常都是带缝工作的，由于裂缝的存在和发展通常会使内部的钢筋等材料产生腐蚀，降低钢筋混凝土材料的承载能力、耐久性及抗渗能力，影响建筑物的外观、使用寿命，严重者将会威胁到人们的生命和财产安全。很多工程的失事都是由于裂缝的不稳定发展所致。近代科学研究和大量的混凝土工程实践证明，在混凝土工程中裂缝问题是不可避免的，在一定的范围内也是可以接受的，只是要采取有效的措施将其危害程度控制在一定的范围之内。钢筋混凝土规范也明确规定：有些结构在所处的不同条件下，允许存在一定宽度的裂缝。但在施工中应尽量采取有效措施控制裂缝产生，使结构尽可能不出现裂缝或尽量减少裂缝的数量和宽度，尤其要尽量避免有害裂缝的出现，从而确保工程质量。 混凝土裂缝产生的原因很多，有变形引起的裂缝：如温度变化、收缩、膨胀、不均匀沉陷等原因引起的裂缝；有外载作用引起的裂缝；有养护环境不当和化学作用引起的裂缝等等。在实际工程中要区别对待，根据实际情况解决问题。 混凝土工程中常见裂缝及预防: 1.干缩裂缝及预防 干缩裂缝多出现在混凝土养护结束后的一段时间或是混凝土浇筑完毕后的一周左右。水泥浆中水分的蒸发会产生干缩，且这种收缩是不可逆的。干缩裂缝的产生主要是由于混凝土内外水分蒸发程度不同而导致变形不同的结果：混凝土受外部条件的影响，表面水分损失过快，变形较大，内部湿度变化较小变形较小，较大的表面干缩变形受到混凝土内部约束，产生较大拉应力而产生裂缝。相对湿度越低，水泥浆体干缩越大，干缩裂缝越易产 1原文出处及作者：《加拿大土木工程学报》
附录 INTEGRATION OF MACHINERY （From ELECTRICAL AND MACHINERY INDUSTRY）ABSTRACT Machinery was the modern science and technology development inevitable result, this article has summarized the integration of machinery technology basic outline and the development background .Summarized the domestic and foreign integration of machinery technology present situation, has analyzed the integration of machinery technology trend of development. Key word：integration of machinery ，technology，present situation ，product t，echnique of manufacture ，trend of development 0. Introduction modern science and technology unceasing development, impelled different discipline intersecting enormously with the seepage, has caused the project domain technological revolution and the transformation .In mechanical engineering domain, because the microelectronic technology and the computer technology rapid development and forms to the mechanical industry seepage the integration of machinery, caused the mechanical industry the technical structure, the product organization, the function and the constitution, the production method and the management system has had the huge change, caused the industrial production to enter into “the integration of machinery” by “the machinery electrification” for the characteristic development phase. 1. Integration of machinery outline integration of machinery is refers in the organization new owner function, the power function, in the information processing function and the control function introduces the electronic technology, unifies the system the mechanism and the computerization design and the software which constitutes always to call. The integration of machinery development also has become one to have until now own system new discipline, not only develops along with the science and technology, but also entrusts with the new content .But its basic characteristic may summarize is: The integration of machinery is embarks from the system viewpoint, synthesis community technologies and so on utilization mechanical technology, microelectronic technology, automatic control technology,
Introduction to database information management system The database is stored together a collection of the relevant data, the data is structured, non-harmful or unnecessary redundancy, and for a variety of application services, data storage independent of the use of its procedures; insert new data on the database , revised, and the original data can be retrieved by a common and can be controlled manner. When a system in the structure of a number of entirely separate from the database, the system includes a "database collection." Database management system (database management system) is a manipulation and large-scale database management software is being used to set up, use and maintenance of the database, or dbms. Its unified database management and control so as to ensure database security and integrity. Dbms users access data in the database, the database administrator through dbms database maintenance work. It provides a variety of functions, allows multiple applications and users use different methods at the same time or different time to build, modify, and asked whether the database. It allows users to easily manipulate data definition and maintenance of data security and integrity, as well as the multi-user concurrency control and the restoration of the database. Using the database can bring many benefits: such as reducing data redundancy, thus saving the data storage space; to achieve full sharing of data resources, and so on. In addition, the database technology also provides users with a very simple means to enable users to easily use the preparation of the database applications. Especially in recent years introduced micro-computer relational database management system dBASELL, intuitive operation, the use of flexible, convenient programming environment to extensive (generally 16 machine, such as IBM / PC / XT, China Great Wall 0520, and other species can run software), data-processing capacity strong. Database in our country are being more and more widely used, will be a powerful tool of economic management. The database is through the database management system (DBMS-DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM) software for data storage, management and use of dBASELL is a database management system software. Information management system is the use of data acquisition and transmission technology, computer network technology, database construction, multimedia