Introduction to Physiology
Introduction
Physiology is the study of the functions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism performs its varied activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it adapts to changing circumstances, how it spawns new generations. The subject is vast and embraces the whole of life. The success of physiology in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks is based on the notion that they are intricate and exquisite machines whose operation is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry.
Although some processes are similar across the whole spectrum of biology—the replication of the genetic code for or example—many are specific to particular groups of organisms. For this reason it is necessary to divide the subject into various parts such as bacterial physiology, plant physiology, and animal physiology.
To study how an animal works it is first necessary to know how it is built. A full appreciation of the physiology of an organism must therefore be based on a sound knowledge of its anatomy. Experiments can then be carried out to establish how particular parts perform their functions. Although there have been many important physiological investigations on human volunteers, the need for precise control over the experimental conditions has meant that much of our present physiological knowledge has been derived from studies on other animals such as frogs, rabbits, cats, and dogs. When it is clear that a specific physiological process has a common basis in a wide variety of animal species, it is reasonable to assume that the same principles will apply to humans. The knowledge gained from this approach has given us a great insight into human physiology and endowed us with a solid foundation for the effective treatment of many diseases.
The building blocks of the body are the cells, which are grouped together to form tissues. The principal types of tissue are epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular, each with its own characteristics. Many connective tissues have relatively few cells but have an extensive extracellular matrix. In contrast, smooth muscle consists of densely packed layers of muscle cells linked together via specific cell junctions. Organs such as the brain, the heart, the lungs, the intestines, and the liver are formed by the aggregation of different kinds of tissues. The organs are themselves parts of distinct physiological systems. The heart and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system; the lungs, trachea, and bronchi together with the chest wall and diaphragm form the respiratory system; the skeleton and skeletal muscles form the musculoskeletal system; the brain, spinal cord, autonomic nerves and ganglia, and peripheral somatic nerves form the nervous system, and so on.
Cells differ widely in form and function but they all have certain
生理学简介
介绍
生理学是研究生物体功能的科学。它研究生物体如何进行各种活动，如何饮食，如何运动，如何适应不断改变的环境，如何繁殖后代。这门学科包罗万象，涵盖了生物体整个生命过程。生理学成功地解释了生物体如何进行日常活动，基于的观点是生物体好比是结构复杂而灵巧的机器，其操作受物理和化学规律控制。
尽管从生物学整个范畴看，生物体某些活动过程是相似的——如基因编码的复制——但许多过程还是某些生物体群组特有的。鉴于此有必要将这门学科分成不同部分研究，如细菌生理学、植物生理学和动物生理学。
要研究一种动物如何活动，首先需要了解它的构成。要充分了解一个生物体的生理学活动就必须掌握全面的解剖学知识。一个生物体的各部分起着什么作用可通过实验观察得知。尽管我们对志愿者进行了许多重要的生理调查，但是实验条件需要精确控制，所以我们当前大多生理知识还是源于对其它动物如青蛙，兔子，猫和狗等的研究。当我们明确大多数动物物种的特定生理过程存在共同之处时，相同的生理原理适用于人类也是合理的。通过这种方法，我们获得了大量的知识，从而让我们对人类生理学有了更深入的了解，为我们有效治疗许多疾病提供了一个坚实的基础。
机体的基本组成物质是细胞，细胞结合在一起形成组织。组织的基本类型有上皮组织，结缔组织，神经组织和肌组织，每类组织都有各自的特征。许多结缔组织中细胞量相对较少，但是有大量的细胞外基质。相比而言，光滑的肌组织由大量密密麻麻的肌细胞通过特定的细胞连接组成。各种器官如脑，心脏，肺，小肠和肝等由不同种类的组织聚集而成。这些器官是不同生理系统的组成部分。心脏和血管组成心血管系统；肺，器官，支气管，胸壁和膈肌组成呼吸系统；骨骼和骨骼肌组成骨骼肌系统；大脑，脊髓，自主神经和神经中枢以及
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common characteristics. Firstly, they are bounded by a limiting membrane, the plasma membrane. Secondly, they have the ability to break down large molecules to smaller ones to liberate energy for their activities. Thirdly, at some point in their life history, they possess a nucleus which contains genetic information in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
Living cells continually transform materials. They break down glucose and fats to provide energy for other activities such as motility and the synthesis of proteins for growth and repair. These chemical changes are collectively called metabolism. The breakdown of large molecules to smaller ones is called catabolism and the synthesis of large molecules from smaller ones anabolism.
In the course of evolution, cells began to differentiate to serve different functions. Some developed the ability to contract (muscle cells), others to conduct electrical signals (nerve cells). A further group developed the ability to secrete different substances such as hormones or enzymes. During embryological development, this process of differentiation is re-enacted as many different types of cell are formed from the fertilized egg.
Most tissues contain a mixture of cell types. For example, blood consists of red cells, white cells, and platelets. Red cells transport oxygen around the body. The white cells play an important role in defense against infection and the platelets are vital components in the process of blood clotting. There are a number of different types of connective tissue but all are characterized by having cells distributed within an extensive noncellular matrix. Nerve tissue contains nerve cells and glial cells.
The Principal Organ Systems
The cardiovascular system
The cells of large multicellular animals cannot derive the oxygen and nutrients they need directly from the external environment. The oxygen and nutrients must be transported to the cells. This is one of the principal functions of the blood, which circulates within blood vessels by virtue of the pumping action of the heart. The heart, blood vessels, and associated tissues form the cardiovascular system.
The heart consists of four chambers, two atria and two ventricles, which form a pair of pumps arranged side by side. The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs where it absorbs oxygen from the air, while the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood returning from the lungs to the rest of body to supply the tissues. Physiologists are concerned with establishing the factors responsible for the heartbeat, how the heart pumps the blood around the circulation, and how it is distributed to perfuse the tissues according to their needs. Fluid exchanged between the blood plasma and the tissues passes into the lymphatic system, which eventually drains back into the blood.
The respiratory system 周围躯体神经组成神经系统等等。
细胞在形体和功能上差异很大，但是它们有某些共同的特征。第一，它们由限制膜包被，即细胞质膜；第二，细胞有把大分子分解为小分子来释放活动所需能量的能力；第三，在生命过程中某个阶段，细胞体内存在一个以脱氧核糖核酸(DNA)形式包含基因信息的细胞核。
活体细胞不断转化物质。它们为其它活动提供能量分解葡萄糖和脂肪，比如自身生长和修复所需的蛋白质运动和合成。这些化学变化统称为新陈代谢。把大分子分解为小分子的过程称为分解代谢，小分子合成大分子的过程称为合成代谢。
细胞在进化过程中不断分化进行不同的功能活动。有些细胞具有收缩能力（如肌细胞），有些可以传导电信号（如神经细胞）。进一步进化的细胞能够分泌不同物质如荷尔蒙（如内分泌细胞）或酶。胚胎发育过程中，分化的过程由于很多不同细胞来源于受精卵而再次发生。
大多数组织包含有不同的细胞类型。比如，血液中含红细胞，白细胞和血小板。红细胞运输全身的氧气。白细胞在抵御感染时起重要作用，血小板是血液凝集过程中重要的成分。结缔组织有多种不同类型，但有一个共同特征，即细胞分布在丰富的细胞外基质中。神经组织含神经细胞和神经胶质细胞。
主要的器官系统
心血管系统
大型多细胞动物体的细胞不能从外界环境中获取直接所需的氧气和营养物质。这些氧气和营养物质必须转运到细胞。这是血液的主要功能之一，血液凭借心脏的泵血作用在血管内流动循环。心脏、血管和结缔组织组成了心血管系统。
心脏包括四个腔，两个心房和两个心室构成了一对并排存在的泵。右心室将脱氧的血液泵至肺中，肺中的血液吸收空气中的氧气，而左心室把从肺回流来的有氧血液泵出至身体其它部位，供应给各组织。生理学家研究促使心脏跳动的因素，心脏如何泵送血液使其循环，心脏如何根据各组织所需分配血液。血浆和组织间的流动
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The energy required for performing the various activities of the body is ultimately derived from respiration. This process involves the oxidation of foodstuffs to release the energy they contain. The oxygen needed for this process is absorbed from the air in the lungs and carried to the tissues by the blood. The carbon dioxide produced by the respiratory activity of the tissues is carried to the lungs by the blood in the pulmonary artery where it is excreted in the expired air. The basic questions to be answered include the following: How is the air moved in and out of the lungs? How is the volume of air breathed adjusted to meet the requirements of the body? What limits the rate of oxygen uptake in the lungs?
The digestive system
The nutrients needed by the body are derived from the diet. Food is taken in by the mouth and broken down into its component parts by enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract. The digestive products are then absorbed into the blood across the wall of the intestine and pass to the liver via the portal vein. The liver makes nutrients available to the tissues both for their growth and repair and for the production of energy. In the case of the digestive system, key physiological questions are: How is food ingested? How is it broken down and digested? How are the individual nutrients absorbed? How is the food moved through the gut? How are the indigestible remains eliminated from the body?
The kidneys and urinary tract
The chief function of the kidneys is to control the composition of the extracellular fluid. In the course of this process, they also eliminate non-volatile waste products from the blood. To perform these functions, the kidneys produce urine of variable composition which is temporarily stored in the bladder before voiding. The key physiological questions in this case are: how do the kidneys regulate the composition of the blood? How do they eliminate toxic waste? How do they respond to stresses such as dehydration? What mechanisms allow the storage and elimination of the urine?
The reproductive system
Reproduction is one of the fundamental characteristics of living organisms. The gonads produce specialized sex cells known as gametes. At the core of sexual reproduction is the creation and fusion of the male and female gametes, the sperm and ova (eggs), with the result that the genetic characteristics of two separate individuals are mixed to produce offspring that differ genetically from their parents.
The musculoskeletal system
This consists of the bones of the skeleton, skeletal muscles, joints, and their associated tissues. Its primary function is to provide a means of movement, which is required for locomotion, for the maintenance of 液体交换流入淋巴系统，最终回流到血液中。
呼吸系统
机体进行各项活动所需的能量最终来源于呼吸。这一过程包括食物（主要是糖类和脂肪）的氧化，释放它们所含的能量。这一过程中，氧气来自于肺中的空气，经由血液到达全身各组织。组织呼吸活动中释放的二氧化碳由肺动脉中的血液运送至肺，然后呼气排出体外。需回答的基本问题如下：空气是如何进出肺的？呼吸的空气量如何适应机体所需？限制肺吸收氧气频率的因素是什么？
消化系统
机体所需营养物质来源于饮食。食物经口腔进入体内，在胃肠道内经酶将其分解成小分子物质。这些消化物通过肠壁吸收入血液，通过门静脉进入肝脏。经肝脏作用后，这些营养物质能够满足组织生长修复及能量需求。在消化系统部分，重要的生理学问题是：食物是如何消化的？食物如何被个体分解消化？个体营养物质如何吸收？食物如何在肠内转运的？未消化的残留如何从体内排出？
泌尿系统
肾脏主要功能是控制细胞外液体的形成。在这一过程中，肾脏也会把不可挥发的废物排出去。为行使这一功能，在排出之前，肾脏产生含有各种成分的尿液并将其暂时储存在膀胱中。这一部分主要的生理学问题是：肾脏如何调节血液中的成分？如何排出有毒废物？如何应对像脱水这样的应激反应？以及尿液可以存储和排出体外的机制是什么？
生殖系统
生殖是活生物体的一个基本特征。生殖腺产生专门的性细胞，被称为配子。性生殖的核心是雌雄配子即精子和卵子的产生和融合，因此两个独立个体的基因特征融合而产生一个基因上与双亲不同的后代。
运动系统
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posture, and for breathing. It also provides physical support for the internal organs. Here the mechanism of muscle contraction is a central issue. The endocrine and nervous systems.
The endocrine and nervous systems
The activities of the different organ systems need to be coordinated and regulated so that they act together to meet the needs of the body. Two coordinating systems have evolved: the nervous system and the endocrine system. The nervous system uses electrical signals to transmit information very rapidly to specific cells. Thus the nerves pass electrical signals to the skeletal muscles to control their contraction. The endocrine system secretes chemical agents, hormones, which travel in the bloodstream to the cells upon which they exert a regulatory effect. Hormones play a major role in the regulation of many different organs and are particularly important in the regulation of the menstrual cycle and other aspects of reproduction.
The immune system provides the body’s defenses against infection both by killing invading organisms and by eliminating diseased or damaged cells.
Although it is helpful to study how each organ performs its functions, it is essential to recognize that the activity of the body as a whole is dependent on the intricate interactions between the various organ systems. If one part fails, the consequences are found in other organ systems throughout the whole body. For example, if the kidneys begin to fail, the regulation of the internal environment is impaired which in turn leads to disorders of function elsewhere.
Homeostasis
Complex mechanisms are at work to regulate the composition of the extracellular fluid and individual cells have their own mechanisms for regulating their internal composition. The regulatory mechanisms stabilize the internal environment despite variations in both the external world and the activity of the animal. The process of stabilization of the internal environment is called homeostasis and is essential if the cells of the body are to function normally.
Taking one example, the beating of the heart depends on the rhythmical contractions of cardiac muscle cells. This activity depends on electrical signals which, in turn, depend on the concentration of sodium and potassium ions in the extracellular and intracellular fluids. If there is an excess of potassium in the extracellular fluid, the cardiac muscle cells become too excitable and may contract at inappropriate times rather than in a coordinated manner. Consequently, the concentration of potassium in the extracellular fluid must be kept within a narrow range if the heart is to beat normally.
How Does The Body Regulate Its Own Composition?
这一系统由骨、骨骼肌、关节和它们的相关组织组成。其主要功能是提供运动需要，维持姿势及呼吸运动。它也为内脏器官提供物理支持。这一部分，肌肉收缩机制是主要问题。
内分泌系统和神经系统
不同器官系统的活动需要协作和调节，以便共同作用满足机体需要。人体有两大调节系统：神经系统和内分泌系统。神经系统通过电信号迅速将信息传导给特定细胞。这样神经将电信号传递给骨骼肌以控制收缩。内分泌系统分泌化学物质―激素。激素通过血流到达施与调节作用的细胞。激素在许多不同器官中起着重要作用，在月经期调节和其它生殖方面尤其重要。
免疫系统通过杀死入侵的有机体，清除致病或损伤细胞为机体提供防御功能。
虽然研究各器官如何行使功能很有益处，但我们必须认识到机体作为一个整体所做的活动依赖于各器官系统间错综复杂的相互作用。如果一部分无法正常工作，全身其它器官系统也会受到影响。例如，如果肾脏出现问题，内部环境的调节受损，结果导致其它器官系统功能紊乱。
稳态
各种复杂机制共同作用调节细胞外液的形成，不同个体细胞有自身机制调节内在组成成分。尽管外界环境和动物活动不停变化，调节机制维持着体内环境的稳定。内部环境的稳定被称为稳态，它是机体能够正常发挥作用所必须的。
例如，心脏的跳动依赖于心肌细胞有节律的收缩。这一活动依赖于电信号，而电信号反过来依赖存在于细胞外和细胞内液体中钠和钾离子的浓度。如果细胞外液中钾离子过多，心肌细胞兴奋性增强，可能出现不规律的收缩。因此，要维持心脏正常跳动，细胞外液中钾离子的浓度就必须控制在一定范围内。
机体如何调节物质成分
平衡的概念
一天中，一个成人需要消耗约1千克食物，2~3升液体。以一个月计算，这相当
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The concept of balance
In the course of a day, an adult consumes approximately 1 kg of food and drinks 2~3 liters of fluid. In a month, this is equivalent to around 30 kg of food and 60~90 liters of fluid. Yet, in general, body weight remains remarkably constant. Such individuals are said to be in balance; the intake of food and drink matches the amounts used to generate energy for normal bodily activities plus the losses in urine and feces. In some circumstances, such as starvation, intake does not match the needs of the body and muscle tissue is broken down to provide glucose for the generation of energy. Here, the intake of protein is less than the rate of breakdown and the individual is said to have a negative nitrogen balance. Equally, if the body tissues are being built up, as is the case for growing children, pregnant women and athletes in the early stages of training, the daily intake of protein is greater than the normal body turnover and the individual is in positive nitrogen balance.
This concept of balance can be applied to any of the body constituents including water and salt and is important in considering how the body regulates its own composition. Intake must match requirements and any excess must be excreted for balance to be maintained. Additionally, for each chemical constituent of the body there is a desirable concentration range, which the control mechanisms are adapted to maintain. For example, the concentration of glucose in the plasma is about 4~5mmol/L between meals. Shortly after a meal, plasma glucose rises above this level and this stimulates the secretion of the hormone insulin by the pancreas, which acts to bring the concentration down. As the concentration of glucose falls, so does the secretion of insulin. In each case, the changes in the circulating level of insulin act to maintain the plasma glucose at an appropriate level. This type of regulation is known as negative feedback. During the period of insulin secretion, the glucose is being stored as either glycogen or fat.
A negative feedback loop is a control system that acts to maintain the level of some variable within a given range following a disturbance. Although the example given above refers to plasma glucose, the basic principle can be applied to other physiological variables such as body temperature, blood pressure, and the osmolality of the plasma. A negative feedback loop requires a sensor of some kind that responds to the variable in question but not to other physiological variables. Thus an osmoreceptor should respond to changes in osmolality of the body fluids but not to changes in body temperature or blood pressure. the information from the sensor must be compared in some way with the desired level by some form of comparator. if the two do not match ,an error signal is transmitted to an effector, a system that can act to restore the variable to its desired level .these features of negative feedback can be appreciated by examining a simple heating system .the controlled variable is room temperature, which is sensed by a thermostat. the effector is a heater of some kind .when the room temperature falls below the set point, the temperature difference 于约30千克食物，60~90升液体。然而，一般来说，机体体重是基本不变的。这类个体可以说处于平衡状态。食物和液体的摄入量相当于正常机体活动消耗的能量加上尿液和粪便中丢失的能量。在一些情况下，如饥饿状态，摄入量与机体所需量并不相当，肌组织断裂，提供葡萄糖产生能量。蛋白质的摄入低于肌组织断裂的速度，机体处于负氮平衡。同样地，如果机体组织正处于生长期，如生长期的儿童，孕妇和早期训练阶段的运动员，那么蛋白质的日常摄入量比正常机体所需要的多。相反，此时个体处于正氮平衡。
平衡的概念可以应用到机体的任何构成成分上，包括水和盐，而且平衡在机体调节其自身成分上是非常重要的。摄入必须等于所需，为维持机体平衡，任何多余的能量都必须排出。此外，因为机体的每种化学成分都有一个可取的浓度范围，控制机制维持这个范围。例如，两餐间血糖浓度大约为4~5mmol/L。进食后不久，血糖含量超过这一范围，刺激胰腺分泌胰岛素，降低浓度。随着葡萄糖浓度的下降，胰岛素分泌减少。在此情况下，循环胰岛素水平的改变都是为了使血浆中的葡萄糖维持在一个合适的范围内。这种调节称为负反馈机制。在胰岛素分泌期间，葡萄糖像肝糖原或脂肪一样被储存。
负反馈调节是在机体出现紊乱时，将一些变量控制在限定范围内的一个控制系统。虽然上面的例子讲到血糖，但这一基本原则可以应用到其它生理变量中如体温、血压和血浆的渗透浓度。负反馈调节需要一种能对不确定的变量做出反应而对其它生理变量不应答的传感器。因此，渗透压感受器应该能对机体体液渗透的变化而不是体温和血压的变化产生应答。感受器传递的信息必须和理想水平（系统的调定点）以比较者的身份，以某种方式进行比较。如果两者不相符，一个错误信号就会传递给效应器，效应器是一种能使变量保持在理想水平的系统。负反馈的这些特点可以通过检测一种简单的加热系统来理解。被控制的变量是室温，它可以由一个温度计检测到，效应器是一种加热器。当室温降低到调定点以下时，温度计就可以监测到温度的
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is detected by the thermostat which switches on the heater .this heats the room until the temperature reaches the per set level whereupon the heater is switched off.
To summarize, the body is actually a social order of about 100 trillion cells organized into different functional structures, some of which are called organs. each functional structures its share to the maintenance of homeostatic conditions in the extracellular fluid, which is called the internal environment.as long as normal conditions are maintained in this internal environment ,the cells of the body continue to live and function properly. Each cell benefits from homeostasis, and in turn, each cell contributes its share toward the maintenance of homeostasis. This reciprocal interplay provides continuous automaticity of the body until one or more functional systems lose their ability to contribute their share of function. When this happens, all the cells of the body suffer. Extreme dysfunction leads to death; moderate dysfunction leads to sickness. 变化而开启加热器，对室内进行加温，直到室温升高到先前调好的调定点，加热器关闭。
总而言之，机体实际上是由100万亿细胞有序组成了不同的功能结构，其中一些被称为器官。每个功能结构都在维持细胞外液稳态方面发挥其作用，这称之为内环境。只要内部环境处于正常状态，机体细胞继续生存并正常运行。每个细胞都从稳态中获益，反过来，每个细胞都为稳态做出贡献。这种相互作用促使机体持续自主运行，直至一个或多个功能系统不能正常运转。此时，机体所有细胞都会受损。功能极度异常会导致死亡，轻微的功能异常导致疾病的发生。
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The Other Side of Antibiotics
Antibiotics have eliminated or controlled so many infectious diseases that virtually everyone has benefited from their use at one time or another. Even without such personal experience, however, one would have to be isolated indeed to be unaware of the virtues, real and speculative, of these “miracle” drugs. The American press, radio, and television have done a good job of reporting the truly remarkable story of successes in the chemical war on germs. What’s more, any shortcomings on their part have been more than made up for by the aggressive public relations activity of the pharmaceutical companies which manufacture and sell antibiotics.
In comparison, the inadequacies and potential dangers of these remarkable drugs are much less widely known. And the lack of such knowledge can be bad, especially if it leads patients to pressure their doctors into prescribing antibiotics when such medication isn’t really needed, or leads them to switch doctors until they find one who is, so to speak,antibiotics-minded.
Because the good side of the antibiotics story is so very well-known, there seems more point here to a review of some of the immediate and long-range problems that can come from today’s casual use of these drugs. It should be made clear in advance that calamities from the use of antibiotics are rare in relation to the enormous amounts of the drugs administered. But the potential hazards, so little touched on generally, do need a clear statement. The antibiotics are not, strictly speaking, exclusively prescription drugs. A number of them are permitted in such over-the-counter products as nasal sprays,lozenges, troches, creams, and ointments. Even if these products do no harm, there is no point whatsoever in using them. If you have an infection serious enough to warrant the launching of chemical warfare, you need much bigger doses of the antibiotics than any of the non-prescription products are allowed to contain.
Over-the-counter products, however, account for only a small percentage of total antibiotics production. It is the prescription dosages that give people trouble. These drugs—even allowing for the diverse abilities of the many narrow-spectrum ones and the versatility of the broad-spectrum ones—are not the cure-alls, they often are billed as being. There are wide gaps in their ability to master contagious diseases. Such important infections as mumps, measles, common colds,influenza, and infectious hepatitis still await conquest. All are virus infections and despite intense efforts, very little progress has been made in chemotherapy against viruses. Only small progress has been achieved against fungi. Many strains of bacteria and fungi are naturally resistant to all currently available antibiotics and other chemotherapeutic drugs. Some microorganisms originally sensitive to the action of antibiotics, especially staphylococcus, have developed resistant strains. This acquired resistance imposes on the long range value of the drugs a very important
抗生素的另一面
抗生素已经消除或控制了很多传染病，实际上每个人都从这种或那种使用中受益。即使没有这样的个人经验，人们也不得不孤立地认识到这些“奇迹”药物的优点，真实性和推测性。美国新闻界，广播电台和电视台在报道有关细菌化学战争成功的真实故事方面做得很好。更重要的是，制造和销售抗生素的制药公司的积极的公共关系活动已经弥补了他们的缺点。
相比之下，这些显着的药物的不足之处和潜在的危险是广为人知的。缺乏这样的知识可能是不好的，特别是如果它导致病人迫使他们的医生处方抗生素，当这种药物是不是真的需要，或导致他们切换到医生，直到他们找到一个谁可以说，抗生素- 头脑。
因为抗生素故事的好处是如此众所周知，在这里似乎更重要的是要回顾一下当今随便使用这些药物可能产生的一些近期和远期问题。应该预先说明，使用抗生素造成的灾难与所投入的大量药物有关。但是一般来说很少涉及的潜在危害确实需要一个明确的说法。严格来说，抗生素不是完全处方药。它们中的一些允许用于鼻腔喷雾剂，锭剂，锭剂，霜剂和软膏等非处方产品。即使这些产品没有坏处，使用它们也没有任何意义。如果感染的严重程度足以保证发动化学战争，则需要比任何非处方产品所含的抗生素剂量大得多的抗生素。
然而，非处方药产品仅占抗生素总产量的很小比例。这是给人们麻烦的处方剂量。这些药物，即使考虑到许多窄谱药物的多样性和广谱药物的多样性，也不是治愈所有的药物，他们往往被称为“药物”。掌握传染病的能力差距很大。像腮腺炎，麻疹，感冒，流行性感冒和传染性肝炎等重要感染仍在等待征服。所有这些都是病毒感染，尽管付出了巨大的努力，但在化学疗法方面进展甚微。真菌只取得小的进展。许多细菌和真菌菌株对所有目前可用的抗生素和其他化学治疗药物都具有天然的抗性。一些原本对抗生素作用敏感的微生物，特别是葡萄球菌，已经产生了耐药菌株。这种获得的耐药性对药物的远距离价值提出了一
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多媒体技术教程》（第三版）习题解答 第1章绪论 1．多媒体信息系统和多媒体计算机有什么不同？在概念上应如何看待两者之间的关系？多媒体信息系统是新一代高度集成的、功能强大的、智能化的计算机信息系统，它是提供多媒体信息、辅助人们对环境进行控制和决策的系统，是基于计算机、通信网络等现代化的工具和手段，服务于管理领域的信息处理系统。而多媒体计算机指的是硬件设施，多媒体计算机是多媒体信息系统得以应用的平台。 2．试归纳叙述多媒体关键特性以及这些特性之间的关系。 多媒体的关键特性主要包括信息载体的多样性、交互性和集成性这三个方面，这既是多媒体的主要特征，也是在多媒体研究中必须解决的主要问题。 信息载体的多样性是相对于计算机而言的，指的就是信息媒体的多样化，有人称之为信息多维化；多媒体的第二个关键特性是交互性，多媒体系统将向用户提供交互式使用、加工和控制信息的手段，为应用开辟更加广阔的领域，也为用户提供更加自然的信息存取手段；多媒体的集成性主要表现在两个方面，一是多媒体信息媒体的集成，二是处理这些媒体的设备与设施的集成。 信息载体的多样性是集成性的基础，没有多种信息媒体，也就无法进行多媒体信息的集成化处理；而处理多媒体的设备与设施的集成性是实现交互性的前提，没有系统、网络、软硬件设施的集成，就无法为用户交互式使用、加工和控制信息提供平台。 3．为什么说多媒体缩短了人类信息交流的路径？人类与计算机进行信息交流的目的是什么？ 与以往的方法相比，计算机在数据处理方面有了很大的改善。计算机所提供的功能强大的数据组织和构造技术，如传统数据结构中的数组、向量、队列、堆栈、树和堆等，为动态地加工和处理数据提供了基础。高效的算法和高速的网络通信，大大地加强了用文字和数据表示概念的能力并加速了它的传递过程。但人类并不是仅仅依赖文本这一类单一的数据形式来传递所有的信息和接受概念的，图像、声音等多媒体信息都是人类获取和传递信息极为重要的渠道。图像的信息量最大，一幅画胜过千言万语，最直观、最能一目了然。而动态的影像视频和动画则更生动、更逼真、更接近客观世界的原型、更能反映事物的本质和内涵。声音和文字也是信息的重要媒体，综合应用不仅有利于接受，也有利于存储（记忆）和保留。这就意味着必须同时启动大脑的形象思维和逻辑思维，才能更好地获得更多更有用的信息。因此，通过多种感觉器官用多种信息媒体形式向人提供信息才算是更好的表达方法，它不仅加速和改善了理解，并且提高了信息接受的兴趣和注意力。多媒体正是利用各种信息媒体形式，集成地用声、图、文等来承载信息，也就是缩短信息传递的路径。 人类与计算机进行信息交流的目的是为了高效的获取、传递以及使用信息。计算机的发展使得人类的信息处理手段得到加强，高速的计算能力扩展了对数据进行重复计算的能力，大规模的存储扩展了记忆信息的范围，高速通信网使得我们可以同远在异地他乡的同事、朋友、亲人甚至陌生人进行快速的信息交换。这些机器成为我们与他人进行交流的中介。 第2章媒体及媒体技术 1．为什么说媒体具有不同的抽象层次？对媒体的抽象层次和性质进行小结。 在获得媒体语义的过程中，抽象起着十分重要的作用，这种抽象是复杂的，而且与任务有关。通常包括若干抽象层，每一个抽象层都包含着与具体的任务和问题域有关的模型。从接近具体感官的信息表示层到接近符号的信息表示层，信息的抽象程度递增，而数据量则递减。语义就是在从感官数据到符号数据的抽象过程中逐步形成的。对不同媒体来说，媒体的语义是处于不同层次上的。抽象的程度不同，语义的重点也就不同。
第一单元 与法律的小摩擦 我平生只有一次跟警方发生纠葛。被捕和出庭的整个过程在当时是一件非常不愉快的事，但现在倒成了一篇很好的故事。这次经历令人可恼之处在于围绕着我的被捕以及随后庭上审讯而出现的种种武断专横的情况。 事情发生在大约12年前，其时正是2月。几个月前我中学毕业了，但上大学要等到10月。当时我还在家中居住。 一天早晨，我来到里士满。这里是伦敦的一个郊区，离我住的地方不远⊙我在寻找一份临时工作，以便积些钱去旅游。由于天气晴朗，当时又无急事，我便慢悠悠看看橱窗，逛逛公园。有时千脆停下脚步，四处张望。现在看来，一定是这种明显的毫无回的的游逛，使我倒了霉。 事情发生在11点半钟光景。我在当地图书馆谋职未成，刚刚走出来，便看到一个人穿越马路，显然是要来跟我说话。我以为他要问我时间，不料他说他是警官，要逮捕我。起先我还以为这是在开玩笑，但又一个警察出现在我的面前，这次是位身着警服的，这一下使我确信无疑了。 “为什么要抓我？”我问道。 “到处游荡，企图作案，”他说。 “作什么案？”我又问。 “偷窃，”他说。
“偷什么？”我追问。 “牛奶瓶，”他板着面孔说道。 “噢，”我说。 事情原来是这样的，在这一地区多次发生小的扒窃案，特别是从门前台阶上偷走牛奶瓶。接着，我犯了一个大错误。其时我年方19，留一头蓬乱的长发，自认为是60年代“青年反主流文化”的一员。所以我想装出一副冷漠的、对这一事件满不在乎的样子。于是我尽量用一种漫不经心的极其随便的腔调说，“你们跟踪我多久啦？”这样一来，在他们眼里，我就像是非常熟悉这一套的了，也使他们更加确信我是一个地地道道的坏蛋。 几分钟后，开来了一辆警车。 “坐到后面去，”他们说。“把手放到前排座位的靠背上，不准挪动。” 他们分别坐在我的两边。这可再也不是闹着玩的了。 在警察局，他们审讯了我好几个小时。我继续装成老于世故、对这种事习以为常。当他们问我在千什么时，我告诉他们在找工作。“啊，”我可以想见他们在想，“果然是个失业的家伙。” 最后，我被正式指控，并通知我下周一到里士满地方法庭受审。随后他们让我离开。 我想在法庭上作自我辩护，但父亲知道这事后，马上请了一位高明的律师。我们星期一出庭的时候，带了各种各样的证人，其中包括我中学的英语老师，作我人品的见证人。但结果法庭没有叫他作证。我的“审判”没有进行到那一步。开庭15分钟，法官就驳回了对
个人履历 教育背景: 2002-9---2006-02 在医学院药学系学习了所有药学专业的课程。 在医院中药房、西药房、住院药房、门诊药房、药库实习。熟 悉了医院工作环境和规章制度，及相关药事管理方面的工作。 在针剂，片剂和中药车间实习。熟悉了药品生产流程，质量控 制程序等相关方面的工作。使得在销售工作中对客户提出的相 关问题能够给出专业的答案。 2006-3---2006-6 在中药室学习。增加了对药品检验，鉴定等相关实验室知识。 并在此期间完成了毕业论文的设计，获得毕业答辩“优秀论 文”评定。 证书及技能 2004.9全国计算机等级三级证书 2005.12大学英语六级证书 能够熟练使用word,excel,PPT等各种办公软件，有良好的英语基础，但是口语欠佳，平时一直在努力学习spoken english 业务经验： 2007.5 在北京丰台区组织举行产品终端宣传会议 邀请终端药店，诊所及小医院共60多家参加，宣传公司的产品， 销售政策及未来市场规划，加强客户对公司品牌的认知以及对我公 司产品市场情况反馈。 2007.7在北京顺义区组织举行产品终端宣传订货会议 邀请终端药店，诊所及小医院共88家加，对公司各主要产品进行展 示，并举行了现场订货签单。进一步加强公司产品在北京地区的宣传 和推广。 2007.8 在石家庄和保定组织二级客户终端分销工作，进行了礼品促销；加
强了同二级客户的关系，加深了二级客户对我们的信任。 2007年，全年销量做到2700多万，居普药部门首位。 2008年，开始团队建设，负责北京，唐山，保定和石家庄区域团队协作。加强管理各区域业务员的二级客户分销工作，将分销工作做得更细致，更 深入。 2009．5，在北京平谷区组织举行产品终端宣传订货会议；6月在石家庄组织二级客户终端分销工作。 2010年—至今，依然负责北京及其周边地区的销售工作。 自我评价: ◆乐观、自信、积极向上 ◆很强的学习能力，能快速接受新事物 ◆较强的执行能力、沟通能力和良好的团队合作精神 求职意向：山西运城，西安或北京地区商务代表 Resume . Certifications and Skills 2004/09 National Computer Rank Examination Certificate. 3 2005/12 College English Test-6 2008/05-2008/07 The purchases/sales License of pharmaceuticals. Skillful in Microsoft Office(Word, Excel, PowerPoint, etc); Fluently in oral English and skillful in listening、reading、writing. Assignment experience
《药学英语》课程教学大纲 一、课程教学目的与任务 开设药学英语旨在从培养高级应用型人才的目标出发，结合药学及相关专业学生毕业后的工作实际，力求为他们提供其未来工作岗位所需要的专业英语知识和技能。通过教学，提高学生借助辞典和其他工具书籍，阅读国外文献的能力，并为将来我国执业药师与国际接轨做准备。 二、理论教学的基本要求 学完该课程后，在知识、技能和能力上分别应达到的以下程度： 了解英文药学文献的写作特点和格式，学习如何分析和理解英语长句。英国药典和美国药典的背景知识和使用方法，了解FDA的职责和功能；理解各章节PartA部分课文意思及PartB部分药品说明书中的常见例句；掌握掌握药品说明书必须书写的10个项目及其常用词汇，能够归纳出一些常见的化学基团的英文词缀；能用所学知识书写简单的英语药品说明书。 三、实践教学的基本要求 本课程实践学时全部以课堂对话形式进行，无单独实验项目。 四、教学学时分配
五、教学内容 Unit1 教学目的和要求：通过本章节学习，理解课文意思；掌握药品说明书的作用、项目；能够归纳出一些常见的化学基团的英文词缀。 教学重点：常用专业单词，如Pharmaceutical等的用法。 教学难点：文章翻译；常见的化学基团的英文词缀。 主要内容：PartAForeign Investment in Chinese Pharmaceutical Sector；PartB第1节药品名称；PartCChina—from self-sufficiency to World Leadership。 Unit 2 教学目的和要求：通过本章节学习,使学生理解课文意思；掌握常用专业单词，如supervision等的用法；掌握描述药物性状的常见句型；掌握药物性状的常用表达方式。 教学重点：常见的药物性状。 教学难点：常见描述药物性状的单词或短语。 主要内容：PartAFDA: Policeman or Teacher；PartB第2节药物性状；PartC Data Required for Drug Approval。 Unit 3 教学目的和要求：通过本章节学习,使学生掌握英文药品说明书中描写适应症的常见描短语或句型，常用专业单词，如临床药理(Clinical Pharmacology)、药效(Potency)、毒性(Toxicity)等。 教学重点：英文药品说明书中描写适应症的常见描短语或句型。 教学难点：文章翻译。 主要内容：PartA Pharmacological Tablet；PartB第2节药物性状。 Unit 4 教学目的和要求：通过本章节学习,使学生理解课文意思；掌握英文药品说明书中常见描写适应症、禁忌症的短语或句型。 教学重点：英文药品说明书中常见描写适应症、禁忌症的短语或句型。 教学难点：文章翻译。 主要内容：PartA Chemistry and Matter；PartB第4节适应症、第5节禁忌症。 Unit 5 教学目的和要求：通过本章节学习,使学生掌握英文药品说明书中描写用法用量及不良反应的常见短语或句型。常用专业单词，如常用表示剂量的术语平均剂量（average dose）、常用的剂量单位表示法、每次给药次数的表示方法：每隔…小时（every …hours）、每日三次（three times a day /daily)等。 教学重点：英文药品说明书中描写用法用量及不良反应的常见短语或句型。
Introduction to Physiology Introduction Physiology is the study of the functions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism performs its varied activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it adapts to changing circumstances, how it spawns new generations. The subject is vast and embraces the whole of life. The success of physiology in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks is based on the notion that they are intricate and exquisite machines whose operation is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry. Although some processes are similar across the whole spectrum of biology—the replication of the genetic code for or example—many are specific to particular groups of organisms. For this reason it is necessary to divide the subject into various parts such as bacterial physiology, plant physiology, and animal physiology. To study how an animal works it is first necessary to know how it is built. A full appreciation of the physiology of an organism must therefore be based on a sound knowledge of its anatomy. Experiments can then be carried out to establish how particular parts perform their functions. Although there have been many important physiological investigations on human volunteers, the need for precise control over the experimental conditions has meant that much of our present physiological knowledge has been derived from studies on other animals such as frogs, rabbits, cats, and dogs. When it is clear that a specific physiological process has a common basis in a wide variety of animal species, it is reasonable to assume that the same principles will apply to humans. The knowledge gained from this approach has given us a great insight into human physiology and endowed us with a solid foundation for the effective treatment of many diseases. The building blocks of the body are the cells, which are grouped together to form tissues. The principal types of tissue are epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular, each with its own characteristics. Many connective tissues have relatively few cells but have an extensive extracellular matrix. In contrast, smooth muscle consists of densely packed layers of muscle cells linked together via specific cell junctions. Organs such as the brain, the heart, the lungs, the intestines, and the liver are formed by the aggregation of different kinds of tissues. The organs are themselves parts of distinct physiological systems. The heart and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system; the lungs, trachea, and bronchi together with the chest wall and diaphragm form the respiratory system; the skeleton and skeletal muscles form the musculoskeletal system; the brain, spinal cord, autonomic nerves and ganglia, and peripheral somatic nerves form the nervous system, and so on. Cells differ widely in form and function but they all have certain 生理学简介 介绍 生理学是研究生物体功能的科学。它研究生物体如何进行各种活动，如何饮食，如何运动，如何适应不断改变的环境，如何繁殖后代。这门学科包罗万象，涵盖了生物体整个生命过程。生理学成功地解释了生物体如何进行日常活动，基于的观点是生物体好比是结构复杂而灵巧的机器，其操作受物理和化学规律控制。 尽管从生物学整个范畴看，生物体某些活动过程是相似的——如基因编码的复制——但许多过程还是某些生物体群组特有的。鉴于此有必要将这门学科分成不同部分研究，如细菌生理学、植物生理学和动物生理学。 要研究一种动物如何活动，首先需要了解它的构成。要充分了解一个生物体的生理学活动就必须掌握全面的解剖学知识。一个生物体的各部分起着什么作用可通过实验观察得知。尽管我们对志愿者进行了许多重要的生理调查，但是实验条件需要精确控制，所以我们当前大多生理知识还是源于对其它动物如青蛙，兔子，猫和狗等的研究。当我们明确大多数动物物种的特定生理过程存在共同之处时，相同的生理原理适用于人类也是合理的。通过这种方法，我们获得了大量的知识，从而让我们对人类生理学有了更深入的了解，为我们有效治疗许多疾病提供了一个坚实的基础。 机体的基本组成物质是细胞，细胞结合在一起形成组织。组织的基本类型有上皮组织，结缔组织，神经组织和肌组织，每类组织都有各自的特征。许多结缔组织中细胞量相对较少，但是有大量的细胞外基质。相比而言，光滑的肌组织由大量密密麻麻的肌细胞通过特定的细胞连接组成。各种器官如脑，心脏，肺，小肠和肝等由不同种类的组织聚集而成。这些器官是不同生理系统的组成部分。心脏和血管组成心血管系统；肺，器官，支气管，胸壁和膈肌组成呼吸系统；骨骼和骨骼肌组成骨骼肌系统；大脑，脊髓，自主神经和神经中枢以及
Unit1: 1)我们像在暖房里种花那样养孩子是错误的。我们必须让他们接触各种社会问题，因为不久他们就将作为公民来应对这些问题。 It is wrong to raise our children the way we grow flowers in the greenhouse. We must expose them to all social problems because very soon they will be dealing with them as responsible citizens. 2)随着时间的推移，我们不可避免地会越来越多地卷入国际事务。而冲突必然会发生，因为国家之间总有不同的观点和利益。 As time goes on we are inevitably going to get more and more involved in international affairs. And conflicts are sure to occur because there always exist different views and interests between nations. 3)我们为我们的成就而骄傲，我们有理由感到骄傲。但是我们永远不能变得狂妄，不然我们就会失去我们的朋友。 We are proud of our accomplishments, and we have reason to be. But we must never become arrogant. Otherwise we will lose our friends. 4)信息现在唾手可得。一个普通的电脑就能储存一个普通图书馆的信息。 Information is now easily available. An average computer can store the information of a small library 5)那家建筑公司没有资格操作这个项目。他们没有任何法律文件能证明他们具备必要的专门技术。 That construction company is not qualified to handle the project. They do not have any legal document to certify that they have the necessary expertise. We must find a company that specializes in building theatres. 6)这些智囊团不作决策。他们力图提出一些对决策者十分有用的新主意和深刻的分析。 These think tanks do not make decisions. They are out to generate new ideas and penetrating analyses that will be extremely useful for decision makers. 7)国内生产总值不是一切的。如果人民的生活质量没有真正改善的话，我们国家就并不能说已经现代化了。 The growth of GDP is not everything. Our country cannot be said to have been modernized unless the quality of our people’s lives is really improved. 8)虽然那时候我们在很多方面都很困难，但作为孩子我们仍然很幸福，因为有干净的空气、水；江河湖泊里有很多鱼、螃蟹、黄 鳝；田野里有花，有树，有鸟。 Poor as we were in many ways at that time, we were still quite happy as children, for there was clean air, clean water, a lot of fish, crabs and eels in the rivers, lakes, and ponds, and a lot of flowers, trees and birds in the fields. 9)只要给某一个人或某一群人以绝对权力，那这个人或这一群人就肯定会滥用权力，因为正如阿克顿勋爵所说，“权力使人腐败， 绝对权力绝对使人腐败。” Give absolute power to some individual or any particular group of people, and that person or group are sure to abuse that power because, just as Lord Acton says, “Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.” 10)在我们国家，传统上都认为，“万般皆下品，惟有读书高”。 Traditionally in our country school education was always said to be more important and useful compared with all other pursuits. Unit2: 11)我跟你说，从各方面考虑，当教师不失为一个好主意。事实上，我认为这个主意好极了。
药学英语课后翻译 Organic Chemistry Translation 1.没有化学的帮助，现代医学所取得的令人瞩目的进展是不可能的。 The remarkable advances made in modern medicine would not have been possible without the aid of chemistry. 2.既然人体从本质上讲是一台化学机器，那么，有人体功能的化学知识对医生来说 就显得至关重要了。 Since the body is essentially a chemical machine, a knowledge of the chemistry of bodily functions seems essential to the physician. 3.通过植物和动物生产食品涉及到分子中原子的重新排列问题。 The production of food by plants and animals involves the rearrangement of atoms in molecules. 4.幸运的是，很少有其他工作能像研究化学那样更能激励人们去取得成功。Fortunately, few kinds of work seem to urge people on to success more effectively than does the pursuit of chemistry. 5.迄今为止，寻求合成制品背后的动机便是祈盼以更少的钱为更多的人生产更好的 东西。 So far the motive behind the search for synthetics has been a wish to produce better things for less money, and for more people. 6.人们从活体分离出越来越多的纯净物质，并认识到它们都含有碳元素，这样便诞 生了有机化学 Isolation of increasing numbers of purified materials from living forms and recognition of the fact that all contained carbon gave birth to organic chemistry. 7.煤与氧结合在炉中燃烧，生成二氧化碳——一种在成分和化学性质上都不同于煤 和氧的全新物质。 When coal is burned in a furnace it combines with oxygen to give carbon dioxide, a new substance with different composition and properties from coal and oxygen. 8.许多特定的化学反应之所以重要，是由于它们耗用或提供能量。 Many specific chemical reactions are important because of the energy which they use or supply. 9.在有机化学学习中，学生希望用他们熟悉的符号构成二维或三维空间的分子结构 式。 In the study of organic chemistry, students are expected to use familiar symbols which are constructed into two- or three-dimensional molecular formulas. 10.从我们吃的食品、穿的衣服，到住的楼房，所有这些都在很大程度上被有机化学 更新了。 From the food we eat, the clothes we wear to the buildings we live in, all have been fashioned to a considerable extent by organic chemistry. Herbal medicine Translation 1.植物王国曾是人类唯一的药房，但你今天走进现代药店，植物用药已是踪影难寻。 The plant kingdom was once man’s only pharmacy. Yet when you enter a modern chemist’s shop today, you can hardly find a sign of the use of plants in medicine.
Unit 1 Green pharmacy-herbal medicine 1) Plant kingdom once was mere pharmacy of the human race, but now when you get into the modern pharmacy, plant-derived drugs have been hardly found. 2) Although today the number of plant-based drugs has been decreased, the effective chemicals in many tables, capsule and bottle-contained drugs are originated from plant kingdom. 3) Among chemical substances contained in plants, some must be toxic, but some must be drugs available to us. 4) During the millions of years since man came to the earth, he has been doing experiments on a variety of plants about him. 5) There exist mistrust, suspicion and hostility between the orthodox medicine and herbal practitioners for many years, which are threatening the possibility of establishing good working relationship. 6) When we think of the effectiveness of quinine, the great contributions made by herbal medicine to medical science are quite evident. 7) However, in the past few decades, the number of newly-introduced drugs has obviously decreased. 8) The medical legacy of our motherland is an inexhaustible new-drug treasure, which remains us to tap with new methods. 9) If pharmacological method had not been introduced to the study of vinca rosea, the discovery of vincaleukoblastine would have been postponed by many years. 10) Western medicine hardly believes that someone who knows nothing of a disease mechanism could be capable of curing it. Unit 2 How does human body fight disease? People tend to believe that antibiotics were invented by human being, but in fact, they are purely natural products. Since Alexander Fleming, a British biologist discovered anti-microbial substance released by the Penicillium fungi in 1928, it has been learned that this substance can produce powerful antibiotic effect. In fact, antibiotics, are exactly manufactured by organisms, namely, bacteria and fungi, which people aim to destroy. After Fleming’s discovery of penicillin, Selma Walksman in 1943 isolated Streptomycin from a soil bacterium, Streptomycus griseus. Scientists have not made it clear completely why organisms can produce antibiotics. This question has become the topic for discussion. Why antibiotics are useful in medicine is that they can not only kill microbes, but also not kill the body cells as they do to the microbes, body cells are entirely different from those of bacteria cells, so that they can avoid being destroyed at the same time. Thus, antibiotics are called “magic bullet”because they may be particularly used to aim at certain microbes. This feature of antibiotics also makes them essentially different from anti-microbial agents: the latter tends to have poison to a majority of cells, whether the cells of bacteria or the body cells. Unit 3 Drug dependence Studies indicate that drug dependencies both a health problem and a social concern. The drug dependence affects not only individual’s health but also the public health at the same time. The drug use has obviously and severely negative effects on the human brain and physical health. But drug abuse and addiction have huge and potential threat, because whether the drug is used directly
Unit1 V ocabulary4 1.他们利用我们求助无门的困境把我们公司接管了。 They took advantage of our hopeless situation and took over our company. 2.虽然我们前面仍有困难，但我肯定我们中国人有智慧靠自己实现国家的和平统一。 Although there are still difficulties lay ahead of us, I’m sure that we Chinese people have the wisdom to bring about the peaceful unification of our country on our own. 3.只强调国内生产总值是错误的，它会引起很多严重的问题。 It is wrong to stress/emphasize/put emphasis on GDP. It will bring about/give rise to many serious problems. 4.他喜欢炫耀他的财富，但这完全是徒劳的，人们仍然像躲避毒药那样躲他。 He loves to show off his wealth, but that is all in vain. People still avoid him as he were poison.
5.他不久就爱上了这个村子。他决心和村名一起把这个地方变成一个花园。 He soon fell in love with the village and was determined to make it a beautiful garden together with the villagers. 6.我们必须花更多的钱来和全球气温上升作斗争。另外，我认为我们应该采取严厉的法律措施。这不是一个钱的 问题。 We must spend much more money fighting against global warming. In addition, we must resort to tough laws. It is not just a matter of money. 7.当警察到达学校的时候，学生和教师还在一种茫然不知所措的状态。 When the police arrived at/reached/got to school, the teachers and students were still in a daze. 8.这个腐败的官员还在死死抓住他的权力不放。他拒绝靠边站。 This corrupt official was still clinging to his power. He refused to step aside.
本篇包括人卫第四版Unit 3B，Unit4A，5A，8A，10A，12AB，13A等七篇课文Unit 3 Text B The Other Side of Antibiotics 抗生素的另一面 Antibiotics have eliminated or controlled so many infectious diseases that virtually everyone has benefited from their use at one time or another. Even without such personal experience, however, one would have to be isolated indeed to be unaware of the virtues, real and speculative, of these “miracle” drugs1. The American press, radio, and television have done a good job of reporting the truly remarkable story of successes in the chemical war on germs. What′s more, any shortcomings on their part have been more than made up for by the aggressive public relations activity of the pharmaceutical companies which manufacture and sell antibiotics. 抗生素可以消除或控制很多种感染疾病，以致几乎每人生病时都习惯于使用它而受益，但是如果一个人没有这样的亲身经历，他必定是离群索居才会不知道这些“特效药物”或真实或推测的优点。美国的出版物、电台或电视台用大量的篇幅报道了有关对细菌的化学战中获得的这些显着功绩。而它的缺点却被生产和销售抗生素的制药公司通过公关活动掩藏了。 In comparison, the inadequacies and potential dangers of these remarkable drugs are much less widely known. And the lack of such knowledge can be bad, especially if it leads patients to pressure their doctors into prescribing antibiotics when such medication isn’t really needed, or leads them to switch doctors until they find one who is, so to speak, antibiotics-minded2. 相比而言，使用这些药物的危险性并不广为人知。对这种知识的缺乏将更糟糕，特别是当患者要求医生开处方用抗生素而事实并不需要，或患者频繁地更换医生直至找到一个同意开抗生素处方的医生。 Because the good side of the antibiotics story is so very well-known, there seems more point here to a review of some of the immediate and long-range problems that can come from today’s casual use of these drugs. It should be made clear in advance that calamities from the use of antibiotics are rare in relation to the enormous amounts of the drugs administered. But the potential hazards, so little touched on generally, do need a clear statement. 因为抗生素的好的一面已广为人知，今天抗生素的滥用导致短期或长期问题。我们预先应该知道与抗生素的巨大的使用量相比,它产生危害的例子是少见的。但是，尽管十分少见，需要对这种潜在的危险作一个清楚的说明。 The antibiotics are not, strictly speaking, exclusively prescription drugs. A number of them are permitted in such over-the-counter products as nasal sprays, lozenges, troches, creams, and ointments. Even if these products do no harm there is no point whatsoever in using them. If you have an infection