1、Besides oil being present in sufficient quantities ,and water and gas available to help move it to surface, three other factors must be present in the reservoir to make it economically worthwhile. These are pressure gradient ,gtavity, and capillary action.
除了足够石油存在，水和可以帮助把它到地面的天然气之外，在储层中必须存在其他三个因素使其具有经济开采价值，他们是压力梯度重力和毛细作用。
2、Pressure gradient means that a difference exists between pressures measured at two different points.If the pressure is lower at the wellthan at other points in the reservoir,the areas of higher pressure will exert energy that will force the fluids to and up the wellbore resulting in the well flowing .If such pressure is not present in sufficient quantities ,then a pump or other artificial means will have to be used to lift the oil to the surface.
压力梯度意味着测量的两点之间压力存在差异，如果经的压力比油藏的其他点底，那高压区会释放能量，驱使流体到达井眼，何在井眼中爬升从而实现油在井中流动，如果不存在足够这样的压力，那么就必须用泵或者其他人工方法来把油举升到地面。
3、The function of the hoisting system is to provide a means of lowering or raising drilstrings ,casing strings,and other subsurface equipment into or out of the hole.The principal components of the hoisting system are the derrick and substructure , the block and tackle,,and the drawworks, Two routine drilling oprations performed with the hoisting system are called making a connection refers to the periodic process of adding a new jointof drillpipe as the hole deepens. This process is described in figure 3-10.Making a trip refers to the process of removing the drillstring from the hole to change a portion of the downhole assembly and then lowering the drillstring back to the hole bottom .A trip is made usually to change a dull bit.The steps involved in coming out of the hole are shown in Figure3—11.
起升系统的功能是提供了一种手段来实现钻柱、套管8的下放和起升和其他设备在井眼中出入。起升系统的重要组成部分有井架、底座、滑
轮组和绞车。起升系统的两个常规钻井操作是接单根和起下钻。接单根是指井眼加深时在钻柱上增加新的单根的周期过程。图3-10描述了这一过程。起下钻是指把钻柱从井眼中移除更换部分井下装置再把钻柱下放到井眼中，统称为更换钝的钻头而起下钻，起钻的相关步骤如图3-11所示。
4、The drawworks (Figure3—15)provide the hoisting and braking power required to raise or lower the heavy strings of pipe.The principal parts of the drawworks are the drum ,the brakes,the transmission, and the catheads.The drum transmits the torque required for hoisting or braking .It also stores the drilling line required to move the traveling block the length of the derrick.
绞车提供起升和下放重的钻柱所需的起升功率和制动功率。主提绞车主要组成部分有滚筒、刹车、传动装置和猫头。滚筒传递起升和制动所需的扭矩。
5、The brakes must have the capacity to stop and sustain the great weights imposed when lowering a string of pipe into the hole.Auxiliary brakes are used to help dissipate the large amount of heat generated during braking.Tow types of auxiliary brakes commonly used are the hydrodynamic type and the electromagnetic type .For the hydrodynamic type ,braking is provided by water being impelled in a direction opposite to the rotation of the drun.In the electromagnetic type , electrical braking is provided by tow oppositing magnetic fields.The magnitude of the magnetic fields is dependent on the speed of rotation and the amount of external excitation current supplied In both types,the heat developed must be dissipated by a liquid cooling system.
刹车必须有能力停止和维持下放钻柱到井眼中施加的高重量他们用辅助刹车来帮助在刹车过程中产生大量的热。两种普遍使用的辅助刹车是水动力类型和电磁类型。对于动力类型来说水向滚筒旋转的反方向流动提供制动。对于电磁类型来说，电气制动是由两种相立的磁场
提供的。磁场的强度取决于旋转速度和提供的外部激励电流的数量。在这两种类型中部必须用液体冷却系统来驱散产生的热量。
6、The drawworks transimission provides a means for easily changing the direction and speed of the traveling block. Power also must be
transmitted to catheads attached to both ends of the drawworks.
绞车的传动装置提供了一种简单的改变绞车运动方向和速度的方法，功率必须传给附属在绞车两端的猫头。
7、Friction catheads shown in Figure 3—15 turn contiuously and can be used to assist in lifting or moving equipment on rig floor .The number of turns of rope on the drum and the tension provided by the operator controls the force of pull..A second type of cathead generally located between the drawworks housing and the friction cathead can bbe used to provide the torque needed to screw or screw sections of pipe.
如图3-15所示的摩擦猫头不断旋转，可以协助举起或移动设备到钻~上。滚筒上绳子的匝数和由操作者提供的张力控制拉力。第二种类型的猫头通常位于通常位于绞车机架和摩擦猫头之间，用于提供上或卸钻杆所需的钻距。
8、A major function of the fluid-circulating system is to remove the rock cuttings from the hole as drilling progresses.A schematic diagram illustrating a typical rig circulating system is shown in Figure 3-17.The drilling fluid is most commonly a suspension of clay and other materials in water and is called drilling mud.The drilling mud travels from the steel tanks to the mud pump,from the pump through(the high pressure surface connections)to the drillstring,though the drillstring to the bit,though the nozzles of the bit and up the annular space between the drillstring and hole to the surface,and through the contaminant-removal equipment back to the sution tank.
循环系统的主要功能钻井进行时井眼中移出。在图3-17的简图中展示
一个典型钻机的循环系统。最常见的钻井液是在水中粘土和其他材料组成的悬浮液被称为泥浆。泥浆从储罐流出，流经泥浆泵，地面高压管汇、钻柱、钻头喷嘴、从钻柱和经验环形空间上返到地面，再经过净化装置返回泥浆池。
9、The principal components of the rig circulating system include mud pumps,mud pits,mud mixing equipment,and contaminant-removal equipment.With the exception of sevsral experiment types ,mud pumps always have used reciprocating positive_displacemet pistons.Both tow—cy;inder and three-cylinder pimps are common.The dulex pumps gerally are double-acting pumps that pump on both forward and backward piston strocks. The triplex pumps generally are single—acting pumps that pumps that pump only on forward piston stroke . Triplex pumps are
lighter and more compact than duplex pumps,their output pressure pulsations are not as great ,and they are cheaper to oprate .For these reasons, the majority of new pumps being placed into opration are of the triplex design.
钻井循环系统主要由泥浆泵、泥浆池混合泥浆设备和净化设备组成除了一些实验的类型以外，泥浆泵常使用往复容积式驱体活塞，双缸泵和三缸泵都很常见。双缸泵通常是双作用泵能够向前向后进行活塞冲程。三缸泵通常是但作用泵。三缸泵比双缸泵更紧凑，输出压力波动不大，操作费用不高。基于以上原因，投入使用的新泵都是设计成三缸泵。
10、The advantages of the reciprocating positive_displacement pimp are the ability to move high_solids_contnent fluids laden with abrasives ,ability to pump large particles, ease of opration and maintenance,reliability, and ability to oprate over awide range of pressuies and flow rates by changing the diameters of the pump liners and pistons.Example dumplex and trplex mud pumps are shown in Figure 3—18
往复容积式驱替泵的优点是能够移动充满研磨剂的高固相含量液体，能够泵送大颗粒，容易操作和维护，能够在大范围变化的压力下操作，可以通过改变泵缸套的和活塞的直径来改变流通。3-18图是双缸和三缸泥浆泵的实例。
11、The overall efficiency of a mud-circulating pump is the product of the mechanical efficiency and the volumetric efficiency.Mechanical efficiency usually is assumed to be 90% and is related to the efficiency of the prime mover itself and the linkage to the pump drive shaft.
循环泥浆泵的综合效率是机械效率和容积效率之积。机械效率通常假设为90%，与原动机本身的效率和与泵的传动轴连接的效率有关。12、Range 2drillpipe is used most commonly. Since each joint of pipe has a unique length,the length of each joint must be measured carefully and recorded to allow a determination of tatal well depth during drilling operations
14The lower section of the rotary drillstring is composed of drill collars .The drill collars are thick-walled heavy steel tubulars used to apply
weight to the bit.The buckling tendency of the relatively thin-walled drillpipe is too great to use it for this purpose .The smaller clearance between the borehole and the drill collars helps to keeo the hole straight .Sablilizer subs often arein the used in the drill collar string to assist in keeping the drill collars centralized.
二号钻杆最常见，由于每一个钻杆接头有唯一的长度，每一个接头的长度必须仔细测量和记录，从而在钻井过程中能够确定井源。
[13]The drillpipe joints are fastened together in the drillstring by means of tool joints(Figure3-20).The female portion of the tool joint is called the box and the male portion is called the pin.The portion of the drillpipe to which the tool joint is attached has thicker walls than the rest of the drillpipe to provide for a stronger joint.This thicker portion of the pipe is called the upset.If the extra thickness is achieved by decreasing the internal diameter, the pipe is said to have an internal upset.A rounded-type thread is used now on drill pipe.The U.S. Standard V thread was used in early drillpipe designs,but thread failure was frequent because of the stress concentrations in the thread root.A tungsten carbide hard facing sometimes is manufactured on the outer surface of the tool joint box to reduce the abrasive wear of the tool joint by the borehole wall when the drillstring is rotated.
钻杆接头通过工具街头紧固在钻具中，工具接头中凹陷的部分叫做母扣，突出的部分叫做公扣。钻杆中与工具接头联结的与钻杆其他部分相比具有厚壁的部分是用来提供一个高强度的接头，钻杆中这个厚的部分叫做加厚，如果增加的厚度是通过减少内径实现的，这种钻杆叫做有内加厚。目前钻杆使用一种~固类型的螺纹。美国标准V号螺纹在早期钻杆设计中使用，但是螺纹经常因为螺摆处应力集中而失效，一种具有表面硬化的硬质合金有时候加工在工具接头母扣的外表面用来减小当钻柱旋转时井眼对工具接头造成的磨损。
14、The lower section of the rotary drillstring is composed of drill collars .The drill collars are thick-walled heavy steel tubulars used to apply weight to the bit.The buckling tendency of the relatively thin-walled drillpipe is too great to use it for this purpose .The smaller clearance between the borehole and the drill collars helps to keeo the hole straight .Sablilizer subs often arein the used in the drill collar string to assist in keeping the drill collars centralized.
旋转钻柱下面部分是由钻铤组成的，钻铤是厚壁的重质钢管用来给钻头提供重量，相对厚壁的钻杆，变弯的趋势太强不能用作钻铤，井眼和钻铤之间的小空隙是用来保持井的垂直，钻铤柱上的稳定器短节是用来保持钻铤居中。
15、The well control syetem prevent the uncontrolled fiow of formation fluids from the wellbore.When the bit penetrates a permeable formation that has a fluid pressure in excess of the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the drilling fluid,formation fluids will begin displacing the drilling fluid from the well.The flow of formation fluids into the well in the presence of drilling fluid is called a kick,closing the well at the surface,circulating the well under pressure to remove the formation fluids and increase the mud density,moving the drilling under pressure, and diverting fiow away fiom rig personnel and equipment.
井控系统是用来防止地层流体从井眼中失控流出，当钻头钻入渗透性底层时一种液体的压力超过了由钻井液产生的静液压力，地层液体将会开始从井中驱替钻井液，地层流体流入含有钻井液的井中叫做井通，井控系统具有如下功能检测井涌，在地表关井，使用油井带压循环，清除地层液体并增加钻井液密度，带压起下钻，把流体导向远离井场设备和工作人员的地方。
16、Basic decisions to reached in designing the well completion are:the method of completion,the number of completions within the wellbore,the casing-tubing configuration,the diameter of the production conduit,and the completion interval.
在设计完井中要完到基本决定有：完井方法，在井眼中完井（层段）数目，油套管井深结构，生产导管直径，和完井层段。
17、basically there are two methods of completing a well , openhole where casing is set on top of the producing interval and perforated casing ,where casing is cemented through the producing interval and communication is established by perforating .Each method has areas of predominate usage depending on formation characteristics.Generally openhole has greater applications in carbonate zones.But each has inherent advantages and limitations.
完井主要有两种方法，套管下放产层上的裸眼完井和用水泥固结的套管贯穿产层和射孔来实现井筒和生产之间的油疏通道。每种方法在采油区具有使用优势取决于地层特点，一般裸眼完井，多用于碳酸盐岩区，但是他们都有固有的优点和局限性。
18、If the producing bottomhole pressure becomes so low that it will not allow the well to produce at a desired fiow rate (or perhaps any flow rate ),some sort of artifice energy supply will be needed to lift or help lift the fliud out of the wellbore . Energy can be supplied indiredctly by injecting water or gas into the reservoir pressure,or through a variety of artificiallift methods that are applied at the producing wellitself.
如果生产井液压改变的非常低，以至于该井不能按预期的产量生产，那么将需要补充某种人工能量来直接举升或帮助举升流体，使流体流出井筒。或者通过把水或气注入油藏以维持油藏压力的办法来间接提供能量，或者在生产井本身通过一系列的各种人工举升方法来提供能量。
19、The sucker rods are usually about 25ft (7.62m)long and are connected with threaded couplings. In deep wells,a tapered sting of rods , decreasing in diameter with deoth ,can be run to maximize strength at the point of maximum load the top of the string (Figure7-21)
抽油杆通常是25英尺（7.62米）长通过螺纹接头连接在深井，锥形抽油杆柱随着深度增加降低直径，应用中来最大限度的提高抽油杆柱最大载荷悬点的强度
20、The surface unit also varies in design and size. Typical designs are the conventional (ClassⅠ)，the mark Ⅱand air balanced units (CalssⅢunits)(Figure 7-22). Unit sizes aredesignated by torque rating , peak load ,and stroke length . They can range from a unit with a 16 in (0.406m)stoke and a maximum load of 3200 lb (1451kg),to one with a 300 in (7.62m)stroke and maximum load of 47000 lb (21319kg).The torque rating for the gear reducer of these two units varies by factor of 570.Prime movers are either internal combustion engines or electric motors.For any given pumping unit, the pump rate maybe changed within a limited range by changing the pump rate or stoke length .Rod pumping meets a wide range of artificial lift needs with typical producing rates from 5 to 600 bbl /D(0.795to95.4m3/d)
抽油机也在设计和尺寸方面变化，典型的设计师传统的方式（一维）马克二进和空气平衡单位（Ⅲ类单位）（图7-22）单元尺寸由扭矩测定。峰值负数及冲程长度决定，抽油机变化范围在冲程长度在16英寸（0.406cm）和极限载荷3200磅（1451kg）和冲程长度300英寸
（7.62m）和极限载荷47000磅（21319kg）之间。一个抽油机齿轮减速
器可以乘以一个系数570后得到另一个，原动机有内燃机和电动机，对于任意给定的抽油机泵率有可能通过改变泵率或者冲程长度在一定范围内调试、
21、rod and rodless pumping systems achieve a reduction in bottomhole pressure by mechanical
displacement of fluid up the tubing . A third artificial lift process involves the use of gas to power a plunger the length of the tubing string in effect ,a gas –lift powered pump that utilizes the entire tubing string as the barrel . Plunger lift is typically an intermediate artificial lift method for wells that ultimately must be pumped but have a low productivity index(PI)and a high enough gas-oil ratio to operate the plunger.
有杆和无杆泵系统通过机械驱替液体在油管上升来减少井底压力，第三个人工举升过程包括气的利用和气举动力泵我们用气驱动实际上油管柱长度的柱塞。气举动力泵利用了整个油管柱为泵筒，柱塞提升是一个典型的人工举升方法，对于低采油指数和高油气比的要求提高最终采出量，一般应用柱塞泵
22、Several variations on the methods mentioned have been proposed and tested by producers and service companies.These include : jet pump(Figure7-25),a hydraulic pump,which uses a nozzle to transfer power fluid momentum directly to the produced fluid;chamber lift,a gas-lift installation,which allows for production from low PI wells without the backpressure from injected gas;and modified rod pumping unit designs,such as the winch-type or pneumatc-type pumping unit.
生产者、服务公司提出了上面提及的方法的变种井测试了（它们的性能）。其中包括：喷射泵（图7-25），水力活塞泵，箱式气举，和有杆泵抽油机改进型。水力活塞泵使用喷嘴将动力液动量直接转化为产出液动量。箱式气举是一种气举装置，它注入气体固压低，适用于采油指数低的井，绞车式或气动式抽油机是有杆泵抽油机改进型的一种。
23、There are a variety of artificial lift methods available to the production engineer. The particular method chosen for a given well weill depend on factors such as the pressures,fluid types,space limitations,power requirements,well depth,and operation
experience.While gas lift is the major method employed offshore,rod pumping is the most widely used artificial lift method onshore,and in general.
对采油的工程师来讲，有许多可用的人工举升方法。为给定井所选择的特定方法取决于许多因素，例如压力、流体类型、空间限制、动力需要、井深以及操作经验。气举是海上所采用的主要的方法，而有杆泵是陆上最广泛采用的人工举升方法。
24、We may choose to stimulate wells either because previous wells in a field have needed it,or because they have run production surveys that a well may produce at a faster rate after stimulation techniques.Stimulation can be said to be all about permeability.Permeability is the ability of a fluid to flow through rock.This is contrasted with porosity,which is the space between particles of a rock.Many stimulation methods are used in oil industry.Two of the most common stimulation technique are acidizing and hydraulic fracturing.
我们可以选择改造井，因为油田中的先前的井原本就需要改造，正是因为进行生产调查表明井也许可以以更快的速度生产，然后实施增产增注措施。增产增注措施可以说关于渗透率。渗流率是流体通过岩石的能力。这又区别于孔隙度，孔隙度指岩石*之间的空间。石油行业中有许多增产增注措施。最常见的两种增产增注措施是酸化和水力压裂。
25、In many cases acidizing or fracturing is a routine part of the completion program.Either type of stimulation may also be applied soon after a well has been completed and has tested at lower production rates than expected.Stimulation may also be of a remedial or workover program designed to improve productivity following a decline in production.Stimulation will often follow a formation pressure buildup test that was run to determine if the cause of low productivity was permeability reduction near the wellbore,low permeability throughout the reservoir,or low reservoir pressure.Acid stimulation can improve the first condition,whereas fracturing is necessary to significantly improve the second condition.Of course,the third condition ca only be helped by pressure maintenance through injection of water or gas.
在许多情况下酸化和压裂是完井项目的常规部分。两种增产增注措施也可以完井后立即应用，或测试出比预计的产量低后应用。增产增注措施也可以作为修井项目的一部分，来提高产量降低后的生产力。增产增注措施通常会在压力恢复试井后实施。压力恢复试井来确定低产的原因是近井地带低渗透率降低，还是整个油藏的渗透性低。酸化改善第一种情况。压裂对于大幅度的改善第二种情况是有必要的。当然，第三个条件只通过注水注气来帮助保持压力。
26、Both acidizing and fracturing procedures involve the pumping of fluids down the tubing or drillpipe and into the formation.In fracturing,the objective is to apply enough pressure to actually split the formation apart,creating flow channels to the wellbore where either none or few previously existed.In most acidizing procedures,the objective is to squeeze the acid into the exsiting pore spaces of the rock matrix,where it can react to enlarge the flow channels and improve or restore the permeability of the region very near the wellbore[a radius of 8 to 24 in (20.3 to 61cm)]without fracturing the producing formation.Acid-fracturing treatments create fractures.At the same time continued fluid injection increases the fracture’s length and width.Acid(normally 15% HCI)is then injected into the fracture to react with the formation and create a flow channel(by etching of the fracture surface)that extends deep into the formation.this allows more reservoir fluid to drain into the wellbore along he new fractures once the well is put back on production.酸化、压裂程序都涉及将液体泵到油管或钻管，最后到地层。压裂的目的是应用足够的压力，实际上是将地层分开，产生井眼与地层的流动通道，这种通道以前很少或全无存在。在大多数酸化程序，目的是在不压裂的情况下把酸挤入岩石基质的现有的空隙空间，在那里反应扩大流动通道和改善及恢复近井地带的渗透性，酸压产生裂缝。与此同时连续注入流体增加裂缝长度和宽度，然后将酸（通常为
15%HCL）注入裂缝，与地层反应形成流动通道（通过腐蚀裂缝表面）来沟通深部地层，一旦井重新生产，就会有更多油藏流体沿新形成的裂缝流入井眼。
27、Acid is used to remove damage near the wellbore in all typies of wells.There are two categories of acidizing treatments in use: matrix acidizing and fracture acidizing.Matrix acidizing can be used in carbonate reservoirs and sandstone.Fracture acidizing,also known as acid fracturing is the most widely used acidizing technique for stimulating limestone or dolomite formations.
所有类型的井里酸用于减轻井筒附近的污染。现在有两种类型酸化措施在应用：基岩酸化和酸压。基岩酸化可用于碳酸盐岩储层和砂岩储层。酸化压裂，也被称为酸压是目前广泛地应用于石灰石或白云岩地层的酸化技术。
28、Wells in low to moderate-permeability reservoirs are aandidates for hydraulic fracturing as a means of stimulating their performance.Hydraulic fracturing is a technique used primarlly by the oil and gas industries as a tool for enhanced recovery,more specifically for reservoir stimulation,well connection,etc.The objective of hydraulic fracturing for well stimulation is to increase well productivity by creating a highly conductive path(compared to reservoir permeability) some distance away from the wellbore into the formation t
(Figure8-3).Usually the conductivity is maintained by propping with sand to hold the fracture faces apart.
低中渗透率的油藏与油井一般应用压裂技术来改善油井生产状态，在石油和天然气工业，水力压裂首先被应用为提高采收率的技术，更具体地作为增产增注措施和实现井简连通等。水力压裂井的目的是通过形成沟通井眼和深部油藏的长距离高渗透带来提高井的生产能力。一些距离形成的气井井筒到（图8-3）。通常沙砾来支撑裂缝分开保持传导性
汉译英 Unit1 1.无论你是多么富有经验的演说家，无论你做了多么充足的准备，你都很难在这样嘈杂的招待会上发表演讲。（no matter how） No matter how experienced a speaker you are, and how well you have prepared your speech ，you will have difficulty making a speech at such a noisy reception. 2.就像吉米妹妹的朋友都关系吉米一样，吉米也关系他们（just as） Just as all his sister ’ s friends cared about him, Jimmy cared about them 3.汽车生产商在新车的几处都印有汽车识别号码，以便帮助找回被盗的车辆。（track down）Car manufacturers stamp a vehicle identification number at several places on new cars to help track down stolen vehicles. 4.老师回来时你敢告我状的话，我就不再和你说话了。（tell on） If you dare tell on me when the teacher gets back I won’t say a word to you any more. 5.有些老年人愿意独自过日子，但大多数老人选择和儿女一起生活。（on one’s own） Some elderly people prefer to live on their own while the great majority choose to live with their children. 6.现在需要面对的事情是：如何筹集创建公司所需的资金。（reckon with） Here is something that needs to be reckoned with: how to get the necessary finances to establish the company. Unit2 1.被告是位年仅30岁的女子，她坚持称自己无罪 The defendant, a woman of only 30, kept insisting on her own innocence. 2.总体看来，枣、豆类以及一些多叶的绿色蔬菜是最好的铁质来源。 All tings considered, dates, beans and some leafy green vegetables are the best sources of iron . 3正餐时不供应饮料，饮料会影响消化。 No beverages are served with meals because they interfere with digestion. 4.考虑到那个地区受欢迎的程度，提前订旅馆是明智的。 Taking the popularity of the region into consideration, it is advisable to book hotels in advance. 5.服药后若有呕吐感，请立即停止服用并立刻咨询医生。 If you have a feeling of wanting to throw up after taking this drug, stop taking it immediately and consult your doctors as soon as possible. 6.总结这次讨论时，他说双方都要好好考虑怎样以最有效的方法来解决这一问题。 Summing up the discussion, he said both parties should consider the most effective way to solve the problem. Unit3 1.在思维方面，与他的行为一样，他是非常传统的。 In his thinking, as in his behavior, he is very traditional. 2..教师一旦同意接受新的教学计划，他们就得面对新计划所带给他们的压力。 Once the teachers agree to accept the new teaching program, they have to face the strain it puts on them. 3.从长远看，大学毕业后继续深造而不是直接参加工作是值得的。 In the long run, it is worthwhile to pursue one ’ s study after graduatin g from university instead of going to work directly. 4.由于这所学校的办学宗旨是品德第一，所以道德观和学习成绩受到同样的重视。 As the school operates on the Character First principle, moral values and academic achievements are stressed equally. 5.据说，原定于这个月召开的会议将推迟到下个月召开。
Chapter 1 Passage 1 Human Body In this passage you will learn: 1. Classification of organ systems 2. Structure and function of each organ system 3. Associated medical terms To understand the human body it is necessary to understand how its parts are put together and how they function. The study of the body's structure is called anatomy; the study of the body's function is known as physiology. Other studies of human body include biology, cytology, embryology, histology, endocrinology, hematology, immunology, psychology etc. 了解人体各部分的组成及其功能，对于认识人体是必需的。研究人体结构的科学叫解剖学；研究人体功能的科学叫生理学。其他研究人体的科学包括生物学、细胞学、胚胎学、组织学、内分泌学、血液学、遗传学、免疫学、心理学等等。 Anatomists find it useful to divide the human body into ten systems, that is, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the urinary system, the endocrine system, the nervous system, the reproductive system and the skin. The principal parts of each of these systems are described in this article. 解剖学家发现把整个人体分成骨骼、肌肉、循环、呼吸、消化、泌尿、内分泌、神经、生殖系统以及感觉器官的做法是很有帮助的。本文描绘并阐述了各系统的主要部分。 The skeletal system is made of bones, joints between bones, and cartilage. Its function is to provide support and protection for the soft tissues and the organs of the body and to provide points of attachment for the muscles that move the body. There are 206 bones in the human skeleton. They have various shapes - long, short, cube - shaped, flat, and irregular. Many of the long bones have an interior space that is filled with bone marrow, where blood cells are made. 骨骼系统由骨、关节以及软骨组成。它对软组织及人体器官起到支持和保护作用，并牵动骨胳肌，引起各种运动。人体有206根骨头。骨形态不一，有长的、短、立方的、扁的及不规则的。许多长骨里有一个内层间隙，里面充填着骨髓，这即是血细胞的制造场所。 A joint is where bones are joined together. The connection can be so close that no movement is possible, as is the case in the skull. Other kinds of joints permit movement: either back and forth in one plane - as with the hinge joint of the elbow - or movement around a single axis - as with the pivot joint that permits the head to rotate. A wide range of movement is possible when the ball - shaped end of one bone fits into a socket at the end of another bone, as they do in the shoulder and hip joints. 关节把骨与骨连接起来。颅骨不能运动，是由于骨与骨之间的连接太紧密。但其它的关节可允许活动，如一个平面上的前后屈伸运动，如肘关节；或是绕轴心旋转运动，如枢轴点允许头部转动。如果一根骨的球形末端插入另一根骨的臼槽里，大辐度的运动（如肩关节、髋关节）即成为可能。 Cartilage is a more flexible material than bone. It serves as a protective, cushioning layer where bones come together. It also connects the ribs to the breastbone and provides a structural base for the nose and the external ear. An infant's skeleton is made of cartilage that is gradually replaced by bone as the infant grows into an adult. 软骨是一种比一般骨更具韧性的物质。它是骨连结的保护、缓冲层。它把肋骨与胸骨连结起来，也是鼻腔与内耳的结构基础。一个婴儿的骨骼就是由软骨组成，然后不断生长、
哲学Philosophy 马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism 中国哲学Chinese Philosophy 外国哲学Foreign Philosophies 逻辑学Logic 伦理学Ethics 美学Aesthetics 宗教学Science of Religion 科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology 经济学Economics 理论经济学Theoretical Economics 政治经济学Political Economy 经济思想史History of Economic Thought 经济史History of Economic 西方经济学Western Economics 世界经济World Economics 人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学Applied Economics 国民经济学National Economics 区域经济学Regional Economics 财政学（含税收学）Public Finance (including Taxation) 金融学（含保险学）Finance (including Insurance) 产业经济学Industrial Economics 国际贸易学International Trade 劳动经济学Labor Economics 统计学Statistics 数量经济学Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称 国防经济学National Defense Economics 法学Law 法学Science of Law 法学理论Jurisprudence 法律史Legal History 宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law 刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence 民商法学(含劳动法学、社会保障法学) Civil Law and Commercial Law (including Science of Labour Law and Science of Social Security Law ) 诉讼法学Science of Procedure Laws
新视野大学第三版book1英语课后翻译答案 Unit1 苏格拉底是古希腊哲学家，被誉为现代西方哲学的奠基人。他是一个谜一般的人物，人们主要通过后来的一些古典作家的叙述，尤其是他最著名的学生柏拉图的作品去了解他。苏格拉底以他对伦理学的贡献而闻名。他的教学法亦称为苏格拉底法，即通过提问和回答来激发批判性思维以及阐述观点。该方法在各种讨论中仍被普遍使用。他还在认识论和逻辑领域作出了重大而深远的贡献。他的思想和方法所带来的影响一直是后来的西方哲学的坚实基础。苏格拉底是古代哲学史上最丰富多彩的人物。他在他那个时代已威名远扬。虽然他未曾建立什么哲学体系，未曾设立什么学派，也未曾创立什么宗派，但他的名字很快就变得家喻户晓了。 Confucius was a great thinker and educator in Chinese history. He was the founder of Confucianism and was respectfully referred to as an ancient “sage”. His words and life story were recorded in The Analects. An enduring classic of ancient Chinese culture, The Analectshas had a great influence on the thinkers, writers, and statesmen that came after Confucius. Without studying this book, one could hardly truly understand the thousands-of-years’traditional Chinese culture. Much of Confucius’thought, especially his thought on education, has had a profound influence on Chinese society. In the 21st century, Confucian thought not only retains the attention of the Chinese, but it also wins an increasing attention from the international community. Unit2 圣诞节是一个被广泛庆祝的文化节日，全世界有许许多多的人在12月25日庆祝这一节日。它是为了纪念耶稣基督的诞辰。该节日最早可追溯到公元336年。渐渐地，这一节日演变为一个既是宗教又是非宗教的节日，越来越多的非基督徒也庆祝圣诞节。如今，圣诞节在全球被作为一个重大的节日和公共假日来庆祝。不同国家的圣诞节风俗也各不相同。现代流行的圣诞接风俗包括交换圣诞贺卡和圣诞礼物、唱圣诞歌曲、参加教堂活动、摆放各种圣诞装饰品和圣诞树、举行家庭聚会以及准备一顿特别的大餐。对小孩子们来说，这个节日充满了幻想和惊喜。据传说，圣诞老人会在圣诞夜从烟囱进入每户人家，给乖巧听话的孩子带来礼物。由于圣诞节送礼物以及许多其他方面推动了基督徒和非基督徒的经济活动，圣诞节也因此成为商家的一个重大活动和主要销售季。 According to the Chinese lunar calendar, August 15 of every year is a traditional Chinese festival-the Mid-Autumn Festival. This day is the middle of autumn, so it is called Mid-Autumn. One of the important Mid-Autumn Festival activities is to enjoy the moon. On that night, people gather together to celebrate the Mid-Autumn Festival, looking up at the bright moon and eating moon cakes. The festival is also a time for family reunion. People living far away from home will express their feelings of missing their hometowns and families at this festival, all expressing people’s love and hope for a happy life. Since 2008, the Mid-Autumn Festival has become an official national holiday in China.
第二部分 控制理论 第1章 1.1控制系统的引入 人类控制自然力量的设计促进人类历史的发展,我们已经广泛的能利用这种量进行在人类本身力量之外的物理进程?在充满活力的20世纪中,控制系统工程的发展已经使得很多梦想成为了现实?控制系统工程队我们取得的成就贡献巨大?回首过去,控制系统工程主要的贡献在机器人,航天驾驶系统包括成功的实现航天器的软着陆,航空飞机自动驾驶与自动控制,船舶与潜水艇控制系统,水翼船?气垫船?高速铁路自动控制系统,现代铁路控制系统? 以上这些类型的控制控制系统和日常生活联系紧密,控制系统是一系列相关的原件在系统运行的基础上相互关联的构成的,此外控制系统存在无人状态下的运行,如飞机自控驾驶,汽车的巡航控制系统?对于控制系统,特别是工业控制系统,我们通常面对的是一系列的器件,自动控制是一个复合型的学科?控制工程师的工作需要具有力学,电子学,机械电子,流体力学,结构学,无料的各方面的知识?计算机在控制策略的执行中具有广泛的应用,并且控制工程的需求带动了信息技术的与软件工程的发展? 通常控制系统的范畴包括开环控制系统与闭环控制系统,两种系统的区别在于是否在系统中加入了闭环反馈装置? 开环控制系统 开环控制系统控制硬件形式很简单,图2.1描述了一个单容液位控制系统, 图2.1单容液位控制系统 我们的控制目标是保持容器的液位h 在水流出流量V 1变化的情况下保持在一定 可接受的范围内,可以通过调节入口流量V 2实现?这个系统不是精确的系统,本系 统无法精确地检测输出流量V 2,输入流量V 1以及容器液位高度?图2.2描述了这 个系统存在的输入(期望的液位)与输出(实际液位)之间的简单关系, 图2.2液位控制系统框图 这种信号流之间的物理关系的描述称为框图?箭头用来描述输入进入系统,以及
英语翻译专业简历范文 导读：本文是关于英语翻译专业简历范文，希望能帮助到您！ 英语翻译专业简历范文姓名五年以上工作经验|女|32岁（居住地：上海电话：E-mail：最近工作[3年2个月]公司：XX(上海)咨询有限公司行业：其他行业职位：英文翻译兼外事专管员最高学历学历：本科专业：英语学校：华东师范大学自我评价丰富的外国供应商接待经验。工作中独立思考及操作能力强，“CET－6级”、“全国翻译资格考试英语口译三级”证书。英语听、说、读、写流利，可胜任笔译及一般会议口译，陪同翻译等工作。性格开朗，工作认真负责，人际关系融洽。求职意向工作性质：全职期望月薪：面议/月目标职能：英语翻译工作经验2007/9--至今：XX(上海)咨询有限公司[3年2个月]所属行业：其他行业总经理办公室英文翻译兼外事专管员负责总经理工作报告、董事会纪要、公司财务、管理文件等资料翻译工作。因公司出口项目多,我还负责公司员工出国的护照签证申请事宜,经常外出到上级集团及上海市外办,各国驻上海领事馆等。工作业绩：多次翻译公司董事会纪要,少数合同翻译,多次成功申办各国签证,并成功申办了难度较大的斯洛伐克工作签证,并与领事馆保持了良好关系。所属行业：其他行业自由职业英文翻译英语笔译：《财富时报》、《21世纪商业评论》、《疯狂英语》、《天下博客》、英国《卫报》中文版兼职笔译。擅长生物化学、生物工程、质量管理等专业翻译。英语口译：熟悉生物化学、生物工程及质量管理等专业词汇。丰富的外国供应
商及实验室工作人员接待经验。广外会外商陪同口译工作。国家翻译资格水平考试（CATTI）英语口译三级证书。2002/2--2005/9：上海某翻译公司[3个7个月]翻译事业部专职英语翻译从事专职英语翻译工作，至今合共翻译稿件超过600万字，主要包括商业管理、新闻时事、影视剧本、文学文化和电脑IT等内容，其中不少是关于香港社会情况以及行文用语需要符合香港客户要求的繁体中文稿件，也有涉及医学保健、土木建筑、机械设备等方面的稿件。教育经历语言能力英语（精通）日语（一般）德语（良好）培训经历2005/3-2006/3昂立教育高级口译2002/7--2002/8华东工业大学金叶信息技术学院全国大学英语研修班课程2002年曾随学院教师参加暑期全国大学英语教学组和上海外教社在上海举办的研修班课程，受益匪浅。证书2009/10中级工程师合格2005/12高级口译证书合格2004/9初级工程师2002/5英语专业八级合格2002/5全国计算机等级二级合格
商务英语写作 商务英语翻译：商务英语五大实用翻译技巧 商务英语是为国际商务活动这一特定的专业学科服务的专门用途英语，所涉及的专业范围很广，并具有独特的语言现象和表现内容、文体复杂。商务英语翻译要求翻译者具备丰富的商务理论和商务实践知识，为了提高翻译质量，翻译者必须具备一定的自身条件。 第一，翻译者的汉语功底要好。很多人往往忽视这一点，认为汉语是自己的母语，凭着自己原来的底子应付翻译中的问题，是绰绰有余的。然而在真正的翻译过程中，为了一个词语或者一个句型，冥思苦想了半天也得不到一个满意的结果。有时好不容易想出来了也觉得不够理想。由此可见，汉语表达能力和对汉语理解能力的大小直接影响翻译的好坏。下功夫学好汉语，打好汉语基础对于翻译是十分重要的。 第二，英语语言能力要强。全面的语法知识和大量的词汇量缺一不可。如果只有大量的词汇量，而没有较好的英语语法知识。翻译过程中译者的理解肯定是错误百出，而且牛头不对马嘴。因此我们要提高在英汉翻译中对于英文句子理解的准确性及汉英翻译中英文表达的准确性。 第三，知识面要广。商务英语翻译中要很好的做到这一点，就
要掌握商务理论和贸易实务等理论知识及贸易实践经验。同时译者还要具有丰富的百科知识，对天文地理、古今中外不说通晓，也要了解其中的一些基本知识。没有一定的常识，译者的语言水平即使再高，也是无法做好翻译工作的。 一、一词多义 同一个词，由于语境不同，其词义可千差万别。试看下面几个例子： 1.They cannot obtain credit at all in the trade. 他们生意信誉已荡然无存。 2.They have opened the covering credit with the Bank of China,London. 他们已从伦敦中国银行开立了有关信用证。 以上两个句子credit 词义都有所区别。 二、词类转译 词类转译是国际商务翻译中常见的译词技巧。常见的有名词与动词、介词与动词的互相转译。 1.名词与动词的互相转译： Before the payment of these tariffs, the imported goods
Unit1 1. 背离传统需要极大的勇气。(departure, enormous) {It takes an enormous amount of courage to make a departure from the tradition.} 2. 汤姆过去很腼腆，但这次却非常勇敢能在大庭广众面前上台表演了。(performance, bold) {Tom used to be very shy, but this time he was bold enough to give a performance in front of a large audience.} 3. 很多教育家认为从小培养孩子的创新精神是很可取的。 (creative, desirable) {Many educators think it desirable to foster the creative spirit in the child at an early age.} 4. 假设（assume）那幅画确实是名作（masterpiece），你觉得值得购买吗？(worthwhile) {Assuming (that) this painting really is a masterpiece, do you think it's worthwhile to buy / purchase it?} 5. 如果这些数据统计上是站得住脚的，那它将会帮助我们认识正在调查的问题。(throw light on , investigate, valid) {If the data is statistically valid, it will throw light on the problem we are investigating.} Unit2 1) 该公司否认其捐款有商业目的。(deny, commercial) {The company denied that its donations had a commercial purpose.} 2) 每当他生气的时候，他说话就有一点结巴。(stammer) {Whenever he was angry, he would begin to stammer slightly.} 3) 教育是我们家庭最看重的传统，这就是为什么我父母从不带我到昂贵的饭店吃饭，却送我到最好的私立学校上学。(cherish) {Education is the most cherished tradition in our family. That’s why my parents never took me to dinner at expensive restaurants, but sent me to the best private school.} 4) 手术康复后不久，他失业了，因此经历了人生的又一个困难阶段。(shortly after, go through) {Shortly after he recovered from the surgery, he lost his job and thus had to go through another difficult phase of his life.} 5) 与我们的富裕邻居相比，我们的父母就相当穷了，但是他们总是努力满足我们最起码的需求。(affluent, minimal) {In contrast to our affluent neighbors, my parents are rather poor, but they have always tried hard to meet our minimal needs.} Unit3 1) 科学家们找到火星上有水的证据了吗？(proof) {Have scientists found proof of water on Mars?} 2) 计划委员会已经将建核电厂的可能地点缩小到了两个沿海城镇。(location, narrow down) {The planning committee has narrowed down the possible locations for the nuclear power plant to two coastal towns.} 3) 任何一个有尊严的人都不会一辈子依靠社会救济过活。(welfare)
1、应力和应变 应力和应变的概念可以通过考虑一个棱柱形杆的拉伸这样一个简单的方式来说明。一个棱柱形的杆是一个遍及它的长度方向和直轴都是恒定的横截面。在这个实例中，假设在杆的两端施加有轴向力F，并且在杆上产生了均匀的伸长或者拉紧。 通过在杆上人工分割出一个垂直于其轴的截面mm，我们可以分离出杆的部分作为自由体【如图1(b)】。在左端施加有拉力P，在另一个端有一个代表杆上被移除部分作用在仍然保存的那部分的力。这些力是连续分布在横截面的，类似于静水压力在被淹没表面的连续分布。 力的集度，也就是单位面积上的力，叫做应力，通常是用希腊字母，来表示。假设应力在横截面上是均匀分布的【如图1(b)】，我们可以很容易的看出它的合力等于集度，乘以杆的横截面积A。而且，从图1所示的物体的平衡，我们可以看出它的合力与力P必须的大小相等，方向相反。因此，我们可以得出 等式(1)可以作为棱柱形杆上均匀应力的方程。这个等式表明应力的单位是，力除以面积。当杆被力P拉伸时，如图所示，产生的应力是拉应力，如果力在方向是相反，使杆被压缩，它们就叫做压应力。 使等式(1)成立的一个必要条件是，应力，必须是均匀分布在杆的横截面上。如果轴向力P作用在横截面的形心处，那么这个条件就实现了。当力P没有通过形心时，杆会发生弯曲，这就需要更复杂的分析。目前，我们假设所有的轴向力都是作用在横截面的形心处，除非有相反情况特别说明。同样，除非另有说明，一般也假设物体的质量是忽略的，如我们讨论图1的杆一样。 轴向力使杆产生的全部伸长量，用希腊字母δ表示【如图1(a)】，单位长度的伸长量，或者应变，可以用等式来决定。 L是杆的总长。注意应变ε是一个无量纲的量。只要应变是在杆的长度方向均匀的，应变就可以从等式(2)中准确获得。如果杆
中国教育在线考研频道提供考研全方面信息指导及咨询服务，为您成功考研提供一切帮助。 哲学Philosophy 马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism 中国哲学Chinese Philosophy 外国哲学Foreign Philosophies 逻辑学Logic 伦理学Ethics 美学Aesthetics 宗教学Science of Religion 科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology 经济学Economics 理论经济学Theoretical Economics 政治经济学Political Economy 经济思想史History of Economic Thought 经济史History of Economic 西方经济学Western Economics 世界经济World Economics 人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学Applied Economics 国民经济学National Economics 区域经济学Regional Economics 财政学（含税收学）Public Finance (including Taxation) 金融学（含保险学）Finance (including Insurance) 产业经济学Industrial Economics 国际贸易学International Trade 劳动经济学Labor Economics 统计学Statistics 数量经济学Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称 国防经济学National Defense Economics 法学Law 法学Science of Law 法学理论Jurisprudence 法律史Legal History 宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law 刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence
英译汉几个常见问题如下： 1）英译汉时语言组织不符合中文的讲话习惯。在不改变原文绝大部分意思的情况下，不需要字对字或者严格遵守英语语序，在获得原句含意后务必采用中文的思维将译文写出。要求是在读着看过译文后，不能让读着感觉到文章是翻译而得的，即不能留有丝毫翻译的痕迹。 2）英译汉时译文上下文的用词不一致。尤其是学术文献或论文的翻译，除了学术用语和专业用语需要准确，更重要的是全文上下文中同一个词或者短句翻译出的用词或短语必须一致。例如一开始将control panel翻译为“控制面板”，那么全文都不得改变这个译法。 3）英译汉时用词过于口语化。除了剧本，台词，字幕等需要口语化用词的翻译稿件以外。其余大部分翻译，例如文献，论文，合同，申请书，标书等，用词尽量书面化。例如“weight”在统计学和分析学中不可翻译为“给予数值”，必须翻译为“赋权”，两者意思相近，但是采用后者。 4）英译汉时词汇含意理解产生偏差。这是死记单词造成的后果。翻译中，在无上下文的情况下，除非是专有学术名词（例“diabetes”基本上永远都是糖尿病的意思），其余的单词很难说究竟是什么意思，我们只能说某个词大概是对照中文某个词的感觉，但是决不可死认一个意思，死认单词意思造成翻译不通、翻译错误等。当然也不能糊译，不能为了使句子翻译通顺而胡编一个意思。 5）英译汉时英语长句中的意群划分有误。原版的英语资料中长句较多，往往40-50个词之间没有一个标点，修饰成分和意群划分的错误会导致理解错误和翻译错误。原则上，英语中的各类从句，特别是状语从句在句子中的位置相对灵活，没搞明白其修饰对象就会错译。 汉译英几个常见问题如下： 1）汉译英时字对字翻译。这是翻译中最致命的错误，很多人以为认识对应的英语单词或者知道对应的英语单词，这句话才会翻译。其实不是，原则上四千词汇量就能解释大部分英语单词的含义，只不过大部分人不知道如何用简单词汇造句去描述或解释高难度单词。 2）汉译英时中式语序。何谓中式语序，即以“主+谓+宾”为主的句型。这种句子写多了，一旦遇上长句或者语法功能上缺少成分的句子就懵了。所以必须多读，多了解原版英语的句子是如何写的。 3）汉译英时短句太多。这里并不是指写英语短句不好，在考试中建议写短句，这是为了避免语法错误，当然也不要太短了。在较为正式的或专业性强的文本中，汉译英在必要时需要翻译成长句。例如不久前的某论文中的一句：筛选出对靶基因干扰效率最高的 HER2-shRNA慢病毒表达载体并成功包装成病毒去感染SKOV-3细胞而后在体外进行实验的结果显示Her2/neu的siRNA慢病毒载体可以显著抑制靶基因的表达并使卵巢癌SKOV3细胞的生物学行为明显受抑。因此，熟练掌握各类从句的写法和作用很重要。 4）汉译英时英语词汇词义辨析不清而导致误用，用词不准。大部分人的翻译习惯是，凡是中文有英文的对应单词，就二话不说直接用，其实这个是不对的。很多同义词意思相近，用法和所用的语境场合完全不同。例如“base”“basis”“foundation”，意思几乎相同，但是用法完全不同。尤其是学术文章，误用就导致歧义。 5）汉译英时逻辑混乱结构不清。汉译英中的逻辑和语句结构相当重要。逻辑混乱，即译文毫无章法，思绪混沌，不知所云。结构不清，即英语的从句或其他成分在句中的位置胡乱摆放，进行翻译的人员自然是清楚的指导这些英语句子的含义，因为是看着中文翻译过来的，想不知道中文含义都难，但是没看过中文的读着就会因此而看得云里雾里，从而导致读者难以理解译文。
大学英语（B）1翻译练习参考译文 1、元宵节是春节后的第一个重要节日。元宵节的习俗在全国各地不尽相同，其 中赏花灯（lanterns exhibits）、猜灯谜、吃元宵等是几项最常见的民间习俗。据说， 吃元宵的习俗起源于汉代，唐宋时期开始盛行。如今，元宵已成为人们的日常饮 食之一，在超市一年四季都可以买到。 The Yuanxiao Festival is the first important festival after the Spring Festival. Although customs of the festival vary from region to region, the most common ones include appreciating lantern exhibits, trying to solve riddles written on lanterns, and eating yuanxiao. It is said that the custom of eating yuanxiao originated from the Han Dynasty and became popular during the Tang and Song periods. Nowadays, yuanxiao has become a food in people’s daily life, which is available in supermarkets a ll the year round. 8、如今，越来越多的大学生抱怨很难找到好的工作。造成这一现象的原因如下： 首先，大学生把在校的大多数时间都用在了专业学科的学习上，只有当他们开始 找工作的时候，才意识到自己缺乏必要的专业培训。其次，大学生之间的竞争也 越来越激烈，这导致任何一名大学生找到工作的机会都变小了。 Nowadays, more and more university students complain about having great difficulties in finding a good job. The reasons f or this phenomenon are as follows: First, college students spend most of their time at school studying academic subjects and it is only when they start looking for a job that they realize they lack necessary job training. Second, competition among graduates has become more and more fierce. And this results in a decreased chance for any individual graduate to find a job. 7、杭州是中国著名的六大古都之一，已有两千多年的历史。这个城市不仅以自 然美闻名于世，而且有着传统的文化魅力。不仅有历代文人墨客（men of letters） 的题咏，而且有美味佳肴和漂亮的工艺品。一般来说，游览杭州西湖及其周边景 点花上两天较为合适。到杭州旅游，既令人愉快，又能得到文化享受。 Hangzhou, one of China’s six ancient capital cities, has a history of more than 2,000 years. It is famous not only for its natural beauty but also for its charm of cultural traditions. Besides many poems and inscriptions by men of letters through the dynasties, it also boasts local delicacies and pretty handicrafts. Generally speaking, a two-day tour of West Lake and scenic spots around it is advisable for a tourist. As a tourist, you will find it a pleasant and culturally rewarding trip to Hangzhou. 6、说到中国古代的科技文明（civilization），人们自然就会想到“四大发明”，即 指南针、火药、造纸术和印刷术。这四种发明是古代先进科技的象征，具有重大 的历史意义。它们对中国古代政治、经济、文化的发展产生了巨大的推动作用， 也对世界的文明进程产生了巨大影响。 Speaking of ancient Chinese civilization in science and technology, people will naturally think of the Four Great Inventions, namely the compass, gunpowder, paper-making and printing. These four inventions are symbols of ancient China’s