第二章金属的晶体结构与结晶 教学目的及要求 通过本章的学习，使学生掌握常用纯金属的结构特点和性能特点，建立金属材料结构与性能之间的关系。 主要内容 1．材料的结合方式 2．金属的晶体结构与结晶 学时安排 讲课2学时。 教学重点 1．金属的三种典型的晶体结构 2．晶体缺陷及其对性能的影响 3．纯金属的结晶过程 教学难点 1．金属材料的晶体结构 2．各类缺陷对结构及性能的影响 第一节纯金属的晶体结构 一、晶体结构的基本概念 晶体结构：指在晶体内部，原子、离子或原子集团规则排列的方式。晶体结构不同，其性能往往相差很大。 晶格：为了便于分析研究，通常把将晶体中实际存在的原子、离子或原子集团等物质质点，抽象为空间中纯粹的几何点，而完全忽略它的物质性，这些抽象的几何点称为阵点。用假想的直线把这些阵点连接起来，得到周期性规则排列的三维空间格子称为晶格。 晶胞：组成晶格的能反映其特征和规律的最基本几何单元，称为晶胞。晶格可以看作是由许多大小和形状完全相同的晶胞紧密地堆垛在一起而成的。 晶格常数：晶胞各棱边的长度用a、b、c表示，称为晶格常数或点阵常数，其大小通常以埃为计量单位。晶胞各边之间的相互夹角分别以α、β、γ表示。a、b、c、α、β、γ称为晶胞的六个参数。 在研究晶体结构时，通常以晶胞作为代表来考查。
配位数和致密度：表示晶格中原子排列的紧密程度。 配位数：指晶格中与任一原子处于相距最近并距离相等的原子数目； 致密度（K）：指晶胞中原子排列的致密程度，即晶胞中原子所占的体积与晶胞体积（V）的比值，比值K越大，致密度越大。 二、金属中常见的晶体结构类型 三种典型晶体结构特征： 晶体结构与材料性能：（一般规律）面心立方的金属塑性最好，体心立方次之，密排六方的金属较差。 第二节实际金属中的晶体缺陷 一、常见晶体缺陷及分类 晶体缺陷：实际晶体中排列不规则的区域称为晶体缺陷。 分类：按空间尺寸分为三种。 1．点缺陷。不规则区域在空间三个方向上的尺寸都很小，主要是空位、置换原子、间隙原子。 2．线缺陷。不规则区域在一个方向的尺寸很大，在另外两个方向的尺寸都很小，主要是位错。 3．面缺陷：不规则区域在两个方向的尺寸很大，在另外一个方向的尺寸很小，主要是晶界和亚晶界。 二、晶体缺陷对晶体性能的影响 1．点缺陷周围晶格发生畸变，材料的屈服强度提高，塑性韧性下降，电阻增加。
洛基英语，中国在线英语教育领导品牌 第二章 Indo-European language family (Europe，the Near East，India) Balto –Slavic Indo-Iranian Italic Germanic Prussian Persian Portuguese Norwegian Lithuanian Hindi Spanish Icelandie Polish Italian Danish Bulgarian Roumanian Swedish Slovenian French English Russian German Albanian Armenian Celtic Hellenic Irish Greek Breton Scottish 2. History (时间，历史事件，特征) 1) Old English (450-1150) totally 50，000-60，000 words The 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic. The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary.
现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料c h a p t e r 文件管理序列号：[K8UY-K9IO69-O6M243-OL889-F88688]
Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning 9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change 9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of Words Definition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words. 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning A.Historical cause 历史原因 It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed . *Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science. Eg. pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a “pencil”. atom ==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos,invisible. Thus atom meant originally “an particle too small to be divided”. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split.
Lecture 2 English Vocabulary：A Historical Perspective 计划学时：2 periods 教学方法：传统讲授法 参考资料：《英语词汇学教程》、《英语词汇学》 教学目的和要求：通过本单元的学习，让学生对英语词 汇的形成和发展有初步的了解。 教学重点： 1) The Indo-European Language Family; 2) A Historical Overview of the English V ocabulary. 教学难点： 1) The language family English belongs to; 2) Growth of present-day English vocabulary. 1. The Eight Language Families in the World It is assumed that the world has approximately 5,615 languages. And on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar, they can be grouped into roughly the following language families: Sino-Tibetan (汉藏语系), Indo-European (印欧语系),Semito-Hamitic (闪含语系), Bantu (班图语系), Uralic (乌拉尔语系), Altaic (阿尔泰语系),Malaya-Polynesian (马来—波利尼西亚语系)and Indian (印第安语系). 2. Indo-European language family And Indo-European language family falls into eight principal groups: Indo-Iranian group (印度-伊朗语族); Slavic (斯拉夫语族- Russian and Polish ); Armenian (亚美尼亚语族); Hellenic (古希腊语族); Italic (意大利语族); Celtic (凯尔特语族); Albanian (阿尔巴尼亚语族); Germanic (日尔曼语族). 3. Germanic Language Group Germanic, which consists of three branches: North Germanic, East Germanic, and West Germanic. The North Germanic branch is the linguistic ancestor of modern Scandinavian languages, viz (即). Danish, Icelandic, Norwegian and Swedish. The East Germanic developed into Gothic (哥特语，现已不复存在). The West Germanic branch developed into Modern German, Dutch, Frisian（弗里斯兰语，荷兰西北部）and English.
总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。 第一章 1. Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound. 3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors. （At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns） a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500 d）. Borrowing of foreign language 4. Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history. The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words. 5.Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by origin 1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary. 1. all national character （most important）– natural phenomena most common things and phenomena of the human body and relations world around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj. 2. stability – they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow. e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane —— now 3. productivity – they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes. e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer 4. polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous. e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove 5. collocability – quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of gold Non-basic vocabulary —— 1. terminology – technical terms photoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus 2. jargon – specialized vocabulary in certain professions. Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid 3. slang —— substandard words often used in informal occasions dough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays， Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage. 4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groups can-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population. 5. dialectal words – only by speakers of the dialect beauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog 6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech. 7. neologism – newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mail old meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor 2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions. Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences. a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous. Functional words are in a small number.
张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析 第一部分Chapter Ⅰ 英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary) Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。随着词汇学的发展跟完善。人们给词下了较为完整的定义。“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社） 一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。 英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。 第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ 英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation ) (一) 词素（Morphemes） 单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。词素跟音素（phoneme）不同，词素必须同时具备声音和意义两方面，而音素只需要发出声音即可。如k 和u 只是音素，因为它们没有什么具体含义。而a 和i 分别存在于单词tame 和time 中是音素，但当a是定冠词和i表示第一人称时它们则是词素。词素并不等同于音节（syllable ），因为音节并没有什么具体含义。如单词dis·a·gree·a·ble有五个音节却只有三个语素（dis + agree + able ）。词素有不同的形式，同一语素的不同形式即语素变体。 词素可以分为自由词素（free morphemes）和黏着词素（bound morphemes）。自由词素可以单独成为单词，而黏着词素则必须要依附于其他的词素，如-ly , -ness。 词素又可以分为词根和词缀。词根是单词中表示含义的成分，可以是自由或者黏着词素。词缀只能是黏着词素，它又可以分为屈折词缀（inflectional affixes）和派生词缀（derivational affixes ）。屈折词缀跟语法有关，派生词缀又可以分为前缀跟后缀，这都是构成新单词的重要元素。从词素的层面来说，词可以分类为简单词，复杂词以及合成词。词素在词的构成中取到非常重要的作用，因为构词的二大过程----合成和附加都涉及到了词素，前者是词素的联合，后者是黏着词素附加到自由词素上。 (二) 词的构成（word-formation） 1/5页 有很多种途径可以构成词汇，大的方面主要有合成法（compounding），派生法(derivation)和转换法(conversion)三种，小的方面主要有八个过程，分别是首字母法(acronym)，混合法(blending)，截短法(clipping)，专有名词(word from proper names)，逆构法(back-formation)，复制法(reduplication)，新古典法(neo-classical famation)以及混杂法(miscellaneous)。
第 2 章结晶结构 一、名词解释 1．晶体：晶体是内部质点在三维空间内周期性重复排列，具有格子构造的固体 2．空间点阵与晶胞： 空间点阵是几何点在三维空间内周期性的重复排列 晶胞：反应晶体周期性和对称性的最小单元 3．配位数与配位多面体： 化合物中中心原子周围的配位原子个数 成配位关系的原子或离子连线所构成的几何多面体 4．离子极化： 在离子化合物中，正、负离子的电子云分布在对方离子的电场作用下，发生变形的现象5．同质多晶与类质同晶： 同一物质在不同的热力学条件下具有不同的晶体结构 化学成分相类似物质的在相同的热力学条件下具有相同的晶体结构 6．正尖晶石与反尖晶石： 正尖晶石是指2价阳离子全部填充于四面体空隙中，3价阳离子全部填充于八面体空隙中。 反尖晶石是指2价阳离子全部填充于八面体空隙中，3价阳离子一半填充于八面体空隙中，一半填充于四面体空隙。 二、填空与选择 1．晶体的基本性质有五种：对称性，异相性，均一性，自限性和稳定性（最小内能性）。 2．空间点阵是由 C 在空间作有规律的重复排列。（ A 原子 B离子 C几何点 D分子）3．在等大球体的最紧密堆积中有面心立方密堆积和六方密堆积二种排列方式，前者的堆积方式是以（111）面进行堆积，后者的堆积方式是以（001）面进行堆积。 4．如晶体按立方紧密堆积，单位晶胞中原子的个数为 4 ，八面体空隙数为 4 ，四面体空隙数为 8 ；如按六方紧密堆积，单位晶胞中原子的个数为 6 ，八面体空隙数为 6 ，四面体空隙数为 12 ；如按体心立方近似密堆积，单位晶胞中原子的个数为 2 ， 八面体空隙数为 12 ，四面体空隙数为 6 。 5．等径球体最紧密堆积的空隙有两种：四面体空隙和八面体空隙。一个球的周围有 8个四面体空隙、 6 个八面体空隙；n个等径球体做最紧密堆积时可形成 2n 个四面体空隙、 n 个八面体空隙。不等径球体进行堆积时，大球做最紧密堆积或近似密堆积，小球填充于空隙中。
Chapter 1 1.1 What Is a Word 词的概念：A word can be defined as a meaningful group of letters. （一个词可以被定义为一组有意义的字母） 词包含以下几点： ① a minimal free form of a language.一门语言中最小的形式 ② a sound unity.一个声音统一体 ③ a unit of meaning.一个意义单位 ④ a form that can function alone in a sentence.能在句子中起独立作用的一个形式 A word is a free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.词是一门语言中具有一定的声音，意义和句法功能的最小形式 Words can be simple and complex.词可以是简单的也可以是复杂的 1.2 Sound and Meaning 声音与意义之间的关系：This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary,and there is no logical relationship between the sound and the actual thing and idea itself .The relationship between them is conventional. 这种象征性的联系几乎总是任意的，声音与实际的事物和观念本身没有逻辑关系。他们之间的关系是约定俗成的。 1.3 Sound and Form 读音与拼写不一致的原因：①The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. ②The pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. ③Some of the differences were created by the early scribes. ①英语字母表是从罗马人那里采用的，罗马人没有一个单独的字母来代表语言中的每个 声音。 ②这些年来，发音的变化比拼写的变化更快。 ③有些差异是由早期的抄写员造成的。
2012级（1）班 Chaper1 The Basic Concepts Of Words and Vocabulary I.Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement. 1. ______is the most important of all characteristics of the basic word stock. A.Productivity Stability C.Collocability D.All national character 2. Nonbasic vocabulary includes all of the following except_______ . A.slang B.Anglo-Saxon words C.argots D.neologisms 3. According to the origins of the words, English words can be classified into _______ . A.content words and functional words B.native words and borrowed words C.basic words and dialectal words D.loan words and dialectal words 4. Borrowings can be divided into________. A.liens, semantic loans, translationloans, denizens B.empty words, notional words, form words, content words C.blends, portmanteau words, acronyms, initializes D.derivatives, compounds, converted words and clipped words 5. Apart from the characteristics of basic vocabulary, native words have two other features, namely_________. A.Productivity and stability B.neutrality in style and high frequency in use C.collectability and polysemy D.formality and arbitrariness 6．The word beaver(meaning“girl”)is_______ . A.a dialectal word B.argot C.an archaism D.slang 7. AIDS as a nonbasic word is_______ . A.jargon B.an archaism C.aneologism D.slang 8.Form words include the following word classes except_______ . A.conjunctions B.auxiliaries C.prepositions D.adjectives 9. Vocabulary can refer to the following except_______ . A.the total number of the words in alanguage B.all the words used in a particular historical period C.all the words of a given dialect D.most words a person knows 10.Kimono is a loan word from_______ . A.German B.French C.Spanish D.Japanese 11. _______ form the mainstream of the basic word stock. A.Anglo-Saxon words B. Frenchwords C.Danish words https://www.doczj.com/doc/4913086158.html,tin words 12.Black humor is_______ . A.a translation loan B.a semantic loan C.a denizen D.an alien 13.Pronouns and numerals are semantically_______ and have limited_______ . A.polysemous;use and stability B.monosemous;collocability and stability C.polysemous;use and productivity D.monosemous;productivity andcollectability 14.Indigestion is_______ . A.jargon B.slang C.terminology D.an archaism
English Lexicology 英语词汇学 Fall 2012 Irene Florente
How do we communicate? Making sounds Gestures Writing Words Anything else?
Write down 10 English words you like on a piece of paper Do you know where these words came from (what languages)? Can they be spelled differently? What part of speech are they? (Noun, verb, adverb, etc) Do these words have more than one meaning or have different meanings when used in idioms?
Where do words come from? How are they created? How do they change as history changes? How do they change as people speaking other languages invade or immigrate to their countries? What are the different types of words? Is language alive? (these questions are just for discussion and reflection)
试题二 第一部分选择题 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket（30％） 1. Degradation can be illustrated by the following example A. lewd → ignoran t B. silly → foolish C. last → pleasure D. knave → boy 2. Homophones are often employed to create puns for desired effects of: A. humour B. sarcasm C. ridicule D. all the above 3. The four major modes of semantic change are _____. A. extension, narrowing, elevation and degradation B. extension, generalization, elevation and degradation C. extension, narrowing, specialization and degradation D. extension, elevation, amelioration and degradation 4. The use of one name for that of another associated with it is rhetorically called _____. A. synecdoche B. metonymy C. substitution D. metaphor 5. Idioms adjectival in nature function as _____. A. adjectives B. attributes C. modifiers D. words 6. Grammatical context refers to _____ in which a word is used. A. vocabulary B. grammar C. semantic pattern D. syntactic structure 7. In the idiom 'in good feather', we change 'good' into 'high, full' without changing meaning. This change of constituent is known as _____ . A. addition B. replacement C. position-shifting D. variation 8. The word "laconic" is _____. A. onomatopoeically motivated B. morphologically motivated
第一章 1.word : 1简单意义：a word is a minimal unit/form in/of a sentence 2.完整意义：a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function. 2.vocabulary定义四个要素：1.refer to the total number of the words in a language.2.it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. 3.refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. 4个要素：language, time, space, person. 3.sound and form 1.关系：the symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional.2.more and more different 原因：1,the number of alphabet cannot describe the English sounds one by one.2, sounds develop faster than the written form.3.the scribes deliberately change the written form for being easily recognized. 4.the printing machine fixed the written form. 5.borrowed words make the gap wider. 4.motivation分类：1.onomatopec motivation.(Refers to the motivated aspect of motivation which means the words are created by imitation the natural sounds or noise. 2. morphological motivation(refers to the motivated aspect of motivation which means the words created by using existing language materials ,as roots, affixes, etc).3.semantic motivation(refers to the motivated aspect of motivation in which the new meanings are given to existing words by mental
小结 第二章晶体与晶体结构 内容: 金属的晶体结构： 合金的晶体结构 实际金属的晶体结构 第一节金属的晶体结构 晶体与非晶体 1. 晶体：指原子呈规则、周期性排列的固体。常态下金属主要以晶体形式存在。晶体具有各向异性。 非晶体：原子呈无规则堆积，和液体相似，亦称为“过冷液体”或“无定形体”。在一定条件下晶体和非晶体可互相转化。 2. 区别 (a)是否具有周期性、对称性 (b)是否长程有序 (c)是否有确定的熔点 (d)是否各向异性 3金属的晶体结构 晶体结构描述了晶体中原子（离子、分子）的排列方式。 1）理想晶体——实际晶体的理想化 ·三维空间无限延续，无边界 ·严格按周期性规划排列，是完整的、无缺陷。 ·原子在其平衡位置静止不动 2）理想晶体的晶体学抽象 （晶体）空间规则排列的原子→刚球模型→晶格（刚球抽象为晶格结点，构成空间格架）→晶胞（具有周期性最小组成单元）。 晶体学参数：a,b,c,α,β,γ
晶格常数：a,b,c 晶系：根据晶胞参数不同，将晶体分为七种晶系。 90%以上的金属具有立方晶系和六方晶系。 立方晶系：a=b=c，α=β=γ=90? 六方晶系：a1=a2=a3≠ c, α=β=90?, γ=120? 原子半径：晶胞中原子密度最大方向上相邻原子间距的一半。 晶胞原子数：一个晶胞内所包含的原子数目。 配位数：晶格中与任一原子距离最近且相等的原子数目。 致密度：晶胞中原子本身所占的体积百分数。 二.常见的金属晶格 晶胞晶体学参数原子半径晶胞原子数配位数致密度 2 8 68% BCC a=b=c,α=β =γ=90o FCC a=b=c, α= 4 12 74% β=γ=900 HCP a=b c, a/2 6 12 74% c/a=1.633, α =β=90o, γ =120o 第二节实际金属的晶体结构 理想晶体+晶体缺陷——实际晶体 实际晶体——单晶体和多晶体 单晶体：内部晶格位向完全一致，各向同性。 多晶体：由许多位向各不相同的单晶体块组成，各向异性。