Psychology and Life
When you begin your introductory course in psychology, you may be quite pleasantly surprised by the wide-ranging terrain of contemporary psychology. Psychology and Life will reveal the intricacies of your human experience through rigorous research. Psychology and Life will lead you from the inner spaces of brain and mind to the outer dimensions of human behavior. We will investigate the processes that provide meaningful structure to your experiences, such as how you perceive the world, communicate, learn, think, and remember. We will try to understand the more dramatic expressions of human nature, such as how and why people dream, fall in love, act aggressively, and become mentally ill.
Finally, we will demonstrate how psychological knowledge can be used to understand and change cultural forces at work in our lives. As authors of Psychology and Life, we believe in the power of psychological expertise. The appeal of psychology has grown personally for us over our careers as educators and researchers. In recent years, there has been a virtual explosion of new information about the basic mechanisms that govern mental and behavioral processes. As new ideas replace or modify old ideas, we are continually intrigued and challenged by the many fascinating pieces of the puzzle of human nature.
Foremost in the journey will be a scientific quest or understanding. We shall inquire about the how, what, when, and why of human behavior and about the causes and consequences of behaviors you observe in yourself, in other people, and in animals. We will explain why you think, feel, and behave as you do. What makes you uniquely different from all other people? Yet why do you often behave so much like others? Are you molded by heredity, or are you shaped more by personal experiences? How an aggression and altruism, love and hate, and madness and creativity exist side by side in this complex creature-the human animal?
To appreciate the uniqueness and unity of psychology, you must consider the way psychologists define the field and the goals they bring to their research and applications. By the end of the book, we will encourage you to think like a psychologist. In this first section, we’ll give you a strong idea of what that might mean.
Many psychologists seek answers to this fundamental question: what is human nature? Psychology answers this question by looking at processes that occur within individuals as well as forces that arise within the physical and social environment. In this light, we formally define psychology as the scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes. Let’s explore the critical parts of this definition: scientific, behavior, individual, and mental.
The scientific aspect of psychology requires that psychological conclusions be based on evidence collected according to the principles of the scientific method. The scientific method consists of a set of orderly steps used to analyze and solve problems. This method uses objectively collected information as the factual basis for drawing conclusions. We will elaborate on the features of the scientific method more fully in Chapter 2, when we consider how psychologists conduct their research.
Behavior is the means by which organisms adjust to their environment. Behavior is action. The subject matter of psychology largely consists of the observable behavior of humans and other species of animals. Smiling, crying, running, hitting, talking, and touching are some obvious examples of behavior you can observe. Psychologists examine what the individual does and how the individual goes about doing it within a given behavioral setting and in the broader social or cultural context.
The subject of psychological analysis is most often an individual-a newborn infant, a teenage athlete, a college student adjusting to life in a dormitory, a man facing a midlife career change, or a woman coping with the stress of her husband’s deterioration from Alzheimer’s disease. However, the subject might also be a chimpanzee learning to use symbols to communicate, a white rat navigating a maze, or a sea slug responding to a danger signal. An individual might be studied in its natural habitat or in the controlled conditions of a research laboratory.
Many researchers in psychology also recognize that they cannot understand human actions without also understanding mental processes, the workings of the human mind. Much human activity takes place as private, internal events-thinking, planning, reasoning, creating, and dreaming. Many psychologists believe that mental processes represent the most important aspect of psychological inquiry. As you shall soon see, psychological investigators have devised ingenious techniques to study mental events and processes-to make these private experiences public.
The combination of these concerns defines psychology as a unique field. Within the social sciences, psychologists focus largely on behavior in individuals, whereas sociologists study the behavior of people in groups or institutions, and anthropologists focus on the broader context of behavior in different cultures: Even so, psychologists draw broadly from the insights of other scholars. Psychologists share many interests with researchers in biological sciences, especially with those who study brain processes and the biochemical bases of behavior. As part of the emerging area of cognitive science, psychologists’questions about how the human mind works are related to research and theory in computer science, artificial intelligence, and applied mathematics. As a health science-with links to medicine, education, law, and environmental studies-psychology seeks to improve the quality of each individual’s and the collective’s well-being.
Although the remarkable breadth and depth of modern psychology are a source of delight to those who become psychologists, these same attributes make the field a challenge to the student exploring it for the first time. There is so much more to the study of psychology than one expects initially-and, because of that, there will also be much of value that you can take away from this introduction to psychology. The best way to learn about the field is to learn to share psychologists’ goals. Let’s consider those goals.
To appreciate the uniqueness and unity of psychology, you must consider the way psychologists define the field and the goals they bring to their research and applications. By the end of the book, we will encourage you to think like a psychologist. In this first section, we’ll give you a strong idea of what that might mean.
Many psychologists seek answers to this fundamental question: what is human nature? Psychology answers this question by looking at processes that occur within individuals as well as forces that arise within the physical and social environment. In this light, we formally define psychology as the scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes. Let’s explore the critical parts of this definition: scientific, behavior, individual, and mental.
The scientific aspect of psychology requires that psychological conclusions be based on evidence collected according to the principles of the scientific method. The scientific method consists of a set of orderly steps used to analyze and solve problems. This method uses objectively collected information as the factual basis for drawing conclusions. We will elaborate on the features of the scientific method more fully in Chapter 2, when we consider how psychologists conduct their research.
Behavior is the means by which organisms adjust to their environment. Behavior is action. The subject matter of psychology largely consists of the observable behavior of humans and other species of animals. Smiling, crying, running, hitting, talking, and touching are some obvious examples of behavior you can observe. Psychologists examine what the individual does and how the individual goes about doing it within a given behavioral setting and in the broader social or cultural context.
The subject of psychological analysis is most often an individual-a newborn infant, a teenage athlete, a college student adjusting to life in a dormitory, a man facing a midlife career change, or a woman coping with the stress of her husband’s deterioration from Alzheimer’s disease. However, the subject might also be a chimpanzee learning to use symbols to communicate, a white rat navigating a maze, or a sea slug responding to a danger signal. An individual might be studied in its natural habitat or in the controlled conditions of a research laboratory.
Many researchers in psychology also recognize that they cannot understand
human actions without also understanding mental processes, the workings of the human mind. Much human activity takes place as private, internal events-thinking, planning, reasoning, creating, and dreaming. Many psychologists believe that mental processes represent the most important aspect of psychological inquiry. As you shall soon see, psychological investigators have devised ingenious techniques to study mental events and processes-to make these private experiences public.
The combination of these concerns defines psychology as a unique field. Within the social sciences, psychologists focus largely on behavior in individuals, whereas sociologists study the behavior of people in groups or institutions, and anthropologists focus on the broader context of behavior in different cultures: Even so, psychologists draw broadly from the insights of other scholars. Psychologists share many interests with researchers in biological sciences, especially with those who study brain processes and the biochemical bases of behavior. As part of the emerging area of cognitive science, psychologists’questions about how the human mind works are related to research and theory in computer science, artificial intelligence, and applied mathematics. As a health science-with links to medicine, education, law, and environmental studies-psychology seeks to improve the quality of each individual’s and the collective’s well-being.
Although the remarkable breadth and depth of modern psychology are a source of delight to those who become psychologists, these same attributes make the field a challenge to the student exploring it for the first time. There is so much more to the study of psychology than one expects initially-and, because of that, there will also be much of value that you can take away from this introduction to psychology. The best way to learn about the field is to learn to share psychologists’ goals. Let’s consider those goals.
The goals of the psychologist conducting basic research are to describe, explain, predict, and control behavior. These goals form the basis of the psychological enterprise. What is involved in trying to achieve each of them?
The first task in psychology is to make accurate observations about behavior. Psychologists typically refer to such observations as their data (data is the plural, datum the singular).Behavioral data are reports of observations about the behavior of organisms and the conditions under which the behavior occurs. When researchers undertake data collection, they must choose an appropriate level of analysis and devise measures of behavior that ensue objectivity.
In order to investigate an individual’s behavior, researchers may use different levels of analysis-from the broadest, most global level down to the most minute, specific level. Suppose, for example, you were trying to describe a painting you saw at a museum . At a global level, you might describe it by title, Bathers, and by artist,
Georges Seurat. At a more specific level, you might recount features of the painting: some people are sunning themselves on a riverbank, while others are enjoying in water, and so on. At a very specific level, you might describe the technique Seurat used-tiny points of paint-to create the scene. The description at each level would answer different questions about the painting.
Different levels of psychological description also address different questions. At the broadest level of psychological analysis, researchers investigate the behavior of the whole person within complex social and cultural contexts. At this level, researches might study cross-cultural differences in violence, the origins of prejudice, and the consequences of mental illness. At the next level, psychologists focus on narrower, finer units of behavior, such as speed of reaction to a stop light, eye movements during reading, and grammatical errors made by children acquiring language. Researchers can study even smaller units of behavior. They might work to discover the biological bases of behavior by identifying the places in the brain where different types of memories are stored, the biochemical changes that occur during learning, and the sensory paths responsible for vision or hearing. Each level of analysis yields information essential to the final composite portrait of human nature that psychologists hope ultimately to develop.
However tight or broad the focus of the observation, psychologists strive to describe behavior objectively. Collecting the facts as they exist, and not as the researcher expects or hopes them to be, is of utmost importance. Because every observer brings to each observation his or her subjective point of view- biases, prejudices, and expectations—it is essential to prevent these personal factors from creeping in and distorting the data. As you will see in the next chapter, psychological researchers have developed a variety of techniques to maintain objectivity.
While descriptions must stick to perceivable information, explanations deliberately go beyond what can be observed. In many areas of psychology, the central goal is to find regular patterns in behavioral and mental processes. Psychologists want to discover how behavior works. Why do you laugh at situations that differ from your expectations of what is coming next? What conditions could lead someone to attempt suicide or commit rape?
Explanations in psychology usually recognize that most behavior is influenced by a combination of factors. Some factors operate within the individual, such as genetic makeup, motivation, intelligence level, or self-esteem. These inner determinants tell something special about the organism. Other factors, however, operate externally. Suppose, for example, that a child tries to please a teacher in order to win a prize or that a motorist trapped in a traffic jam becomes frustrated and hostile. These behaviors are largely influenced by events outside the person. When psychologists
seek to explain behavior, they almost always consider both types of explanations. Suppose, for example, psychologists want to explain why some people start smoking. Researchers might examine the possibility that some individuals are particularly prone to risk taking (an internal explanation) or that some individuals experience a lot of peer pressure (an external explanation)—or that both a disposition toward risk taking and situational peer pressure are necessary (a combined explanation).
Often a psychologist’s goal is to explain a wide variety of behavior in terms of one underlying cause. Consider a situation in which your teacher says that to earn a good grade; each student must participate regularly in class discussions. Your roommate, who is always well prepared for class, never raises his hand to answer questions or volunteer information. The teacher chides him for being unmotivated and assumes he is not bright. That same roommate also goes to parties but never asks anyone to dance, doesn’t openly defend his point of view when it is challenged by someone less informed, and rarely engages in small talk at the dinner table. What is your diagnosis? What underlying cause might account for this range of behavior? How about shyness? Like many other people who suffer from intense feelings of shyness, your roommate is unable to behave in desired ways . We can use the concept of shyness to explain the full pattern of your roommate’s behavior.
To forge such causal explanations, researchers must often engage in a creative process of examining a diverse collection of data. Master detective Sherlock Holmes drew shrewd conclusions from scraps of evidence. In a similar fashion, every researcher must use an informed imagination, which creatively synthesizes what is known and what is not yet known. A well-trained psychologist can explain observations by using her or his insight into the human experience along with the facts previous researchers have uncovered about the phenomenon in question. Much psychological research attempts to determine which of several explanations most accurately accounts for a given behavioral pattern。
生活中的心理学
在你开始心理学入门的时候，可能会非常惊喜于当代心理学广袤的领地。生活中的心理学通过严谨的研究向你展现你的人类经验的纷繁复杂。生活中的心理学将引领你从大脑与心理之内部世界，到人类行为之外部维度。我们会对为你的经验提供了深远意义之框架的一些过程进行研究，比如你是如何感知这个世界的、如何沟通、学习、思考与记忆的。我们将努力理解关于人类本能的更生动表达，如人们为什么会做梦，如何做梦，为何会坠入情网，为何会产生攻击性行为，为何会得精神上的疾病。
最后，我们将证明心理学知识如何能够被用来理解并改变我们生活中现行的文化力量。作为《心理学与生活》的作者，我们相信心理技巧的力量。就我们个人而言，在我们作为教育工作者和研究者的职业生涯的过程中，我们对心理学的兴趣也在不断增强。近些年来，支配心理与行为过程的基础结构方面的新信息一直呈现实际上的爆炸式增长。尽管新思念不断替代或修改了旧的思想，我们却一直被人性之谜的许多令人着迷的部分所激励和挑战。
我们会探索人的一些行为如何、什么、何时、为什么等方面的问题，以及你所观察到的你自己、他人及动物等行为的原因和结果。我们还会解释为什么你会这样想，这样感受、为何会有这样的行为。是什么使你成为区别于他人的、独一无二的你？而为什么你又经常做出一些与他人非常相似的行为？你是由遗传因素，还是更多地由个人经验所塑造而成的？攻击行为与利他主义、爱与恨、疯狂与创造性是如何共存于人这种复杂的生物中的？
许多心理学家试图找到这样一个基本问题的答案—什么是人性？心理学既着眼于个体内部发生的过程，又从物理和社会环境产生的力量来回答这个问题。从这个角度出发，我们将心理学定义为是对个体行为及其心理过程的科学研究。让我们来探索一下这个定义的主要部分：科学、行为、个体及心理。心理学的科学方面要求心理学的结论，必须是在依据科学方法原则下所搜集到的证据之基础上得出的。科学方法是由用以分析与解决问题的一套有序的步骤构成的。该方法将客观搜集到的信息作为得出结论的事实基础。我们会在第2章中，在考虑心理学家如何进行研究时，详细说明科学方法的特性。
行为是生物机体适应环境的方式方法。行为即行动。心理学的主题很大程度上是由人类及其它动物种类中可观察到的行为构成的，笑、哭、奔跑、打、谈话及触摸都是一些你可以明显观察到的行为方面的例子。心理学家会在给定的行为设置及更广阔的社会与文化情境中，检查个体会做什么，以及与此相伴随的种种经历。
心理分析的主题最常见的是个体——新生婴儿、少年运动员、大学生如何适应校园生活、一个面临中年职业生涯变更的男人，或一个应对因丈夫的阿滋海默（Alzheimer）病恶化所带来的压力的女人。然而，其主题也可以是学习使用符号进行交流的黑腥腥、在迷宫中航行的白鼠或是一只对危险信号做出反应的海参。对个体的研究可以是在自然生活环境中，也可以是在研究实验室的控制条件下进行。许多心理学研究人员也承认，如果不对心理过程、人类大脑的运作进行
理解，他们也难以理解人类的行为。许多人类活动是隐蔽的、内部的活动，如思考、计划、推理、创造及做梦。很多心理学家相信，心理过程代表了心理学研究最重要的一个方面。正如你很快就要看到的那样，心理学调查人员设计出了独特的技术以研究心理活动与心理过程，以使那些隐蔽的经验公开化。
这些主题结合起来使心理学成为一个独特的领域。在社会科学范畴中，心理学家主要聚集于个体的行为，社会学家则研究群体或制度中人的行为，而人类学家则聚集于不同文化中的行为这一更广泛的情景中：即便如此，心理学家依然从其他学科学者的领悟中汲取精华。心理学家与生物科学，特别是那些研究行为的大脑过程和生物化学基础的研究者们享有共同的兴趣点。作为认知科学新兴领域的一部分，心理学家关于人类大脑如何运作方面的心理学研究，涉及到计算机科学、人工智能及应用数学。作为一门与医学、教育、法律及环境研究有着千丝万缕联系的保健科学，心理学努力改善每个个体及集体主观幸福感的质量。
尽管现代心理学显著的宽度与深度是一个令那些成为心理学家的人感到欣喜的一个来源，但是，这些同样的归因对于初步探索这一领域的学生来说也构成了一个挑战。心理学有如此多的方面需要研究，远远超过了人们最初的期待，也正因为此，你可以从该书对心理学的介绍中学到很多东西。了解该领域的一个最好的路径就是学会分享心理学家们的目标，现在就让我们考虑这些目标吧。
心理学家进行基本研究的目标，是对行为进行描述、解释、预测及控制。这些目标构成了心理学事业的基础。努力达到每个目标都涉及到哪些内容呢？
心理学的第一个任务就是对行为进行准确观察。典型地，心理学家将诸如此类的观察作为他们的资料。行为上的资料是指关于生物机体的行为及行为发生的条件的观察报告。当研究者们采用资料收集的时候，他们得选择一种恰如其分的分析水平，并且要设置一些确保其客观性的行为测量方法。
为了调查个体的行为，研究者们可以使用不同的分析水平——从最广泛的、最全面的水平，降到最细微的、最特定的水平。例如，假定你试图要描述在博物馆里看到的一幅油画。在一个整体的水平上，你可能会用标题（《在阿尼埃尔上的沐浴者》，）及作者（乔治·修拉）来描述。在一个较特定的水平上，你也许会描述这幅油画的特征：一些人在河堤上晒太阳；而另一些在水里嬉戏，等等。在一个极为精细的水平上，你也许会描述修拉用来构建整个场景的技巧。在各个水平上的描述都会对这幅油画不同方面的问题提供答案。
心理学上的描述，不同水平也会提出不同的问题。在最广泛的心理分析水平上，研究者们在复杂的社会及文化情景中对整个人的行为进行研究。在这个水平上，研究者们也许会研究在暴力、偏见的起源及精神疾病的因果关系方面的跨文化差异。在下一个水平上，心理学家则强调更狭窄的、细微的行为单元，如对红灯的反应速度、阅读过程中的眼动及儿童在习得语言过程中所犯的语法错误。研究者们甚至能够研究更细小的行为单元，他们也许会致力于通过确定大脑中不同类型的记忆所储存的位置来发现行为的生物学基础，发现学习过程中发生的生物化学变化，以及发现负责视觉和听觉的感觉通道。每个水平的分析都将产生一些
基本信息，心理学家希望利用这些信息，最终能够开发出关于人性的决定性的组合画像。
然而，无论观察的焦点是宽还是窄，心理学家都将尽量客观地描述行为。按事实本身的样子，而不是按照研究者所期待或希冀的那样收集资料，是最重要的。由于每一个观察者都会把他的主观观点——偏差、偏见及期待——带入每一个观察中，所以避免将这些个人因素混进并扭曲资料是最基本的。正如在下一章你将会看到的那样，心理学研究者已经发展出大量的技术以保持客观性描述必须依托于可观察到的信息，而解释则有意超越所能观察到的信息。在心理学的许多领域，主要的目标就是找到行为与心理过程中的规律模式。心理学家想要发现行为是如何运作的。为何你会对与你期待接下来要发生的事情不符的情景不屑一顾？是什么样的情形导致一个人自杀或实施强奸？
心理学中的解释通常认为，大多数行为是受多种因素综合影响的。有些因素是内在的，如遗传气质、动机、智力水平或自尊。这些内在决定因素表明关于生物机体的一些特殊方面。而其它一些因素则是外界的。例如，假设一个儿童努力去取悦老师以赢得奖赏，或一个陷入交通堵塞中的汽车驾驶员变得沮丧而充满敌意。这些行为很大程度上是受到外部事件的影响。当心理学家试图对行为进行解释时，他们几乎总是从这两方面的解释来考虑。例如，假设心理学家想要解释有些人为何开始抽烟。研究者们可能会检查一些个体特别倾向于冒险（内在解释）的可能性，或有些个体会体验到来自同伴的压力（外在解释）的可能性，或者既有冒险的特性又有来自同伴的情景压力这两方面的可能性的综合（综合解释）。
通常，心理学家的一个目标就是按照潜在的原因解释各种行为。假定这样一种情形：老师说，为了获得好的成绩，每个学生必须有规律地参加课堂讨论。你的室友，总是做了精心准备，却从未举过手回答问题或义务信息。老师就责怪他动机不明确，觉得他不聪明。这个室友也会去参加晚会，但从不邀请任何人跳舞，也不会因为自己的观点受到不太熟悉的人的挑战而公开为自己辩护，也很少参与餐桌前的小型讨论。你的判断是什么？对这样的行为，其潜在的原因是什么？是因为害羞吗？像许多别的遭受强烈的害羞感的人一样，你的室友也不能随心所愿地行动（Zimbardo & Radl, 1999），我们可以用害羞这个概念来解释你的室友的整个行为模式。
为了进一步强化这样的因果关系解释，研究者们得经常从事检查各种资料收集的创造性过程。高明的侦探歇洛克·福尔摩斯从废弃的证据中得出机敏的结论。用类似的方式，每个研究者都得运用富含信息的想象力，将已知的与未知的创造性地紧密结合起来。一个经过良好培训的心理学家可以通过利用他对人类经验的洞察力，再结合以前的研究者已经发现的关于可疑现象方面的知道解释一些观察。许多心理学上的研究试图确定哪几种解释最准确地说明了一个特定的行为模式。
International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials Volume 17, Number 4, August 2010, Page 500 DOI: 10.1007/s12613-010-0348-y Corresponding author: Zhuan Li E-mail: li_zhuan@https://www.doczj.com/doc/4a2915039.html, ? University of Science and Technology Beijing and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010 Preparation and properties of C/C-SiC brake composites fabricated by warm compacted-in situ reaction Zhuan Li, Peng Xiao, and Xiang Xiong State Key Laboratory of Powder Metallurgy, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China (Received: 12 August 2009; revised: 28 August 2009; accepted: 2 September 2009) Abstract: Carbon fibre reinforced carbon and silicon carbide dual matrix composites (C/C-SiC) were fabricated by the warm compacted-in situ reaction. The microstructure, mechanical properties, tribological properties, and wear mechanism of C/C-SiC composites at different brake speeds were investigated. The results indicate that the composites are composed of 58wt% C, 37wt% SiC, and 5wt% Si. The density and open porosity are 2.0 g·cm–3 and 10%, respectively. The C/C-SiC brake composites exhibit good mechanical properties. The flexural strength can reach up to 160 MPa, and the impact strength can reach 2.5 kJ·m–2. The C/C-SiC brake composites show excellent tribological performances. The friction coefficient is between 0.57 and 0.67 at the brake speeds from 8 to 24 m·s?1. The brake is stable, and the wear rate is less than 2.02×10?6 cm3·J?1. These results show that the C/C-SiC brake composites are the promising candidates for advanced brake and clutch systems. Keywords: C/C-SiC; ceramic matrix composites; tribological properties; microstructure [This work was financially supported by the National High-Tech Research and Development Program of China (No.2006AA03Z560) and the Graduate Degree Thesis Innovation Foundation of Central South University (No.2008yb019).] 温压-原位反应法制备C / C-SiC刹车复合材料的工艺和性能 李专，肖鹏，熊翔 粉末冶金国家重点实验室，中南大学，湖南长沙410083，中国（收稿日期：2009年8月12日修订：2009年8月28日;接受日期：2009年9月2日） 摘要：采用温压?原位反应法制备炭纤维增强炭和碳化硅双基体(C/C-SiC)复合材
Load and Ultimate Moment of Prestressed Concrete Action Under Overload-Cracking Load It has been shown that a variation in the external load acting on a prestressed beam results in a change in the location of the pressure line for beams in the elastic range.This is a fundamental principle of prestressed construction.In a normal prestressed beam,this shift in the location of the pressure line continues at a relatively uniform rate,as the external load is increased,to the point where cracks develop in the tension fiber.After the cracking load has been exceeded,the rate of movement in the pressure line decreases as additional load is applied,and a significant increase in the stress in the prestressing tendon and the resultant concrete force begins to take place.This change in the action of the internal moment continues until all movement of the pressure line ceases.The moment caused by loads that are applied thereafter is offset entirely by a corresponding and proportional change in the internal forces,just as in reinforced-concrete construction.This fact,that the load in the elastic range and the plastic range is carried by actions that are fundamentally different,is very significant and renders strength computations essential for all designs in order to ensure that adequate safety factors exist.This is true even though the stresses in the elastic range may conform to a recognized elastic design criterion. It should be noted that the load deflection curve is close to a straight line up to the cracking load and that the curve becomes progressively more curved as the load is increased above the cracking load.The curvature of the load-deflection curve for loads over the cracking load is due to the change in the basic internal resisting moment action that counteracts the applied loads,as described above,as well as to plastic strains that begin to take place in the steel and the concrete when stressed to high levels. In some structures it may be essential that the flexural members remain crack free even under significant overloads.This may be due to the structures’being exposed to exceptionally corrosive atmospheres during their useful life.In designing prestressed members to be used in special structures of this type,it may be necessary to compute the load that causes cracking of the tensile flange,in order to ensure that adequate safety against cracking is provided by the design.The computation of the moment that will cause cracking is also necessary to ensure compliance with some design criteria. Many tests have demonstrated that the load-deflection curves of prestressed beams are approximately linear up to and slightly in excess of the load that causes the first cracks in the tensile flange.(The linearity is a function of the rate at which the load is applied.)For this reason,normal elastic-design relationships can be used in computing the cracking load by simply determining the load that results in a net tensile stress in the tensile flange(prestress minus the effects of the applied loads)that is equal to the tensile strength of the concrete.It is customary to assume that the flexural tensile strength of the concrete is equal to the modulus of rupture of the
转型衰退时期的土木工程研究 Sergios Lambropoulosa[1], John-Paris Pantouvakisb, Marina Marinellic 摘要 最近的全球经济和金融危机导致许多国家的经济陷入衰退，特别是在欧盟的周边。这些国家目前面临的民用建筑基础设施的公共投资和私人投资显著收缩，导致在民事特别是在民用建筑方向的失业。因此，在所有国家在经济衰退的专业发展对于土木工程应届毕业生来说是努力和资历的不相称的研究，因为他们很少有机会在实践中积累经验和知识，这些逐渐成为过时的经验和知识。在这种情况下，对于技术性大学在国家经济衰退的计划和实施的土木工程研究大纲的一个实质性的改革势在必行。目的是使毕业生拓宽他们的专业活动的范围，提高他们的就业能力。 在本文中，提出了土木工程研究课程的不断扩大，特别是在发展的光毕业生的潜在的项目，计划和投资组合管理。在这个方向上，一个全面的文献回顾，包括ASCE体为第二十一世纪，IPMA的能力的基础知识，建议在其他：显著增加所提供的模块和项目管理在战略管理中添加新的模块，领导行为，配送管理，组织和环境等；提供足够的专业训练五年的大学的研究；并由专业机构促进应届大学生认证。建议通过改革教学大纲为土木工程研究目前由国家技术提供了例证雅典大学。 1引言 土木工程研究（CES）蓬勃发展，是在第二次世界大战后。土木工程师的出现最初是由重建被摧毁的巨大需求所致，目的是更多和更好的社会追求。但是很快，这种演变一个长期的趋势，因为政府为了努力实现经济发展，采取了全世界的凯恩斯主义的理论，即公共基础设施投资作为动力。首先积极的结果导致公民为了更好的生活条件（住房，旅游等）和增加私人投资基础设施而创造机会。这些现象再国家的发展中尤为为明显。虽然前景并不明朗（例如，世界石油危机在70年代），在80年代领先的国家采用新自由主义经济的方法（如里根经济政策），这是最近的金融危机及金融危机造成的后果（即收缩的基础设施投资，在技术部门的高失业率），消除发展前途无限的误区。 技术教育的大学所认可的大量研究土木工程部。旧学校拓展专业并且新的学校建成，并招收许多学生。由于高的职业声望，薪酬，吸引高质量的学校的学生。在工程量的增加和科学技术的发展，导致到极强的专业性，无论是在研究还是工作当中。结构工程师，液压工程师，交通工程师等，都属于土木工程。试图在不同的国家采用专业性的权利，不同的解决方案，，从一个统一的大学学历和广泛的专业化的一般职业许可证。这个问题在许多其他行业成为关键。国际专业协会的专家和机构所确定的国家性检查机构，经过考试后，他们证明不仅是行业的新来者，而且专家通过时间来确定进展情况。尽管在很多情况下，这些证书虽然没有国家接受，他们赞赏和公认的世界。 在试图改革大学研究（不仅在土木工程）更接近市场需求的过程中，欧盟确定了1999博洛尼亚宣言，它引入了一个二能级系统。第一级度（例如，一个三年的学士）是进入
华北电力大学科技学院 毕业设计（论文）附件 外文文献翻译 学号：121912020115姓名：彭钰钊 所在系别：动力工程系专业班级：测控技术与仪器12K1指导教师：李冰 原文标题：Infrared Remote Control System Abstract 2016 年 4 月 19 日
红外遥控系统 摘要 红外数据通信技术是目前在世界范围内被广泛使用的一种无线连接技术，被众多的硬件和软件平台所支持。红外收发器产品具有成本低，小型化，传输速率快，点对点安全传输，不受电磁干扰等特点，可以实现信息在不同产品之间快速、方便、安全地交换与传送，在短距离无线传输方面拥有十分明显的优势。红外遥控收发系统的设计在具有很高的实用价值，目前红外收发器产品在可携式产品中的应用潜力很大。全世界约有1亿5千万台设备采用红外技术，在电子产品和工业设备、医疗设备等领域广泛使用。绝大多数笔记本电脑和手机都配置红外收发器接口。随着红外数据传输技术更加成熟、成本下降，红外收发器在短距离通讯领域必将得到更广泛的应用。 本系统的设计目的是用红外线作为传输媒质来传输用户的操作信息并由接收电路解调出原始信号，主要用到编码芯片和解码芯片对信号进行调制与解调，其中编码芯片用的是台湾生产的PT2262，解码芯片是PT2272。主要工作原理是：利用编码键盘可以为PT2262提供的输入信息，PT2262对输入的信息进行编码并加载到38KHZ的载波上并调制红外发射二极管并辐射到空间，然后再由接收系统接收到发射的信号并解调出原始信息，由PT2272对原信号进行解码以驱动相应的电路完成用户的操作要求。 关键字：红外线；编码；解码；LM386；红外收发器。 1 绪论
毕业设计说明书 英文文献及中文翻译 学院：专 2011年6月 电子与计算机科学技术软件工程
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外文出处： 《Exploiting Software How to Break Code》By Greg Hoglund, Gary McGraw Publisher : Addison Wesley Pub Date : February 17, 2004 ISBN : 0-201-78695-8 译文标题： JDBC接口技术 译文： JDBC是一种可用于执行SQL语句的JavaAPI（ApplicationProgrammingInterface应用程序设计接口）。它由一些Java语言编写的类和界面组成。JDBC为数据库应用开发人员、数据库前台工具开发人员提供了一种标准的应用程序设计接口，使开发人员可以用纯Java语言编写完整的数据库应用程序。 一、ODBC到JDBC的发展历程 说到JDBC，很容易让人联想到另一个十分熟悉的字眼“ODBC”。它们之间有没有联系呢？如果有，那么它们之间又是怎样的关系呢？ ODBC是OpenDatabaseConnectivity的英文简写。它是一种用来在相关或不相关的数据库管理系统（DBMS）中存取数据的，用C语言实现的，标准应用程序数据接口。通过ODBCAPI，应用程序可以存取保存在多种不同数据库管理系统（DBMS）中的数据，而不论每个DBMS使用了何种数据存储格式和编程接口。 1．ODBC的结构模型 ODBC的结构包括四个主要部分：应用程序接口、驱动器管理器、数据库驱动器和数据源。应用程序接口：屏蔽不同的ODBC数据库驱动器之间函数调用的差别，为用户提供统一的SQL编程接口。 驱动器管理器：为应用程序装载数据库驱动器。 数据库驱动器：实现ODBC的函数调用，提供对特定数据源的SQL请求。如果需要，数据库驱动器将修改应用程序的请求，使得请求符合相关的DBMS所支持的文法。 数据源：由用户想要存取的数据以及与它相关的操作系统、DBMS和用于访问DBMS的网络平台组成。 虽然ODBC驱动器管理器的主要目的是加载数据库驱动器，以便ODBC函数调用，但是数据库驱动器本身也执行ODBC函数调用，并与数据库相互配合。因此当应用系统发出调用与数据源进行连接时，数据库驱动器能管理通信协议。当建立起与数据源的连接时，数据库驱动器便能处理应用系统向DBMS发出的请求，对分析或发自数据源的设计进行必要的翻译，并将结果返回给应用系统。 2．JDBC的诞生 自从Java语言于1995年5月正式公布以来，Java风靡全球。出现大量的用java语言编写的程序，其中也包括数据库应用程序。由于没有一个Java语言的API，编程人员不得不在Java程序中加入C语言的ODBC函数调用。这就使很多Java的优秀特性无法充分发挥，比如平台无关性、面向对象特性等。随着越来越多的编程人员对Java语言的日益喜爱，越来越多的公司在Java程序开发上投入的精力日益增加，对java语言接口的访问数据库的API 的要求越来越强烈。也由于ODBC的有其不足之处，比如它并不容易使用，没有面向对象的特性等等，SUN公司决定开发一Java语言为接口的数据库应用程序开发接口。在JDK1．x 版本中，JDBC只是一个可选部件，到了JDK1．1公布时，SQL类包（也就是JDBCAPI）
项目成本控制 一、引言 项目是企业形象的窗口和效益的源泉。随着市场竞争日趋激烈，工程质量、文明施工要求不断提高，材料价格波动起伏，以及其他种种不确定因素的影响，使得项目运作处于较为严峻的环境之中。由此可见项目的成本控制是贯穿在工程建设自招投标阶段直到竣工验收的全过程，它是企业全面成本管理的重要环节，必须在组织和控制措施上给于高度的重视，以期达到提高企业经济效益的目的。 二、概述 工程施工项目成本控制，指在项目成本在成本发生和形成过程中，对生产经营所消耗的人力资源、物资资源和费用开支，进行指导、监督、调节和限制，及时预防、发现和纠正偏差从而把各项费用控制在计划成本的预定目标之内，以达到保证企业生产经营效益的目的。 三、施工企业成本控制原则 施工企业的成本控制是以施工项目成本控制为中心，施工项目成本控制原则是企业成本管理的基础和核心，施工企业项目经理部在对项目施工过程进行成本控制时，必须遵循以下基本原则。 3.1 成本最低化原则。施工项目成本控制的根本目的，在于通过成本管理的各种手段，促进不断降低施工项目成本，以达到可能实现最低的目标成本的要求。在实行成本最低化原则时，应注意降低成本的可能性和合理的成本最低化。一方面挖掘各种降低成本的能力，使可能性变为现实；另一方面要从实际出发，制定通过主观努力可能达到合理的最低成本水平。 3.2 全面成本控制原则。全面成本管理是全企业、全员和全过程的管理，亦称“三全”管理。项目成本的全员控制有一个系统的实质性内容，包括各部门、各单位的责任网络和班组经济核算等等，应防止成本控制人人有责，人人不管。项目成本的全过程控制要求成本控制工作要随着项目施工进展的各个阶段连续 进行，既不能疏漏，又不能时紧时松，应使施工项目成本自始至终置于有效的控制之下。 3.3 动态控制原则。施工项目是一次性的，成本控制应强调项目的中间控制，即动态控制。因为施工准备阶段的成本控制只是根据施工组织设计的具体内容确
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 包装对食品发展的影响 一个消费者对某个产品的第一印象来说包装是至关重要的，包括沟通的可取性，可接受性，健康饮食形象等。食品能够提供广泛的产品和包装组合，传达自己加工的形象感知给消费者，例如新鲜包装/准备，冷藏，冷冻，超高温无菌，消毒（灭菌），烘干产品。 食物的最重要的质量属性之一，是它的味道，其影响人类的感官知觉，即味觉和嗅觉。味道可以很大程度作退化的处理和/或扩展存储。其他质量属性，也可能受到影响，包括颜色，质地和营养成分。食品质量不仅取决于原材料，添加剂，加工和包装的方法，而且其预期的货架寿命（保质期）过程中遇到的分布和储存条件的质量。越来越多的竞争当中，食品生产商，零售商和供应商；和质量审核供应商有显着提高食品质量以及急剧增加包装食品的选择。这些改进也得益于严格的冷藏链中的温度控制和越来越挑剔的消费者。 保质期的一个定义是：在食品加工和包装组合下，在食品的容器和条件，在销售点分布在特定系统的时间能保持令人满意的食味品质。保质期，可以用来作为一个新鲜的概念，促进营销的工具。延期或保质期长的产品，还提供产品的使用时间，方便以及减少浪费食物的风险，消费者和/或零售商。包装产品的质量和保质期的主题是在第3章中详细讨论。 包装为消费者提供有关产品的重要信息，在许多情况下，使用的包装和/或产品，包括事实信息如重量，体积，配料，制造商的细节，营养价值，烹饪和开放的指示，除了法律准则的最小尺寸的文字和数字，有定义的各类产品。消费者寻求更详细的产品信息，同时，许多标签已经成为多语种。标签的可读性是为视障人士的问题，这很可能成为一个对越来越多的老年人口越来越重要的问题。 食物的选择和包装创新的一个主要驱动力是为了方便消费者的需求。这里有许多方便的现代包装所提供的属性，这些措施包括易于接入和开放，处置和处理，产品的知名度，再密封性能，微波加热性，延长保质期等。在英国和其他发达经济体显示出生率下降和快速增长的一个相对富裕的老人人口趋势，伴随着更加苛
韶关学院 期末考核报告 科目：专业英语 学生姓名： 学号： 同组人： 院系： 专业班级： 考核时间：2012年10月9日—2012年11月1 日评阅教师： 评分：
第1章英文阅读材料翻译 (1) 第2章中文摘要翻译英文 (3) 第3章中文简历和英文简历 (4) 第4章课程学习体会和建议 (6) 参考文献 (7)
第1章英文阅读材料翻译 Mechanization and Automation Processes of mechanization have been developing and becoming more complex ever since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution at the end of the 18th century. The current developments of automatic processes are, however, different from the old ones. The “automation” of the 20th century is distinct from the mechanization of the 18th and 19th centuries inasmuch as mechanization was applied to individual operations, wherea s “automation” is concerned with the operation and control of a complete producing unit. And in many, though not all, instances the element of control is so great that whereas mechanization displaces muscle, “automation”displaces brain as well. The distinction between the mechanization of the past and what is happening now is, however, not a sharp one. At one extreme we have the electronic computer with its quite remarkable capacity for discrimination and control, while at the other end of the scale are “ transfer machines” , as they are now called, which may be as simple as a conveyor belt to another. An automatic mechanism is one which has a capacity for self-regulation; that is, it can regulate or control the system or process without the need for constant human attention or adjustment. Now people often talk about “feedback” as begin an essential factor of the new industrial techniques, upon which is base an automatic self-regulating system and by virtue of which any deviation in the system from desired condition can be detected, measured, reported and corrected. when “feedback” is applied to the process by which a large digital computer runs at the immense speed through a long series of sums, constantly rejecting the answers until it finds one to fit a complex set of facts which have been put to it, it is perhaps different in degree from what we have previously been accustomed to machines. But “feedback”, as such, is a familiar mechanical conception. The old-fashioned steam engine was fitted with a centrifugal governor, two balls on levers spinning round and round an upright shaft. If the steam pressure rose and the engine started to go too fast, the increased speed of the spinning governor caused it to rise up the vertical rod and shut down a valve. This cut off some of the steam and thus the engine brought itself back to its proper speed. The mechanization, which was introduced with the Industrial Revolution, because it was limited to individual processes, required the employment of human labor to control each machine as well as to load and unload materials and transfer them from one place to another. Only in a few instances were processes automatically linked together and was production organized as a continuous flow. In general, however, although modern industry has been highly mechanized ever since the 1920s, the mechanized parts have not as a rule been linked together. Electric-light bulbs, bottles and the components of innumerable mass-produced
河南科技学院新科学院 2013届本科毕业生论文（设计） 英文文献及翻译 Foreign capital inflows and welfare in an economy with imperfect competition 学生姓名：王艳杰 所在院系：经济系 所学专业：国际经济与贸易 导师姓名：侯黎杰 完成时间：2013年4月15日
Foreign capital inflows and welfare in an economy with imperfect competition Abstract:This paper examines the resource allocational and welfare effects of exogenous inflows of foreign capital in a general-equilibrium model with oligopolistic competition and unemployment. Although the welfare impact for the short run is ambiguous and dependent upon the strength of excess profits and scale economies relative to unemployment in manufacturing, in the long run additional inflows of foreign capital always improve national welfare with capital mobility. Hence, attracting foreign capital remains a sound policy for economies characterized by imperfect competition, scale economies,and regional unemployment. Keywords: International capital mobility; Imperfect competition; Welfare 1.Introduction The welfare effects of exogenous inflows of foreign capital in the presence of trade restrictions have been extensively studied. Brecher and Diaz Alejandro (1977) show that when imports are subject to tariffs, an introduction of fo reign capital inflows accentuates the tariff distortion and hence reduces national welfare if the import-competing sector is relatively capital-intensive. In contrast, Dei (1985) shows that when imports are restricted by quotas,foreign capital inflows in the presence of foreign-owned capital always improve welfare by depressing the rental and so lowering the payments to existing foreign-owned capital. Recently, Neary (1981), using a common framework for both tariffs and quotas, obtains more general results of foreign capital inflows; the welfare effect of such inflows depends crucially on whether foreign-owned capital exists initially in the home country. In addition, Khan (1982) and Grinols (1991) have examined the effects of foreign capital inflows for a generalized Harris-Todaro economy under tariff protection. Khan finds that the result by Brecher and Diaz Alejandro is still valid even in the presence of unemployment, whereas Grinols argues that increased foreign capital need not be detrimental to welfare if the opportunity costs of labor are sufficiently low. Noteworthy is that the models used by these authors are all based upon the premise of perfect competition along with constant returns-to-scale technology. Although perfect competition serves as a useful assumption in crystallizing theoretical insights, it nevertheless fails to depict many of the real-world phenomena. The real-world economy is characterized, to a large extent, by imperfect competition and economies of scale. The policy implications of imperfect competition and economies
专业资料 学院： 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：Structural Systems to resist (用外文写) Lateral loads 附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 抗侧向荷载的结构体系 常用的结构体系 若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。 这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。 如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类： 1.抗弯矩框架。 2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。 3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。 4.筒中框架。 5.筒中筒结构。 6.核心交互结构。 7. 框格体系或束筒体系。 特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。 将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。这并
不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。 虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中。 抗弯矩框架 抗弯矩框架也许是低，中高度的建筑中常用的体系，它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点。这种框架用作独立的体系，或者和其他体系结合起来使用，以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力。对于较高的高层建筑，可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系，这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度。 我们可以利用STRESS，STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析。所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地，由于柱梁节点固有柔性，并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点，所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的。当然，在设计的后期阶段，实际地评价结点的变形很有必要。 支撑框架 支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强，在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用。这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色，它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑，并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中。