Unit 15: Leadership
Structure:
15.1 Introduction
Objectives
15.2 Concept of Leadership
SAQ’s
15.3 Theories of Leadership
SAQ’s
15.4 Classification of Leadership
SAQ’s
15.5 Functions of a Leader
15.6 Managerial Grid
SAQ’s
15.7 Differences between ‘Managers’ and ‘Leaders’
15.8 Summary
15.9 TQ’s
15.10 Answers to SAQ’s and TQ’s
15.1 Introduction
There are certain born leaders like Alexander/Julius Caesar. A good leader displays great ability, creativity, initiative and confidence. He adds and gets co-operation, willingness, and builds employees' morale and motivation. There is a classic debatable question: “Leaders are Born and Not Made”. Whatever be the outcome of this debate, the fact remains that leaders are of a different breed and class apart. They are ordinary people who do extra- ordinary things. This chapter focuses on leadership, type of leadership, styles, qualities and functions of leaders. It also shows what makes a ‘manager’ and a ‘leader’ different.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
· Understand leadership
· Theoretical framework of leadership.
· Distinguish between different types of leaders.
· How Managers’ and different from ‘Leaders’.
15.2 Concept of Leadership
Leadership is defined as "the relationship in which one person influences others to work together willingly on related tasks to attain that level which he desires." That is to say, if there is no follower, there is no leader.
Haiman defined Leadership as "the process by which an executive or a manager imaginatively directs, guides and influences the work of others in choosing and attaining specified goals by mediation between the individual and organisation in such a manner that both will obtain the maximum satisfaction.”
A good leader:
1. Has foresight.
2. Has influence.
3. Has representative role playing.
4. Communicates properly.
5. Commands attention and respect.
6. Helps to achieve task objectives.
7. Commands trust and confidence.
8. Has 'concern' regarding needs of his group.
9. Is sensitive to the task, people and environment.
10. Builds team and becomes a model.
11. Has the ability and skill to manage the team.
12. Has the ability to take decisions and many more.
However, some of them are self-oriented, some of them are people-oriented and some of them are task-oriented. Basically a leader should have the skills of inspiring confidence in his followers and to manage differences. Sometimes he should be a good follower of group decisions. A leader is concerned both with the task (also goals of the organization) as well as the people with whom he is working.
According to Douglas McGregor, the major variables of leadership are:
a) The characteristics of the leader.
b) The attitudes, needs and personal characteristics of followers.
c) The culture of the organisation
d) The environment – Socio-economic - political set up – both Micro and Macro.
Self Assessment Questions I
1. A leader is concerned both with the task / goals of the organization, as well as the
_________________________
2. A leader should have the skills of _________________in his followers and to
manage differences.
3. Some managers are self-oriented, some of them are people-oriented and some of
them are__________________.
15.3 Theories of Leadership
Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill level. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types:
1. “Great Man” Theories: Great Man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is
inherent – that great leaders are born not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythical, and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term “Great Man” was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.
2. Trait Theories: Similar in some ways to “Great Man” theories, trait theory assumes that
people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioural characteristics shared by leaders. But if particular traits are key features of leadership, how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.
3. Contingency Theories: Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables
related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.
4. Situational Theories: Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of
action based upon situational variable. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.
5. Behavioural Theories: Behavioural theories of leadership are based upon the belief that
great leaders are made, not born. Rooted in behaviourism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.
6. Participative Theories: Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership
style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.
7. Management Theories: Management theories (also known as “Transactional theories”)
focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of reward and punishment. Managerial theories are often used in business? when employees are successful, they are rewarded? when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.
8. Relationship Theories: Relationship theories (also known as “Transformational
theories”) focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. These leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. Transformational leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfil his or her potential. These leaders often have high ethical and moral standards.
Self Assessment Questions II
1. Early leadership theories focused on what __________distinguished between leaders
and followers
2. _______________assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great
leaders are born not made.
3. Trait theories often identify ____________________________________shared by
leaders.
4. Contingency theories states that.................................
5. Situational theories propose that different styles of leadership may be more
appropriate for certain___________________________________.
15.4 Classification of Leadership
According to the Personnel Research Board of Ohio University leaders were classified as follows:
a) THE BUREAUCRAT – who sticks to routine, pleases his superiors, avoids subordinates and he is contemptuous to them.
b) THE AUTOCRAT – He is directive and expects obedience from followers. (Do as I say – Not, as I do) Hence, subordinates do not like him.
c) THE DIPLOMAT – He is an opportunist who exploits subordinates. Hence, he is not trusted by his subordinates. (He is interested Not in the Flock but in the Fleece) d) THE EXPERT – He is an over-specialised man. He is self-centred and interested in his own narrow field. He treats his subordinates only as fellow- workers without any feelings. He always finds himself along.
e) THE QUARTER BACK – He identifies himself with his subordinates even at the risk of incurring displeasure of his superiors and subordinates at times. However, he is generally liked by his followers.
Another classification given by CHRIS ARGYRIS is as follows:
a) The Directive type
b) The Permissive type
c) The participative type
There are other types such as Positive and Negative.
Positive is Power THROUGH the people and Negative is Power OVER the people. Self Assessment Questions III: Match the following a) Who sticks to routine, pleases his superiors,
avoids subordinates and he is contemptuous to them.
b) He is directive and expects obedience from followers. (Do as I say – Not, as I do) Hence, subordinates do not like him. c) He is an opportunist who exploits subordinates. Hence, he is not trusted by his subordinates. (He is interested Not in the Flock but in the Fleece) d) Who sticks to routine, pleases his superiors, avoids subordinates and he is contemptuous to them. e) He is an over-specialised man. He is self- centred and interested in his own narrow field. He
treats his subordinates only as fellow- workers
1. THE
BUREAUCRAT
2. THE AUTOCRAT –
3. THE DIPLOMAT –
4. THE EXPERT –
5. THE QUARTER
15.5. Functions of a Leader
A leader has the following functions to perform:
a) Maintenance of membership: i.e. to be close to the group.
b) Objective attainment: To achieve the targets set.
c) Group interaction: To provide the climate for effective interaction i.e. Less of
distrust amongst followers.
PETER DRUCKER says, "An effective leader is one who can make ordinary people do extraordinary things, make common people do uncommon things. Leadership is a lifting of a man's sights to a higher vision, the raising of a man's standard to a higher performance, the building of a man's performance beyond its normal limitations."
KILLIAN stated the functions of a leader in the following way:
a) To render a service (by multiplying the contribution of every individual who is its
beneficiary)
b) To take decision (calculated)
c) To elicit response
d) To achieve results
e) To maintain discipline, to have a standard of performance
f) To have himself a higher standard of discipline and performance also to take initiative, to
bring in team (group) spirit / activity.
Qualities of a Leader:
VISCOUNT SLIM has enumerated the following qualities.
a) Courage
b) Will-power
c) Judgement
d) Flexibility
e) Knowledge
f) Integrity
Ten Commandments of Leadership
a) Physical and nervous energy
b) Enthusiasm
c) Sense of Purpose/Direction
d) Technical Mastery
e) Friendliness and affection
f) Decision- making
g) Integrity
h) Intelligence
i) Faith
Effective Communication -both oral & written.
Leadership also depends on the environment both Macro and Micro. All the above may be shown in the following diagram.
SITUATIONAL
LEADERSHIP
1. Characteristics of Followers
2. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
t h e T a s k 3. C
h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
t h e O r g a n i s a t i o n 4. Characteristics of
the External
Environment 5. Traits of the Leader
Situational Leadership has five components:
a) Characteristics of Followers
b) Characteristics of the Task
c) Characteristics of the Organisation
d) Characteristics of the External Environment
e) Traits of the Leader
According to Douglas McGregor, leadership is based on Valve theory. Theory X and Theory Y are worth-remembering here.
McGregor's Theory X Theory Y Model: The first acquaintance with 'X' and 'Y' for many of us is as learnt as in Algebra. During the decade of the sixties 'X' and Y took on some additional meanings for readers in the behavioural sciences and contemporary management thinking.
In 1960, Douglas McGregor published his thesis “Human Side of Enterprise”. This was to be a major force in the application of behavioural science to management’s attempts to improve productivity in organization. McGregor was trying to stimulate people to examine the reasons underlying the way they tried to influence human activity, particularly at work. He saw management thinking and activity as based on two very different sets of assumptions about people. These sets of assumptions, called X and Y, have come to be applied to management styles? e.g., an individual is a theory X manager or a theory Y manager.
McGregor looked at the various approaches to managing people in organizations-not only industrial organizations but others as well as services, schools, and public agencies and concluded that the styles or approaches to management used by people in positions of authority could be examined and understood in the light of those managers’ assumptions about people. He suggested that a manager's effectiveness or ineffectiveness lay in the very subtle, frequently unconscious effects of these assumptions on his attempts to manage or influence others.
As he looked at the behaviours, structures, system and policies set up in some organizations, he found them contrary to information coming out of research at that time: information about human behaviour and the behaviour of people at work. It appeared that management was based on ways of looking at people that did not agree with what behavioural scientists knew and were learning about people as they went about their work in some, or perhaps most organizations. THEORY X
The traditional view of man widely held, was labelled 'X' and seemed to be based on the following set of assumptions.
a) The average human being has an inherent dislike for work, and will avoid it if he can.
b) Because of this human characteristic of dislike for work, most people must be coerced,
controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of organizational objectives.
c) The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has
relatively little ambition and wants security above all.
Of course, these assumptions are not set out or stated, but if we examine how organizations are structured and policies, procedures, and work rules established, we can see them operating. Job responsibilities are closely spelled out, goals are imposed without individual employee involvement or consideration, reward is contingent on working with the system, and punishment falls on those who deviate from the rules as established. These factors all influence how people respond, but the underlying assumptions or reasons for them are seldom tested or even recognised as assumptions. The fact is that most people act as if their belief about human nature were correct and required no study or checking.
This set of assumptions about people may result in very contrasting styles of management. We may see 'Hard' or a 'Soft' approach to managing, but both approaches will be based on those ideas set out above. One theory 'X' manager may drive his men as their work because he thinks that they are lazy and that this is the only way to get things done. Another may look at his men in the same way, but he may think the way to get lazy, people to work is to be nice to them, to coax productive activity out of them.
This view of man was characteristic of the first half of the twentieth century, which had seen the effects of Frederick Taylor's scientific management school of thought. His focus had been on man as an aspect of the productive cycle much like that of a piece of machinery, and it had allowed for advances in productivity. Yet, it was out of this managerial climate that tended to view man as an interchangeable part of a machine-as a machine element that was set in motion by the application of external forces-that the 'human relations' view grew and the behavioural science school developed.
It must be hastened to add that the application of understandings of human behaviour from the behavioural sciences is not an extension of the human relations focus of the 1940's and 1950's. These two grew up separately. One might construe that the human relations view of handling people prevalent at that time was manipulative and merely a soft theory 'X' approach.
THEORY Y
Another view of man not necessarily the opposite extreme of 'X' was called Y or Theory 'Y’. This set of assumptions about the nature of man which influenced manager behaviours is set out below.
i) The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as play or rest.
ii) External control and threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing about effort toward organizational objectives. Man will exercise self control in the service of objective to which he is committed.
iii) Commitment to objectives is dependent on rewards associated with their achievement.
The most important rewards are those that satisfy needs for self respect and personal improvement.
iv) The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept, but also to shed responsibility.
v) The capacity to exercise relatively high degree of imagination and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly distributed in the population. vi) Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized.
It is important to realise that this is not a soft approach to managing human endeavour. Examined closely it can be seen as a very demanding style? it set high standards for all and expects people to reach for them. It is not only hard on the employee who may not have had any prior experience with the managerial behaviours resulting from these assumptions but it also any prior experience with the managerial behaviour resulting from these assumptions, but it also demands a very different way of acting from the supervisor or manager who has grown up under at least some of the theory. X influences our culture. While we can intellectually understand and agree with some of these ideas, it is for more difficult to put them into practice. Risk-taking is necessary on the part of the manager, for he must allow employees or subordinates to experiment with activities for which he may feel they do not presently have the capability. The learning and growth resulting from this opportunity may handsomely reward the risk.
The focus of a Y manager is on man as a growing, developing learning being, while an X manager views man as static, fully developed and capable of little change. A theory X manager sets the parameters of his employees’ achievements by determining their potentialities in the light of their uses of errors for learning better way of operating rather than
as clubs for forcing submission to the system. He structures work so that an employee can have a sense of accomplishment and personal growth. The motivation comes from the work itself and provides a much more powerful incentive than the 'externals' of theory of X.
A suggestion for your consideration is to make the same assumptions about others that you make about yourself, and then act in appropriate manner.
Leadership Styles: The opinions, attitudes and assumptions people make regarding the accomplishment of goals through others may be considered to reflect a general leadership philosophy. Leadership behaviour changes from individual to individual on the following parameters - viz., philosophy, planning and goal setting, implementation, evaluation etc. Robert Tannenbaum and Warren H.Schmidt in HBR classics discussed the issue whether a manager (leader) should be democratic or autocratic or something in between? They have exhibited it on a continuum as shown below:
The Leadership Continuum Model of Tannebaum and Schmidt (1973) suggests that autocratic leaders are more likely to make their own decisions and not engage their subordinates, whereas a more democratic leader (laissez-faire manager) gives subordinates a greater degree of delegation in decision-making.
In 1938, Lewin and Lippitt proposed classifications of leaders based on how much involvement leaders placed into task and relationship needs. This range of leadership
behaviours was expressed along a continuum by Tannebaum & Schmidt in 1973, ranging from boss-centred (task) to subordinate-centred (relationship).
To choose the most appropriate style and use of authority, the leader must consider:
i) Forces in the manager: Belief in team member participation and confidence in
capabilities of members.
ii) Forces in the subordinate: Subordinates who are independent, tolerant of ambiguity, competent, identify with organizational goals.
iii) Forces in the situation: Team has requisite knowledge, team holds organizational values and traditions, and teams work effectively.
iv) Time pressure: Need for immediate decision under pressure militates against participation.
Advantages of the Leadership Continuum Model include:
i) Gives managers a range of choices for involvement.
ii) Presents criteria for involvement and delegation.
iii) Focuses decision maker on relevant criteria (e.g., forces & time).
iv) Emphasizes employee development and empowerment.
v) Is heuristic--encourages research to see how effective delegation may be under the model.
Some limitations of the Leadership Continuum theory:
i) Involves only the initial step of assigning a task to someone, not the following processes
that may determine the effectiveness of the outcome.
ii) Assumes the manager has sufficient information to determine disposition to self or team. iii) Assumes "neutral" environment without social bonds or politics.
iv) Simplifies complex decisions to a two-polar dimension? more simple than reality is.
The following table shows different styles of a Leader:
Average Manager Time Leader
Aspect of
Leadership
1. Responsibility Accepts it Seeks it
2. Risk Taking Avoids It Consciously accepts it when
payoff is high.
3. Status Demands respect due Gains respect due to
to position. achievement.
4. Getting results Motivates others
with external means.
Motivates others internally.
5. Goals Follows
organisational
objectives. Follows both personal and corporate goals.
6. Use of Rules Conforms strictly to
established rules. Will violate rules in certain circumstances.
7. Relationship
with
subordinates Protects self at all
costs.
Protects followers often at own
expense.
8. Relationship
with superiors Accommodates
superiors in all cases
Fights if necessary especially
for subordinates.
9. Control Is controlled by the
environment
Controls the environment
Self Assessment Questions IV
1. If there is no ……………there is no ‘leader’.
2. Basically a leader should have the skills of …………..in his followers and to manage
differences.
3. ……………assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are
born, not made.
4. …………….assumes that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them
better suited to leadership.
5. ……….focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine
which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation.
15.6 Managerial Grid
Robert Blake, an eminent behavioural scientist differentiated the leaders on the basis of their concern to people and concern to task. He along with Jane Mouton conducted study on 5000 managers. He puts it on a grid called Managerial Grid as follows:
The Managerial Grid Model (1964) is a behavioural leadership model developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton. This model identifies five different leadership styles based on the concern for people and the concern for production. The optimal leadership style in this model is based on Theory Y.
As shown in the figure, the model is represented as a grid with concern for production as the X-axis and concern for people as the Y-axis? each axis ranges from 1 (Low) to 9 (High). The five resulting leadership styles are as follows:
1. The impoverished style (1, 1). The indifferent Leader (Evade & Elude)
In this style, managers have low concern for both people and production. Managers use this style to avoid getting into trouble. The main concern for the manager is not to be held responsible for any mistakes, which results in less innovative decisions.
A leader uses a "delegate and disappear" management style. Since they are not committed
to either task accomplishment or maintenance? they essentially allow their team to do
whatever it wishes and prefer to detach themselves from the team process by allowing the team to suffer from a series of power struggles.
Features
1. Does only enough to preserve job and job seniority.
2. Gives little and enjoys little.
3. Protects himself by not being noticed by others.
Implications
1. Tries to stay in the same post for a long time.
Examples of Leader speak:
“I distance myself from taking active responsibility for results to avoid getting entangled in problems.”
“If forced, I take a passive or supportive position.”
2. The country club style (1, 9). The accommodating Leader (Yield & Comply)
This style has a high concern for people and a low concern for production. Managers using this style pay much attention to the security and comfort of the employees, in hopes that this would increase performance. The resulting atmosphere is usually friendly, but not necessarily that productive.
This person uses predominantly reward power to maintain discipline and to encourage the team to accomplish its goals. Conversely, they are almost incapable of employing the more punitive coercive and legitimate powers. This inability results from fear that using such powers could jeopardize relationships with the other team members.
Examples of Leader speak:
“I support results that establish and reinforce harmony.”
“I generate enthusiasm by focusing on positive and pleasing aspects of work.”
3. The produce or perish style (9, 1). The Controlling Leader (Direct & Dominate)
With a high concern for production, and a low concern for people, managers using this style find employee needs unimportant? they provide their employees with money and expect performance back. Managers using this style also pressure their employees through rules and punishments to achieve the company goals. This dictatorial style is based on Theory X of Douglas McGregor, and is commonly applied by companies on the edge of real or perceived failure. This is used in case of crisis management.
People who get this rating are very much task-oriented and are hard on their workers (autocratic). There is little or no allowance for co-operation or collaboration. Heavily task-oriented people display these characteristics: they are very strong on schedules? they expect people to do what they are told without question or debate? when something goes wrong they tend to focus on who is to blame rather than concentrate on exactly what is wrong and how to prevent it? they are intolerant of what they see as dissent (it may just be someone's creativity), so it is difficult for their subordinates to contribute or develop.
Examples of Leader speak:
“I expect results and take control by clearly stating a course of action.”
“I enforce rules that sustain high results and do not permit deviation.”
4. The middle-of-the-road style (5, 5). The Status – Quo Leader. (Balance & Compromise)
Managers using this style try to balance between company goals and workers' needs. By giving some concern to both people and production, managers who use this style hope to achieve acceptable performance.
Examples of Leader speak:
“I endorse results that are popular but caution against taking unnecessary risk.”
“I test my opinions with others involved to assure ongoing acceptability.”
5. The team style (9, 9). The Sound / Team Leader (Contribute & Commit)
In this style, high concern is paid both to people and production. As suggested by the propositions of Theory Y, managers choosing to use this style encourage teamwork and commitment among employees. This method relies heavily on making employees feel as
a constructive part of the company.
This type of person leads by positive example and endeavours to foster a team environment in which all team members can reach their highest potential, both as team members and as people. They encourage the team to reach team goals as effectively as possible, while also working tirelessly to strengthen the bonds among the various members. They normally form and lead some of the most productive teams.
Examples of Leader speak:
“I initiate team action in a way that invites involvement and commitment.”
“I explore all facts and alternative views to reach a shared understanding of the best solution.”
Grid Relationship Skills
The Grid theory translates into practical use through Grid style relationship skills that people experience day in and day out when they work together. These relationship skills depict the typical and vital behaviours for each style that make relationships effective or ineffective. Some behaviour strengthens and motivates teams while others obstruct progress.
· Critique - Learning from experience by anticipating and examining how behaviour and actions affect results.
· Initiative - Taking action to exercise shared effort, drive, and support for specific activities.
· Inquiry- Questioning, seeking information, and testing for understanding.
· Advocacy- Expressing attitudes, opinions, ideas, and convictions.
· Decision-making- Evaluating resources, criteria, and consequences to reach a decision.· Conflict Resolution - Confronting and working through disagreements with others toward resolution.
· Resilience - Reacting to problems, setbacks, and failure, and understanding how these factors influence the ability to move forward.
Grid theory makes behaviours as tangible and objective as any other corporate commodity. By studying each of the seven Leadership Grid styles and the resulting relationship skill behaviours, teams can examine, in objective terms, how behaviours help or hurt them. They can explore types of critique that work best for them and why. They can openly discuss how to improve decision-making and conflict resolution skills. These and other subjects usually considered "off limits" in terms of productivity are the very subjects that usually impede productivity. The Grid approach makes these subjects not only "discussable" but measurable in objective terms that generate empathy, motivation to improve, and creativity.
The most desirable place for a leader to be along the two axes at most times would be a 9 on task and a 9 on people -- the Team Leader. However, do not entirely dismiss the other three. Certain situations might call for one of the other three to be used at times. For example, by playing the Impoverished Leader, you allow your team to gain self-reliance. Be an Authoritarian Leader to instil a sense of discipline in an unmotivated worker. By carefully studying the situation and the forces affecting it, you will know at what points along the axis you need to be in order to achieve the desired result.
Leadership Exercise:
How to check what type of leader you are? Do the following exercise?
This is a quick self-quiz to give you some feedback on your predominant leadership style. Instructions: Read each item carefully. Rate yourself on how frequently you engage in this behaviour.
Scale: 4=Always 3=Often 2=Occasionally 1= Seldom 0=Never
1. Finds time to listen to group members.
4 3 2 1 0
2. Makes sure group members are working up to their fullest capacity.
4 3 2 1 0
3. Directs the activities of group members on particular tasks.
4 3 2 1 0
4. Looks out for group members' personal welfare.
4 3 2 1 0
5. Shows willingness to make changes in leadership approach (es).
4 3 2 1 0
6. Emphasizes the meeting of deadlines.
4 3 2 1 0
7. Solicits group input in important decisions.
4 3 2 1 0
8. Emphasizes the maintenance of definite standards or performance.
4 3 2 1 0
9. Supports group members in their actions.
4 3 2 1 0
10. Makes personal position clear.
4 3 2 1 0
Scoring:
· Add items 1, 4, 5, 7, 9 Total Relationship Score _____
· Add items 2, 3, 6, 8, 10 Total Task Score _____
Plot the intersection of your total relationship and total task scores on the grid below.
P A
S
E 20
R T
I
C I P A T
I
N G 19
L L I
N
G 181716
15
14
1312
11
D E
L
E G A T I
N G 10
T E
L
L
I
N
G 9
8 7 6 5 4 3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Relationship Dimension is the vertical rating
Task Dimension is the horizontal rating
Types of Leaders
In 1939, a group of researchers led by psychologist Kurt Lewis set out to identify different styles of leadership. While further research has identified more specific types of leadership, this early study was very influential and established three major leadership styles. In the study, groups of schoolchildren were assigned to one of three groups with an authoritarian,
democratic, or laissez-fair leader. The children were then led in an arts and crafts project. Researchers then observed the behaviour of children in response to the different styles of leadership.
Authoritarian Leadership (Autocratic)
Authoritarian leaders provide clear expectations for what needs to be done, when it should be done, and how it should be done. There is also a clear division between the leader and the followers. Authoritarian leaders make decisions independently with little or no input from the rest of the group.
Researchers found that decision-making was less creative under authoritarian leadership. Lewis also found that it is more difficult to move from an authoritarian style to a democratic style than vice versa. Abuse of this style is usually viewed as controlling, bossy, and dictatorial.
Authoritarian leadership is best applied to situations where there is little time for group decision-making or where the leader is the most knowledgeable member of the group. Participative Leadership (Democratic)
Lewin’s study found that participative (democratic) leadership is generally the most effective leadership style. Democratic leaders offer guidance to group members, but they also participate in the group and allow input from other group members. In Lewin’s study, children in this group were less productive than the members of the authoritarian group, but their contributions were of a much higher quality.
Participative leaders encourage group members to participate, but retain the final say over the decision-making process. Group members feel engaged in the process and are more motivated and creative.
Delegative (Laissez-Fair)
Researchers found that children under delegative (laissez-fair) leadership were the least productive of all three groups. The children in this group also made more demands on the leader, showed little cooperation, and were unable to work independently.
Delegative leaders offer little or no guidance to group members and leave decision-making up to group members. While this style can be effective in situations where group members are highly qualified in an area of expertise, it often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation.