C ONSTITUTIONAL L AW (33Q S)
I.Judicial Power 司法权–Article III (15% of questions)
A.Requirement for Cases and Controversies –Justice Ability Doctrine
对普通公民不能用军事法院审理（即便他是军队的EMPLYEE)，除非民事法院被关了
1.Standing– whether the plaintiff is the proper party to bring the matter to the court for adjudication
自身因为第三人的原因受到伤害
a.Injury: P must allege & prove that he has been injured or imminently will be injured
P only may assert injures that he personally suffered
(i)P seeking injunctive or declaratory relief must show a likelihood of future harm– monetary
interests are the strongest form of injury
TIP: If Q asks which has the best standing, look to a P who has personally suffered an injury. Then
choose the one who has suffered an economic/monetary loss.
b.Causation & Redressability– P must allege & prove that D caused the injury, so that a favorable
court decision is likely to redress纠正 the injury (NO“advisory opinions”)
c.NO 3rd party standing– P cannot assert claims of others (3rd parties) who are not before the court
EXCEPTIONS:
(a)Close relationship between P & the injured 3rd party (e.g., abortion cases brought by doctors
on behalf of their patients)这个是指金钱关系上的密切，不是人身关系（比如W和H）
(b)Injured 3rd party is unlikely to be able to assert his own rights (e.g., criminal D’s can rai se
the rights of prospective juror in racial discrimination claim during jury selection)
(c)“Associational” standing– an organization may sue for its members, provided
-Members would have standing to sue
-Interests are germane密切相关to the organization’s purpose
-Neither the claim nor relief requires participation of individual members
d.NO generalized grievances –P must not be suing solely as a citizen or as a taxpayer interested in
having the government follow the law (e.g. sued to disclose CIA budget – no standing b/c suing
only as a citizen)
TIP: Exam will say “P is suing as a taxpayer”
(i)EXCEPTION – taxpayers have standing to challenge government expenditures as violating the
Establishment Clause只能根据TAX & SPENDING 条款
(ii)BUT, taxpayers lack standing to challenge government granting of property to religious institutions/ parochial schools
2.Ripeness现实的争议问题//避免法院过早介入– can you get declaratory judgment that a law is
unconstitutional? pre-enforcement review of a statute or regulation?
注意：看法律是不是已经通过了~~！！！Proposed//或者有过渡期(GRACE PERIOD)才执行的法律都属于未成熟的！！！
TIP: If Q talks about declaratory judgement, this is likely a ripeness issue.
a.Hardship will be suffered without pre-enforcement review: the greater the hardship, the more likely
the court will allow declaratory judgment
b.Fitness of the issues & the record for judicial review– does the fed court have all it needs to
decide the issue, or should it wait for more factual development? Is anything to be gained by
waiting for an actual prosecution?
3.Mootness正在进行的而未消失的– must be an ongoing injury (if events after the filing of the lawsuit
end P’s injury, it’s moot)
EXCEPTIONS:
(i)Wrong capable of repetition but evading review– e.g. an abortion case was decided after P had
her abortion because P could seek an abortion in the future (Roe v Wade)比如选举权等(ii)Voluntary cessation of offending practice, but D is legally free to resume it at any time
(iii)Class action suits won’t be dismissed as long as 1 member of the class has an ongoing injury
4.Political Question Doctrine– refers to allegations of constitutional violations that the federal courts
(and level) will not adjudicate (matters left to political branch or inherently incapable of judicial
resolution); e.g.:
a.Cases under the “republican form of government clause”
b.Challenges to the President’s conduct of foreign policy
c.Challenges to the impeachment & removal process
d.Challenges to partisan gerrymandering党派选区划分
B.Supreme Court Review 最高法院的裁判权
1.Appellate Jurisdiction
议会可以对其作为上诉法院的审判权作出限制的，但不能全部取消！！！！但不能对其作为原审法院的审判权作出限制，当然也不能扩大~如果是审理州最高法院上诉而来的案子，必须是涉及到联邦法律问题的（解释联邦法律和直接适用联邦法律都算）！！（州法律和联邦法律内容是不是一样无所谓）
如果联邦法院没法判断案子是不是涉及联邦问题，一般会DISMISS然后让州法院重审//如果确涉及到联邦问题，法院可以撤销，然后让州法院再根据州法律判。
a.Writ of Certiorari – all cases from (i) highest state courts, & (ii) U.S. federal court of appeals. 4
justices must agree to grant Certiorari in order for the case to be heard (completely discretionary)
b.Appeal – for decisions of 3-judge federal district courts (appeals skip the U.S. federal court of
appeals). Supreme Court is obligated to take the case. The scope of appellate is subject to limitation
of congress, though congress cannot take away as a whole.
2.Original Jurisdiction – suits between states & cases involving ambassadors//public minister//conselur
3.Exclusive jurisdiction – suits between states//involving a state
4.Final Judgment Rule - NO interlocutory review by Supreme Court – may hear cases only after there has
been a final judgment.
5.For Supreme Court to review a state court decision, there must NOT be an independent & adequate
state law ground of decision– Supreme Court will not hear a case only if the independent state ground is adequate by itself to support the decision
TIP: Rodney King sues in state court – state law battery claim and federal law civil rights claim and each
claim will result in the same amount of damages. P wins. D sues all the way up to Supreme Court. No good, because same judgment would occur from the state law ground even if the federal ground was overturned.
C.Lower Federal Court Review 低级联邦法院的审判权---对州的审判权
1.Federal courts may not hear suits against state governments (11th Amendment)
是指公民或外国政府起诉州~~！联邦和其他州是可以起诉州的
2.Sovereign immunity bars suits against states in state courts or federal agencies.
– EXCEPT
a.Waiver is permitted (i.e., the state consents)
b.States may be sued pursuant to federal laws adopted under §5 of the 14th Amendment– Congress
may adopt laws “to enforce” the 14th Amendment, limiting state sovereignty (like Title VII (1964
Civil Rights Act) cases)
c.Federal government may sue state governments–sovereign immunity doesn’t bar this
d.Suits against state officers are allowed;
可以起诉官员的，但国库不能赔付过去的损害；可以起诉要求未来的利益。
(i)State officers may be sued for injunctive relief;
(ii)State officers may be sued for money damages to be paid out of their own pockets
(iii)BUT, state officers may not be sued if it is the state treasury that will be paying retroactive damages
3.Abstention– federal courts may not enjoin pending state court proceedings
4.NOTE: Congress has exclusive control over the jurisdiction except the Supreme Court
======================================================================
II.Legislative Power立法权(10% if questions)
A.Enumerated & Implied Powers
1.Must be express or implied Congressional power
No general fed police power– there is, however, police power for MILD:
(i)M ilitary; (ii) I ndian reservations; (iii) Fed L ands and territories; (iv) D.C.
2.Necessary & proper clause
不能独立适用！！必须题干中出现另一个权力
– Congress can use any means not prohibited by the Constitution to carry out its authority (this clause
standing alone cannot support law, thus must work in conjunction with other power)
3.Taxing / Spending Power & the Commerce Clause 很重要
联邦本身是没有general police 的权力的，如果选项说基于其对公民安全、健康、福利的权力通常是错误的//州才有
对居住性的不动产征税：不能对印第安保留区
a.TAXING AND SPENDING POWER一般和general welfare 相联系
Congress may tax & spend for the general welfare as it sees fit – Congress may condition grants under
spending power even where it cannot directly regulate
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,merce Power– includes 3 things: 都关于洲际贸易权力很大；万金油//可以对州工人的工资
作出规定。
(i)May regulate the channels (places) of interstate commerce (highways, waterways, internet); or
(ii)May regulate the instrumentalities of, and persons or things in interstate commerce (trucks, phones, planes); or
(iii)May regulate activities that have a substantial effect on interstate commerce (it is legal to regulate amout of wheat farmers could grow for their own home consumption (b/c of
cumulative effect on commerce), however if it is non-economic activity, Congress cannot base
their decision on a cumulative effect)
4.10th Amendment as a limit on Congressional powers–all powers not granted to the US, nor prohibited
to the states, are reserved to the states, or to the people
a.Congress can’t compel state regulatory or legislative action– BUT Congress can induce state
action by attaching strings to grants
b.Congress may prohibit harmful commercial activity by state governments
c.Congress CAN preempt state/local actions by setting standards state/local governments must meet
5.Congress’ power under § 5 of the 14th Amendment
a.Congress may NOT create new rights or expand the scope of rights under §5 of the 14th
Amendment
b.Congress may only provide additional remedies for rights recognized by courts – those remedies
must be narrowly tailored (proportionate & congruent)
B.Delegation of Powers
委托权很广泛；但一旦授予给行政机关，且行政机关依法行使了权力；立法机关若要否决必须两院通过
1.Delegation of legislative powers–NO limit exists on Congress’ ability to delegate legislative power to
executive agencies or even to the judiciary (clear criteria & intelligible principles must be provided).
TIP: On exam, if Q says fed law is unconstitutional, it will never be because of delegation of legislative powers.
2.Legislative vetoes & Line-item vetoes（部分通过部分否决） are Unconstitutional –to enact a law,
need bicameralism两院制 & presentment to the President, who must then sign or veto the bill in its
entirety
a.Legislative veto立法否决违反三权分立– when Congress tries to overturn an executive action
without bicameralism or presentment with the vote of just 1 house of Congress (unconstitutional)
b.Line-item vetoes –President attempts to veto part of a bill and sign the rest of law (unconstitutional)
3.Congress can’t delegate executive power to itself or its officers– Congress can give its powers but
cannot take other’s powers (e.g. Congress may NOT appoint members of a commission or agency with administrative powers)
===========================================================================
III.Executive Power 行政权(10% if questions)
A.Foreign Policy
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,mander-in-Chief– President has broad powers to use troops in foreign countries (case
dismissed as political question or president wins because president has broad powers as commander in
chief in domestic affairs)
军事权是总统和议会分享的，前者可以因为任何原因派遣部队；后者有宣布战争权。
2.Foreign affairs– paramount power, but shared with Congress (non-justiciable & inappropriate for
judicial consideration); Congress has plenary绝对 power over foreign commerce
州法律若涉及到外国商业，可能无效
3.Treaties– agreements between the US & a foreign country that are negotiated by the President & are
effective when ratified by the Senate
- State laws that conflict with treaties are invalid - Treaties prevail over conflicting state laws.
- If a treaty conflicts with a federal statute, the one adopted last in time controls.
- If a treaty conflicts with the United States Constitution, it is invalid.
4.Executive agreements不需议会批准~~！只比州法律牛逼– an agreement between the US & a foreign
country that is effective when signed by the President & the head of the foreign nation; NO Senate
approval is required
- Executive agreements can be used for any purpose.
- Executive agreements prevail over conflicting state laws, but never over conflicting federal laws or
the Constitution.
B.Domestic Affairs
1.Appointment & removal power貌似没怎么出现过
a.Appointment Power:
(i)Officers – Senate must approve (e.g. ambassadors, fed judges, & officers of the US)
(ii)Inferior Officers – Congress may vest appointment in the President appointment
(a)Congress has some discretion in appointing inferior officers, & may vest the appointment
of independent counsel in the lower federal courts
(b)Congress may not give itself or its officers the appointment power (that power is executive)
(i.e. Congress cannot create a new executive agency where Congress appoints some of the
members)
b.Removal Power– unless removal is limited by statute, President may fire any executive branch
official
(i)For Congress to limit removal power, it must be an office where independence from the
President is desirable (i.e., it can limit removal of independent counsel, but not cabinet members) (ii)Congress cannot prohibit removal, but can limit removal to good cause– this applies even to officers who should be independent from the President
2.Impeachment & removal:
弹劾/民事审判和刑事审判因为一个事由加诸在同一个人身上不算“一事二理”
(i) the President, (ii) Vice President, (iii) fed judges & (iv) officers of the US can be impeached & removed
from office for treason, bribery or for high crimes & misdemeanors
a.I mpeachment doesn’t remove a person from office– it just means that there will be a trial in the
Senate
b.Impeachment by the House 众议院requires a majority vote, while conviction in Senate参议员
requires 2/3 vote
3.Executive Immunity – absolute immunity to civil suits for money damages while in office– BUT,
President does not have immunity for actions that occurred prior to taking office
4.Executive privilege–总统的文件和谈话有行政特权，但若有刑事案件的证据的需要，可能还是需
要公开。
议会根据立法需要而调查某些受保护的信息的权力也很宽泛//除非被调查人能证明其掌握的信息不可能成为议会立法的对象。
applies to presidential papers & conversations, but such privilege must yield to other government interests (not absolute) i.e. need for evidence in a criminal trial (Watergate)
5.Power to pardon赦免–只针对联邦/刑事案件//BUT not for impeachment
a.President may pardon only for fed crimes, NOT state crimes
b.President may pardon only for criminal liability, NOT civil liability
=========================================================== IV.Federalism (20% of questions)
A.Preemption –under supremacy clause federal law preempts state law, even if non-conflicting (4-6
questions on BAR)
1.Express preemption– if federal law is exclusive in a field, state & local law deemed preempted
2.Implied preemption–通常此时联邦的法律很全面或者有有一个全国性的机构负责执行；若议会
只针对某一事项的某一方面做出规定，则不算对州法律的排斥。
如果联邦法院已经PREEMPTION了，就算州是制定支持其的法律也不行//不行就是不行，跟州有没有COMPELLING INTEREST 没什么关系！！！
even if text of federal law is silent, implied preemption in 3 ways:
a.If federal & state law are mutually exclusive, fed law preempts state law –can’t comply with both
state & federal law, the fed law wins
ONE EXCEPTION –states can establish environmental (or health and safety) regulations stricter than federal law unless Congress clearly forbids it.
b.If state law impedes the achievement of a federal objective, fed law preempts state law
c.If Congress evidences a clear intent to preempt state law, fed law preempts state (i.e. Immigration
Law –any attempt by a state of local gov’t to regulate immigration is preempted)
3.States may not tax or regulate federal government activity–不能直接对联邦政府、机构征税；但可
以对联邦合同的另一方当事人征税，只要没有对联邦造成显著的负担。
a.“Inter-governmental immunities” means that the fed government is immune to unwanted state
taxation、
b.S tates can’t regulate fed eral government if this places a significant burden on fed activity (i.e. Fed
gov’t never has to comply with state pollution laws)
B.Full Faith & Credit 州与州之间– courts in one state must give full faith & credit to another state court
judgments, so long as:
1.Court that rendered the judgment had jurisdiction over the parties and the subject matter
2.Judgment was on the merits
3.Judgment is final
C.The Dormant Commerce Clause and the Privileges & Immunities Clause of Article IV
1.Definitions:
a.Dormant Commerce Clause对洲际贸易的限制违宪(DCC)– principle that state/local laws are
unconstitutional if they place an undue burden on interstate commerce (negative implication of
Commerce Clause)
先看有没有差别对待；再看有没有对洲际贸易造成过大的负担/和对州的利益进行比较。
b.Privileges & Immunities Clause of Article IV对他州的公民区别对待违宪(PIC) –“no state shall
deprive citizens of other states the privilege & immunities it accords its own citizens” (anti-
discrimination against out-of-staters)
2.ANALYSIS – Does the state or local law discriminate against out-of-staters?
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,w does NOT discriminate:
(i)PIC– NOT applicable
(ii)DCC – balancing test: if the law burdens interstate commerce, it violates the DCC if its burdens exceed its benefits (even if the law doesn’t discriminate, it can be stricken down as being too
burdensome)
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,w discriminates against out-of-staters:
(i)DCC violation if the law burdens interstate commerce,
(a)UNLESS it’s necessary to achieve an important government purpose中等审查
(b)Strong presumption against burdensome state law; helping in-staters is NEVER an important
government purposes; no less discriminatory alternative could achieve its important gov’t
objective
(c)Exceptions
-Congressional approval
-Market participant exception (state/local government may prefer its own citizens in
receiving benefits from government programs, or in dealing with government-owned
businesses). Examples:
- State Universities in NY can charge less tuition to NY residents – b/c regarded as gov’t
benefit program
- Cement factory owned by state charged less to in-state purchasers – ok b/c state is
market participant
(ii)PIC violation if the law discriminates against out-of-staters with regard (a) important economic activities ( ability to earn a livelihood), or (b) civil liberties 重要经济利益和自由权；工作权
肯定算
（a)For a license related to work, in-stater paid a small fee, while out-of-stater paid a large fee
– VIOLATION OF PIC//
(b)For a license related to hobby, in-stater paid a small fee, while out-of-stater paid a large fee
– THIS IS OK
(a)UNLESS it’s necessary to achieve an important government purpose:中等审查
(b)Corporations & aliens cannot use the privileges & immunities clause (only DCC could
apply)
(c)No less discriminatory means to achieve that purpose
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,parison of the DCC & the Privileges & Immunities Clause of Article IV:
DCC: Privileges & Immunities Clause:
-Not require discrimination against out-of-staters in order to apply
-Requires burden on interstate commerce -Corporations & aliens can sue under it -EXCEPTIONS:
(i) Congressional approval
(ii) market participant exception -Requires discrimination against out-of-states in order to apply
-Requires discrimination with regard to (i) civil liberties or (ii) important economic
activities
-Corporations & aliens can NOT sue under it
-NO exceptions
D.State Taxation of Interstate Commerce
1.Non-discriminatory state tax requirements
a.Substantial nexus to the state
b.Fair apportionment
c.May NOT use tax systems to help in-state business
2.Types of taxes
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,e Tax –tax on goods purchased outside of state, but used within state
b.Sales Tax - tax on sale of goods consummated within the state
c.Ad valorum taxes– taxes on assessed value of the property 不能针对运输途中的货物征收此税
(i)Commodities – valid if no longer in interstate commerce
(ii)Instrumentalities - (i) whether there is a taxable situs (or nexus), & (ii) whether the tax is fairly apportioned
d.“Doing business” taxes(privilege, occupation, franchise, occupational tax) – tax placed on some
activity
====================================================================== V.Structure of the Constitution’s Protection of Individual’s Liberties 对个人自由的保护(8% of questions)
A.Is There Government Action?
1.State action doctrine– the Constitution applies only to government action; private conduct need not
comply with the Constitution 公立学校的工作人员的行为就算州行为的。
a.Exclusive public functions--经营彩票不算公共目的的。
b.Significant state involvement–仅仅规制的比较厉害不算参与；仅有资金支持也不单独构成
state must affirmatively facilitate, encourage or authorize an allegedly unconstitutional act in order
for it to be state action
2.Congress, by statute, may (but not required) apply constitutional norms to private conduct:
a.13th Amendment can be used to prohibit race discrimination
(i)The ONLY Constitutional provision that directly applies to private conduct //但法律可以规定
若个人通过不当方式唆使公职人员违背此条款的亦可入罪。
(ii)TIP: Private discrimination doesn’t violate 13th Amendment itself but violates federal law adopted under this Amendment– only slavery can violate the 13th Amend.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,merce power can be used to apply Constitutional norms to private conduct–
c.Congress can NOT use § 5 of 14th Amendment to regulate private behavior– Congress can only
regulate state/local governments
3.EXCEPTIONS – situations where private conduct must comply with the Constitution
a.Public function exception(very narrow exception, doesn’t apply to private utilities since they are
not traditionally, exclusively run by the govt) – the Constitution applies if a private entity is
performing a task traditionally, exclusively done by the government (e.g. Company owned all the
land in the town – Jehovah witnesses were kicked out of the town, Here running the town is
traditionally done by the gov’t)
b.Entanglement牵连 exception– Constitution applies if the government affirmatively (i) authorizes,
(ii) encourages, or (iii) facilitates unconstitutional activity
(i)In such situations,
(a)EITHER the government must stop what it’s doing, OR
(b)The private party must be bound by the Constitution
(ii)Consider 7 examples
(a)Courts can’t enforce racially restrictive covenants//
(b)State action when government leases premises to a restaurant that racially discriminates//
(c)State action when government gives free books to private schools that racially discriminate
//
(d)NO state action when a private school, almost totally subsidized by government (99%
funded), fired a teacher because of her speech (government subsidy insufficient for a finding
of state action). Govt subsidy is insufficient for finding a state action.//
(e)NO state action when the NCAA suspended a basketball coach in a state school, because the
NCAA is a private organization so it doesn’t have to comply with the constitution.
(f)S tate action when a private entity regulates the state’s interscholasti c sports – this was an
intertwinement with government, because most of the schools were public (it’s different
from the NCAA case, because NCAA impacts all states, while the organization in this case
regulated only Tennessee’s sports)
(g)NO state action when private club with state liquor license discriminated based on race
B.Application of the Bill of Rights人权法案
1.Bill of Rights applies directly only to the federal government, BUT, it’s applied to state/local
governments through its incorporation into the due process clause of the 14th Amendment
2.Selective in-corporationists think only some apply to the states
3.Total in-corporationists think that ALL of the Bill of Rights applies to the state/local governments –
this doctrine won the debate, BUT, the following DO NOT apply to the states:
a.2nd Amendment right to bear arms (states can adopt any type of gun control they want)
b.3rd Amendment right to not have soldiers quartered.
c.5th Amendment right to grand jury indictment in criminal cases
d.7th Amendment right to jury trial in civil cases
e.8th Amendment right to excessive fines
C.Levels of Scrutiny
MEANS PURPOSE
Least
Restrictive
Alternative
Analysis?
Burden of
Proof?
Rational Basis Rationally
related
Legitimate
Conceivable
NO Challenger
Intermediate Scrutiny Substantially
related
Important
Actual
Uncertain
(probably yes)
Government
Strict Scrutiny Necessary Compelling
Actual
YES Government
==================================================================
VI.Due Process (8% of questions)
A.Procedural Due Process a fair process is required for government to individually take a person’s “life,
liberty, or property.”
1.Deprivation of life, liberty, or property?
a.Definitions:
(i)Deprivation of liberty家长轻微体罚孩子/学校纪律对程序没那么高的要求。– occurs if
there is the loss of a significant freedom provided by the Constitution or a statute – less obvious
examples of liberty include
(a)Except in an emergency, before an adult can be civilly committed, there must be notice and
a hearing
(b)When a parent institutionalizes a child, there only has to be a screening by a neutral
factfinder.
(c)Harm to reputation: by itself, is NOT a loss of liberty. Must show a tangible loss on top of
harm.
(d)Prisoners– rarely have liberty interests. Usually always lose
(ii)Deprivation of property–如果一份工作只能因为“CAUSE‘被解雇，则它构成财产；此时解雇需要通知；事先答辩的机会以及事后的证据听证。//私人老板下干的随时可能被解
雇，不存在DUE PROCESS
occurs if there is an entitlement & that entitlement isn’t fulfilled
b.Must be intentional or reckless government action for liability to exist
(i)Government negligence is NOT sufficient to state a claim under the due process clause.
(ii)“Shocks the conscience”– in emergency situations, the government is liable under due process only if the conduct shocks the conduct (reckless high speed chase by police not a violation of due process
– must shock)
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,ernment’s fa ilure to protect people from privately inflicted harms does NOT deny due process–
the government must literally create the danger in order for a duty to exist (Child beaten by father is not
violation of due process by Social Services)
2.What procedures are required?–balancing test
3.Examples
a.Types
Interests NOTICE
OPPTY
TO
RESPON
D
HEARING
Prior Subsequent
Institutionalization收容住
院 (adult)
Yes - Yes - // (child) Prior screening by “neutral factfinder”
Welfare benefits Yes - Yes
Disability benefits Yes Yes - Yes Public employment Yes Yes - Yes Public education
(disciplinary)
Yes Yes - - Termination of child
custody
Yes - Yes -
Civil Forfeitures Yes - Yes (real P) Yes (personal
P)
b.Other Examples:
(i)Punitive damages require instructions to the jury, & judicial review to ensure reasonableness
(ii)American citizen held as enemy combatant in another country is afforded due process.
(iii)Pre-judgment attachment & government seizure of assets requires notice & a hearing, except in exigent circumstances – Due Process does not require an innocent owner defense to government
seizure.
B.Substantive Due Process十四修正案只针对州！！！！！不针对联邦！！！！！比如合同权/针对外
国人的法律
1.Definition – whether government has adequate reason for taking away an individual’s life, l iberty or
property
2.Constitutional Source
a.14th Amendment applies only to state/local governments, NEVER to federal
b.Equal protection is applied to the fed government through the 5th Amendment
3.Economic liberties– Constitution provides only minimal protection for economic liberties
a.Rational basis test– used for laws affecting economic rights (e.g., minimum wage, other
regulations, state law regulating trades or professions, consumer protection laws)
b.Takings clause (separate test) – government may take private property for public use, but must
provide just compensation
(i)Is there a taking?
(a)Possessory taking就是墙上打个洞也算~~！
– government confiscation 没收or physical occupation of property is a taking, regardless of
size or amount
(b)Regulatory taking– government regulation is a taking if it leaves no reasonable
economically viable use of the property
-Not enough to show merely a decrease in the value of the property
-NOTE: apply rational basis PLUS the “roughly proportionate” test
→ Government conditions on development must be justified by a benefit to the
government that is roughly proportionate to the burden imposed – otherwise, it’s a
taking.
→ A property owner may bring a takings challenge to regulations that existed at the
time the property was acquired
→ Temporarily denying an owner use of property is not a taking so long as the
government’s action is reasonable (moratoriums)
(ii) Is it for public use ? 通常都是 (a) If not, the government must give property back
(iii) Is just compensation paid?
(a) Measured in terms of the loss to the owner (i.e., reasonable market value)
(b) Gain to the taker is irrelevant
c. Contracts clause -----只针对州！！议会就算损害了合同权益，也不能适用这一条区分私人合同（中等审查）和政府合同(严格审查）– “No state shall impair the obligations of contracts”
(i) Prohibits states from enacting any law that retroactively impairs contract rights
(a) – NEVER applies to federal government, which can be challenged only on due process
grounds
(b) Affects only already-existing contracts
(ii) State/local interference with private contracts must meet intermediate scrutiny (plus combining elements of rational basis):
(a) “Does the legislation substantially impair a party’s rights under an existing contract?
(b) “If so, is the law a reasonably & narrowly tailored means of promoting an important &
legitimate public interest?”
(iii) State/local interference with government contracts must meet strict scrutiny
(iv) Ex post facto clause does not apply in civil cases – 只针对刑事案件的
4. Privacy – fundamental rights protected under substantive due process (generally strict scrutiny test )
Strict Scrutiny (compelling reason) Not a fundamental right
(Rational Basis review)
- right to marry - right to procreate - right to custody of children - Caveat: If a married
woman has a child, it is an irrebutable child that the
woman’s husband is the father of the child. This is OK.
- right to keep family together (must be related to one
another)
- right to control raising of children – violates due process
to order grandparent visitation over parent’s objection
- right to purchase & use contraceptives
- right to travel (covered under Equal protection § VII-H)
- right to vote (covered under Equal protection § VII-H)
- right to practice a trade or profession
- right to physician-assisted suicide
- right to education
a.Undue Burden Test (right to abortion)
(i) Prior to viability – states may not prohibit abortions, but may regulate abortions so long as they do not create an undue burden on the ability to obtain abortions (24 hour waiting period, or
requirement that abortions be performed by licensed doctors are not unconstitutional)
(ii) After viability – states may prohibit abortions unless necessary to protect the woman’s life or
health
(iii) Government has no duty to subsidize abortions or provide them in public hospitals
(iv) Spousal consent & notification laws are unconstitutional
(v) Parental notice & consent laws for unmarried minors – state may require parental notice &/or consent for an unmarrie d minor’s abortion so long as it creates an alternative procedure where a
minor can obtain an abortion by going before a judge.
b. Unknown level of scrutiny
(i) Right to private, consensual homosexual sex
(ii) Right to refuse medical treatment :
(a) Competent adults have right to refuse medical treatment , even life-saving treatment or
food and water
(b) Ending treatment – state may require clear & convincing evidence that a person wanted
treatment terminated before it ended
(c) Terminating family members’ treatment – state may prevent family members from cutting
off treatment, because family members might have different interests than the patient
himself
(d) No right to physician assisted suicide.
================================================================
VII. Equal Protection (8% of questions ）十四修正案中的平等保护只针对州；联邦需要通过第五条适
用！！！
A. Constitutional Provisions Concerning Equal Protection (5th for fed government, 14th for states). Steps (1)
What is the classification (2) What is the scrutiny (3) Does the law meet the level of scrutiny 1. 14th Amendment applies only to state/local governments , NEVER applies to federal govt 2. Equal protection is applied to the fed government through the Due Process clause of the 5th Amendment
B. Classifications Based on Race and National Origin – strict scrutiny is used
1. Proving existence of a racial classification
a. Classification exists on the face of the law ; OR
b. If the law is facially neutral , proving a racial classification requires demonstrating both (i)
discriminatory impact & (ii) discriminatory intent
2. Racial classifications benefiting minorities – strict scrutiny is applied
a. Numerical set-asides (i.e., quotas) require clear proof of past discrimination. (Rarely allowed – only upheld once by Supreme Court – Every time a white person was hired, a black person had to be
hired – this was OK)
- freedom of speech (covered under Equal protection §
VIII) - freedom of association (covered under Equal protection
§ VIII)
- free exercise of religion (covered under Equal protection
§ VIII)
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,cational institutions may use race as one factor among many in admissions to help minorities.
However, they cannot set-aside slots or add points to admission scores solely based on race.
c.Seniority systems (“last hired, first fired”) may not be disrupted for affirmative action
C.Gender Classifications –intermediate level of scrutiny is used – must be exceedingly persuasive
justification.
1.Gender classifications benefiting women
a.Gender classifications benefiting women that are based on role stereotypes is NOT be allowed (i.e.
woman always gets survivor benefits but men only if they need it – UNCONSTITUTIONAL)
b.Gender classifications designed to remedy past discrimination & differences in opportunity is
allowed
D.Alienage Classifications –favorite area (1-2 questions)议会对外国人怎么规定都可以！！不适用平等
保护！！！！！州也有一个例外。
1.Generally, strict scrutiny is used (e.g., law said only US citizens could receive social security benefits
or hold civil service jobs or practice law – stricken down on strict scrutiny analysis), BUT:
2.Intermediate scrutiny is used for discrimination against undocumented alien children.
3.Rational basis is used for:
a.Alienage classifications that concern self-government & the democratic government– some
privileges can be reserved for US citizens only, namely: (i) voting, (ii) serving on a jury, (iii) being
a teacher, (iv) cop or (v) probation officer . Here the gov’t can discriminate against aliens.
b.Congressional discrimination against aliens– Congress has plenary power to regulate immigration.
If Congress discriminates against non-citizens, only a rational basis review.
E.Discrimination Against Non-Marital Children
1.Intermediate scrutiny is used (but almost always stricken down)
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,ws that deny a benefit to all non-marital children (kids whose parents are not married), but grant it to
all marital children, are unconstitutional.
F.Rational Basis Review(used for all other types of discrimination)
1.Age discrimination– mandatory retirement laws are often challenged, & government usually wins
2.Disability discrimination– one of the few times government lost in rational basis review (ban of
mental homes in towns was struck down by the courts under rational basis review
3.Wealth discrimination– poverty is NOT a suspect classification. Discrimination against poor is only
rational basis
4.Economic regulation –hot dog owners have to be there for 8 yrs - constitutional
5.Sexual orientation discrimination -
G.Fundamental Rights Protected under Equal Protection----投票时的居住限制不超过50天
1.Right to travel
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,ws that prevent people from moving into a state must meet strict scrutiny
b.Durational residency requirements (person must live in a jux for a specified amt of time in order to
get a benefit) must meet strict scrutiny – for voting, 50 days is maximum allowed durational
residence requirement
c.Restrictions on foreign travel need meet only the rational basis test – NOT a fundamental right
2.Right to vote
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,ws that deny some citizens the right to vote must meet strict scrutiny (e.g., poll taxes or property
ownership requirements are unconstitutional)
b.Only time the courts have ever upheld property ownership as a condition for voting or for holding
public office was a water district election.
c.One-person-one-vote must be met for all state/local elections –voter approval doesn’t justify
deviation from one-person-one-vote
d.At-large elections (all the voters vote for all the office holders) are constitutional –UNLESS there’s
proof of a discriminatory purpose
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,e of race in drawing election district lines (to benefit minorities by redrawing districts) must meet
strict scrutiny.
f.Counting uncounted votes without standards in a presidential election violates equal protection
(Gore-Bush).
3.Right to be a candidate– NOT constitutionally guaranteed
4.Right to education– NOT a fundamental right
1. What is the classification:
(a) Classification is on the face of the law; OR
(b) If law is facially neutral, there is both (i) discriminatory intent, AND (ii) discriminatory impact
2. What is the level of scrutiny:
Strict Scrutiny: Intermediate Scrutiny: Rational Basis Test:
Law must be necessary to achieve a compelling government purpose Law must be substantially
related to an important
government purpose
Law must be rationally related to a
legitimate government interest
-Race
-National origin
-Alienage (generally) -Travel (but not foreign travel)
-Voting -Gender
-Legitimacy
-Undocumented alien
children
-Alienage classifications related
to self-government & the
democratic process
-Congressional regulation of
aliens
-Age – Handicap –
Wealth
-All other classifications
3. Does the law meet the level of scrutiny?
========================================================================
The First Amendment (20% of questions and usually if there is ever an essay)
H.Free Speech Methodology //宣誓的话只能是忠诚类的或者是保证不是某个已知的以进行非法活动为
目的的组织的成员
政府官员的谈话内容如果影响其职责的履行，则不受此条的保护
1.Content-based v. Content-neutral restrictions:
a.Content-based restrictions on speech generally must meet strict scrutiny– 2 types
(i)Subject matter restrictions– application of the law depends on the topic of the speech
(ii)Viewpoint restrictions– application depends on the ideology of the message
b.Content-neutral laws burdening speech generally need only meet intermediate scrutiny– must:
(i)Further a significant government interest,
(ii) Narrowly tailored, AND
(iii) Leave open alternative channels of communication
2. Prior restraints – Judicial orders to stop speech before it occurs //事先禁止规制通常违宪，即使是为
了给被告提供公平的审判环境，需要证明这是唯一的方法。
关闭法庭需要OVERRIDING INTEREST.
只针对报社出版社的税收或是仅因为其刊登特定内容（包括广告）则需要COMPELLING
INTEREST. (worst form of restraint on free speech)
a. Court orders suppressing speech must meet strict scrutiny
(i) Procedurally proper court orders must be complied with until they are vacated or overturned – gag orders on press to prevent prejudicial pre-trial publicity are NOT allowed
(ii) Collateral bar rule – a person who violates a court order is later barred from challenging it
b. Government can require a license for speech, only if there is an important reason for licensing, &
clear criteria leaving almost no discretion to the licensing authority – licensing schemes must
contain procedural safeguards such as prompt determination of requests for licenses & judicial
review
3. Vagueness & overbreadth :
a. Vagueness – a law is unconstitutionally vague if not give reasonable notice of what is prohibited
b. Overbreadth – a law is unconstitutionally overbroad if it regulates substantially more speech than is necessary
c. F ighting words (likely to provoke a violent response) laws are unconstitutionally vague &
overbroad. HYPO: Appealing victim and nasty speaker – Answer is always that law prohibiting
fighting words is unconstitutional.
4. Symbolic speech –各种艺术表演形式都受此条保护~连镭射灯光表演都算哦，亲 the government
can regulate conduct that communicates IF (i) it has an important interest unrelated to suppression of the message, & (ii) the impact on communication is no greater than necessary to achieve the government’s purpose
5. Anonymous speech is protected – protect right not to speak
I. What Speech is Unprotected or Less Protected by the First Amendment
1. Incitement of illegal activity – government may punish speech if: (i) there’s a substantial likelihood of
imminent illegality, AND (ii) the speech is directed at causing the imminent illegality //
2. Obscenity & sexually-oriented Speech :
a. Obscenity Test
(i) appeal to the prurient interest (a “shameful or morbid interest in sex”) – local community
standard;
(ii) patently offensive under the law prohibiting obscenity – local community standard; AND Constitutionally protected: Constitutionally NOT protected:
- Flag burning - Burning of cross (unless there is intent to threaten) - Contribution limits for election campaigns
- Draft card burning
- Nude dancing
- Expenditure limitations
(iii)lack serious redeeming artistic, literary, political or scientific value– national standard
b.Zoning Permissible– government may use zoning ordinances to regulate the location of adult
bookstores & movie theaters---REDUCE SECOND EFFECT (Erogenous Zoning is permissible)
c.Child pornography– can be completely banned, even if not obscene. To be child pornography, it
must be children , not adults that look like children or computer generated images)
d.Punish private possession of obscene materials NOT allowed – BUT, may punish private possession
of child pornography
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,ernment may seize the assets of businesses convicted of violating obscenity laws
f.Profane & indecent speech– generally protected by the 1st Amendment, EXCEPT:
(i)broadcast media– broadcast is uniquely intrusive into the home, CAN censor profanity,
(EXCEPT for cable television and internet which people choose to bring into their homes) (ii)in schools (schools can punish profane and indecent language, including sexual innuendo)
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,mercial speech:
a.False & deceptive ads– NOT protected by the 1st Amendment
b.True commercial speech that inherently risks deception can be prohibited:
(i)Government may prohibit professionals from advertising or practicing under a trade name
(ii)Government may prohibit attorney, in-person solicitation of clients for profit – BUT, if lawyers offer services for free or by letters, they can solicit
(iii)Government may NOT prohibit accountants from in-person solicitation of clients for profit
c.Other commercial speech can be regulated if intermediate scrutiny is met (cannot solicit accident
victims for 30 days was upheld)
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,mercial speech regulation must be narrowly tailored, but NOT need to be least restrictive
alternative
4.Defamation– not protected, but the ability of a state to limit recovery is limited
actual malice – knew the statement was false or acted with reckless disregard for the truth
Plaintiff Liability
Standard
Damages Burden of Proof
Public official (or running for office) actual malice
compensatory
presumed/punitive
P must prove falsity by clear and
convincing evidence
Public figure actual malice
compensatory
presumed/punitive
P must prove falsity by clear and
convincing evidence
Private figure (matter of public concern)
negligence
compensatory for actual
injury;
P must prove falsity and
negligence on the part of the
speaker
actual malice
Presumed/punitive damages
require actual malice
Private figure (matter of private concern)
unclear
(negligence)
compensatory for actual
injury Unclear
(burden on D to prove truth) Presumed/punitive damages
do not require actual malice
5. Privacy
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,ernment may NOT create liability for the truthful reporting of information that was lawfully
obtained from the government
b.L
iability is NOT allowed if the media broadcasts a tape of an illegally intercepted call, IF: (i) the
media did not participate in the illegality, & (ii) it involves a matter of public importance
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,ernment may limit its dissemination of information to protect private, but NOT in criminal trials
–only the press have 1st Amendment right in pre-trial criminal proceeding
6.Other government restrictions based on the content of speech – must meet strict scrutiny
J.What Places are Available for Speech
1.Public forums– government properties that the government is required to make available for speech
(e.g. streets, sidewalks & parks)
政府大楼外墙即使允许做广告，它也不构成公共区域
a.Regulations must be subject matter & viewpoint neutral
b.Regulations must be a time, place, or manner regulation that serves an important government
purpose & leaves open adequate alternative places for communication (i.e. No trucks with sound
amplification equipment allowed in residential areas at night -UPHELD)
c.Narrowly tailored– government regulation of public forums need not use the least restrictive
alternative(e.g., city ordinance said concert in the park required city engineers for sound system –
this is ok, because need not be least restrictive alternative)
d.City officials can NOT have discretion to set permit fees for public demonstrations
2.Limited/designated public forums– government properties that the government could close to speech,
but chooses to open to speech; so long as government chooses to open property for speech, it must
follow all of the above rules (i.e. school facilities are non-public forums in the evenings and on the
weekends – Congress can open the place as a limited public forum)
3.Non-public forums– government properties that the government constitutionally can & does close to
speech绝大多数公共财产都不是PUBLIC的，对其的限制只要观点中立，有合法目的就行
https://www.doczj.com/doc/42137796.html,ernment can regulate so long as the regulation on time, place & manner is (i) reasonable
(rational basis), & (ii) viewpoint neutral
b.Non-public forums include:
(i)military bases
(ii)areas outside prisons & jails
(iii)advertising space on city buses
(iv)sidewalks on post office property
(v)airports – may prohibit money solicitation; can NOT prohibit distribution of literature (fails rational basis review
4.Private property– NO 1st Amendment right of access to private property (i.e. Shopping centers) for
speech purposes
Subject matter neutral Viewpoint
neutral
Method of regulation
allowed
Interest
required
Public forums
&
Limited/designated public
forums YES YES
time, place, or manner
(i) open adequate
alternative place
(ii) narrowly tailored
(NOT least
restrictive)
importan
t
Non-public forums NO YES reasonable legitimat
e
K. Freedom of Association
1. Laws that prohibit or punish group membership must meet strict scrutiny – to punish membership in a
group, it must be proven that the person (i) actively affiliated with the group, (ii) knowing of its illegal activities, & (iii) with the specific intent of furthering those illegal activities.
2. Laws that require disclosure of group membership , where such disclosure would chill association, must
meet strict scrutiny
3. Laws that prohibit a group from discriminating are constitutional , UNLESS they are
a. Intimate association (e.g., if you’re not invited to a small dinner party, you can’t sue), OR
b. Expressive activity – discrimination is an integral part of the association (e.g., the KKK who have an anti-black message or Boy Scouts who had anti-gay message)
L. Freedom of Religion
1. Free exercise clause :
a. Prohibits government interference with religious beliefs
- Members of the clergy can hold government office
b. Allow regulation of general applicability (conduct)
- Exception – Unemployment compensation (government may not deny benefits to individuals
who quit their job for religious reasons)
2. Establishment clause :
a. Prohibits laws respecting the establishment of religion
b. Test (SEX) (if any of these three are violated, it violates the Establishment Clause):
(i) Must be a S ecular purpose for the law (e.g., 10 commandments can’t be posted on public
schools)
(ii) E ffect must be neither to advance nor inhibit 抑制religion – government can’t symbolically
endorse religion, or a particular religion
- “plastic reindeer rule” – if there are religious symbols accompanied by symbols from other
religions, AND secular symbols (i.e plastic reindeer), that’s ok
(iii) Must not be e X cessive entanglement with religion – government can’t pay salaries of parochial school teachers because that would require too much supervision
c. Government can’t discriminate against religious speech or among religions, unless strict scrutiny is met
d. Government sponsored religious activity in public schools is unconstitutional (i.
e., school prayer, even moments of silence are unconstitutional, clergy 神职人员 delivered prayers at school
graduations not allowed, student delivered prayers at football games not allowed), BUT religious student & community groups must have the same access to school facilities as non-religious groups
e. Government may give assistance to parochial schools – so long as the money isn’t used for
private property NO 1st Amendment Right to use private property for speech purposes
religious instruction.
C ONSTITUTIONAL L AW –E SSAY Q UESTIONS
I.Q UESTION –76(&C RIMINAL L AW/P ROCEDURE)
A.Whether a disorderly conduct statute that prohibits “inciteful behavior” is overbroad
B.Whether the obscenity statute sufficiently defines or has been construed to sufficiently define “obscenity”II.Q UESTION –17(&NY P RACTICE &T ORTS)
A.Whether due process is applicable in administrative proceeding
1.5th & 14th Amendment – due process contemplates fair process and procedure, and requires at least an
opportunity to present objections to the proposed action to a fair, neutral decision-maker
2. D is entitled to a “trial-type” hearing
a.Order will be based on adjudicative facts
b.Number of parties to whom notice and opportunity to be heard would have to be given is not
impractically large
c.Agency action deprives the party of liberty or property
d.And includes the right of cross-examination
2000年全国律师资格考试（试卷二） 说明：本试卷为标准化试卷，试题部分和答题部分分开。考生阅读试题及试题所给的选项后，应在所附的答题卡上依要求作答，请勿在试题上作答。 一、单项选择题。每题所给的选项中只有一个正确的答案。请将所选答案填涂在答题卡上。 1、王某从某商场购得一电暖器（商场未声明有质量问题），放置一年半后使用时因漏水而受伤，为此花去医疗费3000元。根据诉讼时效的规定，王某起诉获法院支持应根据下列保法？ A、《民法通则》 B、《产品质量法》 C、《合同法》 D、《民法通则》或《产品质量法》 2、张甲（20岁）与张乙（14岁）走到张丙家门口，见张丙家门口卧着一条花狗睡觉，张甲对张乙说，你拿一块石头去打花狗，看它有何反应，张乙照此办量。花狗被打以后朝乙追去乙见势不妙忙躲在迎面走来的张丁的身后，花狗咬伤了张丁。张丁为此花去医药费500元。对此费用应如何承担？ A、主要由张丙承担，张乙的监护人承担适当部分 B、主要由张乙的监护人承担，张丙承担适当部分 C、主要由张甲承担，张乙的监护人承担适当部分 D、主要由张乙的监护人承担，张甲承担适当部分 3、甲、乙合伙经营鸭绒业务，甲提供厂房，乙提供鸭绒。双方请求丙以技术性劳务入伙，丙未予明确答复，但丙提供了技术性劳务，并参与了当年的分红，分红比例4:4:2。第二年因经营亏损，负债高达10万元。对该债务承担发生分歧，丙认为自己不是合伙人，拒绝承担该债务。为此，诉至法院。该债务应如何承担？ A、甲、乙、丙对该债务承担按份责任 B、甲、乙、丙对该债务承担连带责任 C、甲、乙对该债务承担连带责任 D、甲、乙对该债务承担按份责任 4、某报社在一篇新闻报道中披露未成年人甲是乙的私生子，致使甲倍受同学的嘲讽与奚落，甲因精神痛苦，自残左手无名指，给甲的学习和生活造成重大影响。按照我国现有法律规定，对该报社的行为应如何认定？ A、是如灾报道，不构成侵权 B、侵害了甲的名誉权 C、侵害了甲的姓名权 D、侵害了甲的身体权 5、甲为一乘客（老烟民，熟知烟的价格），乙为一小贩。乙在火车车厢叫卖："红塔山香烟，10元钱一条"甲欣然买之。经查，该烟为假烟，甲与乙之间的行为性质应如何认定？ A、无效民事行为，理由为欺诈 B、可撤销民事行为，理由为欺诈 C、无效民事行为，理由是违反法律规定 D、有效民事行为，。理由是双方达成合意 6、1995年6月17日余某所乘的客轮触礁沉没，生死不明。余某的利害关系人若申请宣告余某死亡，最早应是哪一天才能向法院提出申请？ A、1997年6月17日 B、1997年6月18日
2014司考宪法辅导：选举的基本原则 2014司考宪法辅导：选举的基本原则。在司法考试复习期间，主要复习基础知识，法律教育网为考生整理了宪法的名师讲义，本文主要讲解选举的基本原则。 （一）普遍性原则 1.享有选举权的基本条件（《中华人民共和国全国人民代表大会和地方各级人民代表大会选举法》第3条） （1）具有中国国籍； （2）年满18周岁； （3）依法享有政治权利。 2.下面三种情况不享有选举权和被选举权： ①依法被剥夺政治权利的人（《选举法》第3条第2款） ②精神病患者不能行使选举权利的，经选举委员会确认而不列入选民名单。（《选举法》第26条） ③因犯违反国家安全罪或其它严重刑事犯罪案件被羁押、正在受侦查、起诉、审判的人，经人民法院或者人民检察院决定，在被羁押期间停止行使选举权利。 （二）平等性原则 又称一人一票原则，我国选举在相同的地域基本上都是一人一票，每一票的效力相等。平等性原则主要表现在： 1.除法律规定当选人应具有的条件外，选民平等享有选举权和被选举权； 2. 在一次选举中选民平等地拥有相同的投票权 3.每一代表所代表的选民人数相同；法律敎育网 4. 一切代表在代表机关具有平等的法律地位； 5.对在选举中处于弱者地位的选民进行特殊的保护性规定，也是选举权平等性的表现。 （三）直接选举和间接选举并用原则（《选举法》第2条） 1.由选民直接投票选举国家代表机关代表和国家公职人员的是直接选举；不是由选民直接投票选出，而是由下一级国家代表机关，或者由选民投票选出的代表选举上级国家代表机关的代表和国家公职人员的是间接选举。 2.在我国，不设区的市、市辖区、县、自治县、乡、民族乡、镇的人民代表大会的代表，由选民直接选举。而其余级别的人大代表的选举都由下一级人民代表大会选举。 （四）秘密投票原则（《选举法》第36条） （1）秘密投票或称无记名投票，选举人在选举时只需在正式代表候选人姓名下注明同意或不同意，也可以另选他人或弃权，而无需署名。选票填好后亲手投入票箱。选举人的意思是不公开进行的，他人无权干涉，也无从干涉。 1 / 1
律师执业管理办法2020 律师执业管理办法全文最新细则 第一章总则 第一条为了规范律师执业许可，保障律师依法执业，加强对律师执业行为的监督和管理，根据《中华人民共和国律师法》(以下简称《律师法》)和其他有关法律、法规的规定，制定本办法。 第二条律师是指依法取得律师执业证书，接受委托或者指定，为当事人提供法律服务的执业人员。 第三条律师通过执业活动，应当维护当事人合法权益，维护法律正确实施，维护社会公平和正义。 第四条律师依法执业受法律保护，任何组织和个人不得侵害律师的合法权益。 司法行政机关和律师协会应当依法维护律师的执业权利。 第五条司法行政机关依照《律师法》和本办法的规定对律师执业进行监督、指导。 律师协会依照《律师法》、协会章程和行业规范对律师执业实行行业自律。 第二章律师执业条件 第六条申请律师执业，应当具备下列条件： (一)拥护中华人民共和国宪法; (二)通过国家统一司法考试取得法律职业资格证书; (三)在律师事务所实习满一年;
(四)品行良好。 实行国家统一司法考试前取得的律师资格证书，在申请律师执业时，与法律职业资格证书具有同等效力。 享受国家统一司法考试有关报名条件、考试合格优惠措施，取得法律职业资格证书的，其申请律师执业的地域限制，按照有关规定办理。 申请律师执业的人员，应当按照规定参加律师协会组织的实习活动，并经律师协会考核合格。 第七条申请兼职律师执业，除符合本办法第六条规定的条件外，还应当具备下列条件： (一)在高等院校、科研机构中从事法学教育、研究工作; (二)经所在单位同意。 第八条申请特许律师执业，应当符合《律师法》和国务院有关条例规定的条件。 第九条有下列情形之一的人员，不得从事律师职业： (一)无民事行为能力或者限制民事行为能力的; (二)受过刑事处罚的，但过失犯罪的除外; (三)被开除公职或者被吊销律师执业证书的。 第三章律师执业许可程序 第十条律师执业许可，由设区的市级或者直辖市的区(县)司法行政机关受理执业申请并进行初审，报省、自治区、直辖市司法行政机关审核，作出是否准予执业的决定。 第十一条申请律师执业，应当向设区的市级或者直辖市的区(县)司法行政机关提交下列材料： (一)执业申请书;
2000年全国律师资格考试试题（试卷一） 一、单项选择题。每题所给的选项中只有一个正确答案。请将所选答案填涂在答题卡上。1．根据《中华人民共和国立法法》的规定，下列哪一项属于地方性法规可以规定的事项？（A） A．执行法律、行政法规规定的事项 B．执行部门规章的事项 C．诉讼和仲裁制度 D．基层群体自治制度 2．根据我国《宪法》规定，下列选择哪个是全国人民代表大会常务委员会有权进行部分修改的规范性法律文件？（C） A．宪法 B．香港特别行政区的法律 C．基本法律 D．国际条约 3．违法行为的发生不是由行为者自由的意志，而是由客观条件决定的，因而只能根据行为人行的环境和行为的社会危害性来确定法律责任的有无和重轻。此种观点属于下列选项中的哪一种理论？（D） A．规范责任论 B．历史责任论 C．环境责任论 D．社会责任论 4．根据我国法律的有关规定，下列选择项中的哪一行为不能减轻或免除法律责任？（D）A．家住偏僻山区的蒋某把入室抢劫的康某捆绑起来，关押了六小时后，才将康某押送到四十里外的乡派出所 B．蔡某偷了一辆价值150元的自行车，十年后被人查出 C．医生李某征得患者王某的同意，锯掉其长有恶性肿瘤的小腿 D．高某在与三个青年打架时，拔出刀子将对方一人刺成重伤 5．黄某是甲县人事局的干部，他向县检察院举报了县人事局领导叶某在干部调配中收受钱物的行为，两个月后未见动静，黄某几经努力才弄清是检察院的章某把举报信私下扣住并给了叶某。黄某于是又向县人大、市检察院举报章某的行为。黄某的这一行为属于下列哪一种？（B） A．法的适用 B．法的遵守 C．法的执行 D．法的解释 6．下列哪项属于大陆法系的渊源？（B） A．法国民法典和德国民法典 B．自由大宪章
全球排名前五十国际律师事务所！ 1、Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld LLP 安庆国际法律事务所2 2、Allen and Overy LLP安理国际法律事务所3 3、Ashurst法律事务所5 4、Mallesons Stephen Jaques 澳大利亚万世基法律事务所6 5、Baker & McKenzie美国贝克?麦坚时国际律师事务所7 6、Bingham McCutchen LLP法律事务所8 7、Bird & Bird 国际法律事务所9 8、Chadbourne & Parke 美国查德本?派克法律事务所11 9、Cleary Gottlieb Steen & Hamilton LLP 美国佳利律师事务所12 10、Clifford Chance英国高伟绅律师事务所14 11、DLA Piper律师事务所15 12、Davis Polk & Wardwell律师事务所16 13、Deacons 的近律师行18 14、Debevoise & Plimpton LLP美国德普律师事务所19
15、Denton Wilde Sapte国际律师事务所20 16、Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer英国富而德律师事务所21 17、Gibson Dunn & Crutcher 律师事务所22 18、Gide Loyrette Nouel 法国基德律师事务所23 19、Heller Ehrman LLP 海陆国际律师事务所25 20、Herbert Smith英国史密夫律师事务所26 21、Hogan & Hartson美国霍金?豪森律师事务所27 22、Jones Day众达律师事务所29 23、Kirkland & Ellis LLP律师事务所31 24、Latham & Watkins美国瑞生律师事务所32 25、Linklaters英国年利达律师事务所33 26、Lovells英国路伟律师事务所35 27、Mayer Brown Rowe & Maw律师事务所36 28、McDermott Will & Emery LLP律师事务所38
2015司考宪法知识点：宪法的渊源 2015司考宪法知识点：宪法的渊源。2015年司法考试复习正在紧张进行，要重视基础知识的复习。法律教育网的小编为考生整理了司法考试基础讲义，作为考生复习的参考资料。 所谓宪法的渊源亦即宪法的表现形式。观世界各国宪法，宪法的渊源主要有宪法典、法性法律、宪法惯例、宪法判例、国际条约和国际习惯等。但一国或一国不同历史时期的宪法究竟采取哪些渊源形式，则取决于其本国的历史传统和现实政治状况等综合因素。 一、宪法典 宪法典是绝大多数国家采用的形式，是指将一国最根本、最重要的问题由统一的法律文本加以明确规定而形成的成文宪法。宪法典一般由制宪机关采用特定的制宪程序制定，在一国法律体系中具有最高的法律效力。其特点是宪法的形式完整、内容明确具体，因而便于实施：同时由于一般规定了严格的修改程序，因而有利于保证宪法的相对稳定性。 二、宪法性法律 宪法性法律是从部门法意义上按法律规定的内容、调整的社会关系进行分类所得出的结论。它是指一国宪法的基本内容不是统一规定在一部法律文书之中，而是由多部法律文书表现出来的宪法。主要有两种情况：一是指在不成文宪法国家中，国家最根本、最重要的问题不采用宪法典的形式，而由多部单行法律文书予以规定的法律。宪法性法律制定和修改的机关、程序通常与普通法律的制定和修改的机关与程序相同。从这种意义上说，宪法性法律只是法律的一个组成部分。英国作为不成文宪法国家的典型，不存在根本法意义上的宪法，只存在部门法意义上的宪法。二是指在成文宪法国家中，由国家立法机关为实施宪法而制定的有关规定宪法内容的法律。因此，在成文宪法国家，既存在根本法意义上的宪法，即宪法典；又存在部门法意义上的宪法，即普通法律中有关规定宪法内容的法律，如组织法、选举法、代表法、代议机关议事规则等。法律教育网 三、宪法惯例
吉大《宪法学》第二章宪法的产生和发展课堂笔记 ◆主要知识点掌握程度 重点掌握宪法产生的条件、宪法发展的趋势、新中国宪法的制定与修改。了解资本主义国家宪法的产生情况、旧中国的立宪情况。 ◆知识点整理 一、近代宪法的产生和发展 （一）近代宪法的产生条件 1、经济条件 资本主义生产关系的确立是宪法产生的经济条件。 2、政治条件 资产阶级掌握国家政权，实现对社会的统治，确立资产阶级民主制度，是宪法产生的政治条件。 3、思想条件 资产阶级民主、自由、平等与人权等宪政思想观念的出现，是宪法产生的思想条件。 4、法律条件 法律部门划分的出现、法律部门的增多和法律体系的完善，是宪法产生的法律条件。 （二）近代宪法的产生过程 1、英国宪法的产生 （1）在资本主义国家中,最早出现的宪法是英国宪法。 （2）资产阶级同封建贵族妥协是英国资产阶级革命的重要特点。 （3）英国没有形成统一的完整的、书面的宪法典。 2、美国宪法的产生 （1）美国宪法是资本主义国家成文宪法的先驱。 （2）美国宪法确认了人民主权和有限政府的原则，权利分立与制衡原则，联邦与州分权原则，文职人员控制军队的原则。 3、法国宪法的产生 1789年法国的《人和公民的权利宣言》，简称《人权宣言》，是世界宪政史上非常重要的一部宪法性文件。法国国民议会于1791年制定的法国宪法是法国第一部宪法，也是欧洲第一部成文宪法，这部宪法确立的却是君主立宪制，它以人权宣言作为它的序言。 法国现行宪法是1958年宪法。从1791年宪法到1958年宪法，法国共制定了15部宪法，法国因此也获得了“宪政实验室”的美名。法国宪法的发展是和其激进的暴力式的革命过程有关。 （三）宪法的发展 1、资本主义宪法的发展 资本主义宪法的发展经历了资本主义上升时期和帝国主义时期两个发展时期。 自17世纪英国资产阶级革命至19世纪末，是资本主义发展的上升时期。资本主义各国仿效英美法等过的模式制定了宪法。普遍确认了“人民主权”、“天赋人权”、“权力分立”、“法律面前人人平等”等基本原则。 19世纪末20世纪初，资本主义国家先后进入了帝国主义阶段。资本主义国家的宪法在这一阶段，反映了垄断资产阶级的要求，维护国家集权，扩大行政权力，削弱议会作用。 2、社会主义宪法的发展 1918年《苏俄宪法》是世界上第一部社会主义性质的宪法。 3、当代宪法的发展趋势 （1）宪法类型上的发展趋势 社会主义宪法必然会取代资本主义宪法。 （2）宪法形式上的发展趋势
律师执业管理办法第一章总则 第一条为了规范律师执业许可，保障律师依法执业，加强对律师执业行为的监督和管理，根据《中华人民共和国律师法》（以下简称《律师法》）和其他有关法律、法规的规定，制定本办法。 第二条律师是指依法取得律师执业证书，接受委托或者指定，为当事人提供法律服务的执业人员。 第三条律师通过执业活动，应当维护当事人合法权益，维护法律正确实施，维护社会公平和正义。 第四条律师依法执业受法律保护，任何组织和个人不得侵害律师的合法权益。 司法行政机关和律师协会应当依法维护律师的执业权利。 第五条司法行政机关依照《律师法》和本办法的规定对律师执业进行监督、指导。 律师协会依照《律师法》、协会章程和行业规范对律师执业实行行业自律。 第二章律师执业条件 第六条申请律师执业，应当具备下列条件： （一）拥护中华人民共和国宪法； （二）通过国家统一司法考试取得法律职业资格证书； （三）在律师事务所实习满一年； （四）品行良好。 实行国家统一司法考试前取得的律师资格证书，在申请律师执业时，与法律职业资格证书具有同等效力。 享受国家统一司法考试有关报名条件、考试合格优惠措施，取得法律职业资格证书的，其申请律师执业的地域限制，按照有关规定办理。
申请律师执业的人员，应当按照规定参加律师协会组织的实习活动，并经律师协会考核合格。 第七条申请兼职律师执业，除符合本办法第六条规定的条件外，还应当具备下列条件： （一）在高等院校、科研机构中从事法学教育、研究工作； （二）经所在单位同意。 第八条申请特许律师执业，应当符合《律师法》和国务院有关条例规定的条件。 第九条有下列情形之一的人员，不得从事律师职业： （一）无民事行为能力或者限制民事行为能力的； （二）受过刑事处罚的，但过失犯罪的除外； （三）被开除公职或者被吊销律师执业证书的。 第三章律师执业许可程序 第十条律师执业许可，由设区的市级或者直辖市的区（县）司法行政机关受理执业申请并进行初审，报省、自治区、直辖市司法行政机关审核，作出是否准予执业的决定。 第十一条申请律师执业，应当向设区的市级或者直辖市的区（县）司法行政机关提交下列材料： （一）执业申请书； （二）法律职业资格证书或者律师资格证书； （三）律师协会出具的申请人实习考核合格的材料； （四）申请人的身份证明； （五）律师事务所出具的同意接收申请人的证明。 申请执业许可时，申请人应当如实填报《律师执业申请登记表》。 第十二条申请兼职律师执业，除按照本办法第十一条的规定提交有关材料外，还应当提交下列材料：
注册安全工程师报名条件 凡中华人民共和国公民，遵守国家法律、法规，并具备下列条件之一者，可申请参加注册安全工程师执业资格考试： 1、取得安全工程、工程经济类专业中专学历，从事安全生产相关业务满7年；或取得其他专业中专学历，从事安全生产相关业务满9年。 2、取得安全工程、工程经济类大学专科学历，从事安全生产相关业务满5年；或取得其他专业大学专科学历，从事安全生产相关业务满7年。 3、取得安全工程、工程经济类大学本科学历，从事安全生产相关业务满3年；或取得其他专业大学本科学历，从事安全生产相关业务满5年。 4、取得安全工程、工程经济类第二学士学位或研究生班毕业，从事安全生产相关业务满2年；或取得其他专业第二学士学位或研究生班毕业，从事安全生产相关业务满3年。
5、取得安全工程、工程经济类硕士学位，从事安全生产相关业务 满1年；或取得其他专业硕士学位，从事安全生产相关业务满2年。 6、取得安全工程、工程经济类专业博士学位；或取得其他专业博 士学位，从事安全生产相关业务满1年。 凡符合注册安全工程师执业资格考试报名条件，且在2002年9月 3日《暂行规定》下发之日前已评聘高级专业技术职务，并从事安全生产相关业务工作满10年的专业人员，可免试《安全生产管理知识》和《安全生产技术》2个科目，只参加《安全生产法及相关法律知识》和《安全生产事故案例分析》2个科目的考试。 造价工程师执业资格考试报名条件 （一）全科考试报名条件（四科级别） 凡中华人民共和国公民，遵纪守法并具备以下条件之一者， 均可申请参加造价工程师执业资格考试： 1、工程造价专业大专毕业后，从事工程造价业务工作满五年；工程或工程经济类大专毕业后，从事工程造价业务工作满六年。
通过美国律师考试的7条建议 我一共参加过两次考试，分别是CABAR和NYBAR。如果我以下的考bar经验建议对你来说并不适用，请一笑置之。 1. 冥想 不少考生相信冥想能在一定程度上提高自己的bar成绩。说起来令人啼笑皆非，但其实冥想并不无道理。对于我来说，冥想，意味着我将进入一个独立、静谧的空间，在这个空间中完成自己对法律知识的再次记忆。 2. 学习方法很重要 虽然以往的学习方法能让你顺利通过考试，但对于考bar来说却不一定适合。例如有些考生认为连续学习5个小时高效又省时，而有的考生则不尽相同。专家认为最高效的学习方法是每学习45分钟再休息15分钟，然后重复循环，这样不容易造成大脑疲劳，对记忆也有帮助。大家可以在此基础上进行借鉴。 3. 每天增长1%的学习时间 如果你第一天的学习时间是100分钟，第二天你可以将之延长至101分钟，依次类推。此举不仅可增强你的学习耐力，还可以添加趣味性。你可以为自己设置一个小目标，例如21天。完成小目标之后，再设置一个30天的目标。想要通过bar exam，你应该选择马拉松选手的速度，而不是学习飞人博尔特。 4.不要停止学习 一周7天，尽管有2天是周末，但也不要停止学习。相信大家都有所体会，就像健身，不管你坚持了多久，一旦你有天没去健身了，你的身体好像就开始懒惰了，积极性就受到了影响。如果你实在没有空，那背一背法律法规也是好的。 5. 尝试着在嘈杂的环境中学习 当然，安静的环境才是考bar的最佳学习伴侣，但是偶尔也需要去体验一下嘈杂的环境。考场中你会遇到形形色色的人，你永远不知道他们会做出什么样的举动。况且，如果你和我一样选择了机考，你会发现敲打键盘的声音不绝于耳，这其中还会掺杂着清嗓声、鼻涕声以及敲击地面的声音等。为此，我偶尔会选择到一家比较嘈杂的咖啡店学习，不得不说那家的隔音差极了，但为了适应考场环境，我不得不忍着。 6.听音频 生活中有很多时间，我们都可以加以利用。例如锻炼的时候、吃饭的时候、做饭的时候等，
名词解释 宪法：宪法（constitution）是一个国家的根本大法，是特定社会政治经济和思想文化条件综合作用的产物，集中反映各种政治力量的实际对比关系，确认革命胜利成果和现实的民主政治，规定国家的根本任务和根本制度，即社会制度、国家制度的原则和国家政权的组织以及公民的基本权利义务等内容。 简答题 宪法的基本原则有哪些？ 宪法的基本原则是指人民主权原则；基本人权原则；权力的制约原则；法治原则 宪法与宪政的关系？ 宪政作为以宪法规定为基础而建立起来的政治制度，它的产生、存在、发展和变化都必须服务于使纸上的宪法成为现实的宪法目的。但是，宪政实践在宪法目前也不是完全被动的，对于不具有正当性、确定性、功能性和调控性的宪法，宪政的实践活动又可以通过反作用的机制来使得纸上的宪法符合宪政实践的要求。所以，仅仅有宪法，并不意味着就可以基于纸上的宪法规定产生具有现实意义的宪政实践，宪
法必须适应宪政实践的要求残年不断地为宪政实践提供正确的规范依据。当然，作为宪政实践的基础，没有宪法的存在是谈不上宪政的，也就是说，如果在一个国家中，不存在一个被称为宪法的根本法，或者是宪法存在的权威被人们严重忽视，宪政是无从谈起的。因此，要实现宪政，就必须要强化宪法作为根本法的权威，宪法是法，不是简单的政治纲领或者是政策。宪政实践要求一个国家必须保持法制的统一与协调，其中，宪法应当居于法律制度的核心，这是依法治国的基本前提。 论述 宪法的特征? 主要特征就是内容最重要；法律效力最高；修改最严格。下面是详细的叙述： 宪法规范是指调整宪法关系并具有最高法律效力的各种规范的总和。有两种意义的宪法规范：一是部门法意义上的宪法规范，即一切调整宪法关系的规范；二是根本法意义上的宪法规范，即仅指宪法确定的调整宪法关系的规范。作为法律规范的一种，宪法规范也同样具有法律规范的三要素，即假定条件要素、行为模式要素和处理后果要素。 受宪法规范的地位及内容所决定，宪法规范又具有一般
第一节宪法的概念 一、宪法的定义 古代中外典籍和立法中所称的宪法，均指一般的法律和典章制度，且多含刑法之意，或者是指法律的公布。近代意义上的宪法是资产阶级革命胜利并取得国家政权后产生的，是规定社会制度和国家制度基本原则的国家根本法。 宪法是反映各种政治力量实际对比关系，确认革命胜利成果和现实的民主政治，规定国家根本制度和根本任务，具有最高法律效力的国家根本法。 二、宪法的法律特征 1. 在内容上，宪法规定着一个国家有关社会制度和国家制度的一些根本、重大的问题。包括国家性质、政治制度、国家结构形式、社会经济文化制度、公民的基本权利和义务，以及国家机构的组织系统、职责权限、工作原则和制度。 2.在法律效力上，宪法具有最高的法律效力。包括两层含义：（1）宪法在国家整个法律体系中处在最高地位，与普通法律相比较，其效力最高。（2）宪法是一国之内所有组织和个人的最高行为准则，也是人们进行各项活动的依据和基础。 3.在制定和修改的程序上，宪法较普通法律更为严格。我国宪法的修改，由全国人民代表大会常务委员会或者1／5以上的全国人大代表提议，并由全国人大以全体代表的2／3以上的多数通过。严格的程序是为了确保宪法的相对稳定性，以维护它的严肃性和权威性。 三、宪法的实质 宪法是阶级斗争中各种力量实际对比关系的表现，也可以说宪法是现实政治的反映。 1.从宪法产生的过程来看，它以阶级斗争为先导，经过了阶级斗争之后由取得胜利并掌握政权的阶级来制定。 2.从宪法的内容来看，它是阶级斗争胜利成果的记载和总结。 3.从宪法的发展变化来看，它是随着各个时期各种政治力量实际对比关系的变化而发展变化的。 四、宪法的分类 1.宪法的形式分类 （1）按宪法是否具有统一书面文字形式为标准，可分为成文宪法和不成文宪法。（2）宪法的修改是否必须遵循特定的程序为标准，可分为刚性宪法和柔性宪法。（3）按制定宪法的主体不同为标准，分为钦定宪法、民定宪法和协定宪法。 2.宪法的实质分类 马克思主义宪法学者运用阶级分析的分法对宪法所作的科学分类，即以宪法的阶级本质为标准，将世界各国的宪法分为主义宪法和社会主义宪法两大类。 第二节宪法规范的特点 一、宪法规范的含义 法规范或称宪法规则，是法律规范的一种，它是指由国家制定或确认的用以调整国家生活中基本社会关系的行为准则。 三层意思：(1)既然由同家制定或确认，那就能以国家的强制力保证施行；(2)所谓基本社会关系则是指国家生活中涉及社会制度、国家制度的基本原则和国家政权的组织，以及公民基本权利和义务等方面的社会关系；(3)作为行为规则，它既然明确指示人们应当怎样做或者不能怎样做，那么宪法主体便负有服从和遵守的义务。 二、宪法规范的主要特点 1.宪法规范的原则性
律师事务所 律师执业年度考核办法 一、为规范本所律师执业年度考核，加强对事务所律师执业活动的监督，根据《律师法》、《中华全国律师协会章程》及《律师执业年度考核规则》的规定，制定本办法。 二、所有本所的执业律师，均应当按照本办法参加本所律师执业年度考核。但参加考核的律师有下列情形之一的，不评定考核等级。 （一）获准执业不满三个月的。 （二）上一年度参加脱产学习、培训的。 （三）上一年度因病暂停执业的。 三、律师执业年度考核，主要考核下列内容： （一）律师在执业活动中遵守宪法、法律、法规和规章，遵守执业道德、执业纪律和行业规范，履行法定职责的情况； （二）律师遵守律师协会章程，履行会员义务的情况。 （三）律师办理法律服务业务的数量、类别和服务质量，办理重大案件、群体性案件的情况； （四）律师履行法律援助义务，参加社会服务及其他社
会公益活动的情况。 （五）律师受行政奖惩、行业奖惩的情况。 （六）省、市律师协会根据需要要求考核的其他事项。 四、律师执业年度考核结果分为“称职”、“基本称职”、“不称职”三个等次。 考核等次是律师事务所对本所律师上一年度执业表现的总体评价。 五、律师执行活动符合下列标准的，考核等次为“称职”： （一）能够遵守宪法和法律的，遵守职业道德、执业纪律和行业规范，较好地履行法定职责。 （二）能够依法、诚信、尽责地为当事人提供法律服务，未因执业违法违规行为收到行政处罚或者行业惩戒。 （三）能够履行法律援助义务，参加社会服务及其他社会公益活动。 （四）能够遵守律师协会章程、履行会员义务、遵守本所章程及管理制度。 五、律师执业活动有下列情形之一的，考核等次为“基本称职”： （一）因执业不尽责、不诚信、不规范等行为收到律师
司法考试杨帆宪法讲义：宪法的发展历史 司法考试杨帆宪法讲义：宪法的发展历史。2013年司法考试备考工作正在紧张进行中，为了帮助考生更好地进行复习，法律教育网的小编将司法考试中涉及宪法的发展历史的内容进行了整理，希望考生认真阅读。 精彩链接： 司法考试杨帆宪法讲义：宪法的概念 司法考试宪法考点精讲：民族自治机关 司法考试宪法考点精讲：区分公民与人民 2013司考宪法：高度自治 一、近代意义上宪法产生的条件： 1.经济条件：近代宪法的产生是商品经济普遍发展的必然结果。 2.政治条件：资产阶级革命的胜利、资产阶级国家政权的建立和以普选制、议会制为核心的民主制度的形成，为近代宪法的产生提供了政治条件。 3.思想条件：资产阶级启蒙思想家提出的民主、自由、平等、人权和法治等理论，为近代宪法的产生奠定了思想基础。 二、中国宪法的历史发展 1.旧中国宪法的历史发展（略） 2.新中国宪法的产生和发展 （1）新中国先后颁布了一个宪法性文件和四部宪法，即《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》、1954年宪法、1975年宪法、1978年宪法、1982年宪法。 （2）1982年宪法是我国的现行宪法，由第五届全国人大第五次全体会议于1982年12月4日通过。这部宪法以四项基本原则为指导思想，继承和发展了五四宪法的基本原则，全面总结了我国社会主义建设正反两方面的经验，反映了改革开放以来各方面取得的巨大成就，规定了国家的根本制度和根本任务。 （3）现行宪法的修正
【例题·多选题】《中华人民共和国宪法修正案》第2条、第20条分别对宪法第10条第4款、第3款进行了修改。关于这些修改，下列哪些说法是正确的？（）（06-1-59） A.明确了土地的使用权可以依照法律的规定转让 B.确认了国家对土地所有权和土地使用权的支配权力 C.明令禁止侵占、买卖、出租或者以其他形式非法转让土地 D.明确了国家对土地实行征收或者征用的公共目的和补偿义务法律敎育网 【答案】AD 【解析】《宪法修正案》第2条将宪法第10条第4款:"任何组织或个人不得侵占、买卖、出租、或者以其他形式非法转让土地。"修改为:"任何组织或个人不得侵占、买卖、出租、或者以其他形式非法转让土地。土地的使用权可以依照法律的规定转让。"第20条将宪法第10条第3款:"国家为了公共利益的需要，可以依照法律规定对土地实行征用。"修改为:"国家为了会共利益的需要，可以依照法律规定汁土地实行征收或者征用并给与补偿。"该两条修正案并未确定国家对土地使用权的支配权力，所以B不选。C项不是被修改的内容，也不选，综上，本题答案为AD。 【例题·多选题】根据宪法和法律的规定，下列哪些选项是错误的？（）（07-1-64） A.2004年宪法修正案明确规定"非公有制经济的从业人员"是"我国社会主义事业的建设者" B.1999年宪法修正案明确规定非公有制经济是社会主义市场经济的组成部分 C.1999年宪法修正案将国家保障公民的合法的私有财产权神圣不可侵犯写进 宪法 D.1988年宪法修正案明确规定集体土地所有权可以依法出租或者转让 【答案】ACD 【解析】选项A错误，在2004年宪法修正案中没有明确此类规定；选项C错误，1999年宪法修正案没有将"神圣不可侵犯"写入宪法；选项D错误，1988年宪法修正案没有明确规定集体土地所有权可以依法出租或者转让，而是使用权。
北京市司法局律师执业管理办法实施细则 第一章总则 第一条为了规范我市律师执业管理，保障律师依法执业，加强对律师执业行为的监督和指导，根据《中华人民共和国律师法》（以下简称《律师法》）、《律师执业管理办法》和相关法律、法规的规定，结合我市律师执业具体情况，制定本实施细则。 第二条本市行政辖区内依法设立的律师事务所（含外省市律师事务所北京分所）的律师许可、变更、注销和监督管理，适用本实施细则。 第三条北京市司法局、各区县司法局根据《律师法》和《律师执业管理办法》及本实施细则的规定，负责律师执业的许可及律师执业行为的监督指导。 第四条律师依法执业受法律保护，任何组织和个人不得侵害律师的合法权益。 北京市司法局、各区县司法局和律师协会依法维护律师的执业权利。 第二章律师执业条件 第五条申请律师执业的人员应当具备《律师执业管理办法》第六条规定的条件。 第六条本市律师具有下列情形之一的，可以重新申请律师执业： （一）因本人不再从事律师职业，原律师执业证书被注销的； （二）因与所在律师事务所解除聘用合同，原律师执业证书被注销的； （三）因所在律师事务所被注销，且六个月内未被其他律师事务所聘用的； （四）因其他原因终止律师执业的。 第七条位于北京市的高等院校、科研机构中从事法学教育、研究工作的人员，符合律师执业条件的，经所在单位同意可以申请兼职律师执业。 第八条申请特许律师执业，应当符合《律师法》和国务院有关条例规定的条件。 第九条有下列情形之一的人员，不得从事律师职业： （一）无民事行为能力或者限制民事行为能力的； （二）受过刑事处罚的，但过失犯罪的除外； （三）被开除公职或者被吊销律师执业证书的。 第三章律师执业许可程序 第十条本市律师执业许可，由律师事务所住所地区县司法局受理执业申请并进行审查。审查后，将审查意见和全部申请材料报市司法局审核，市司法局作出是否准予执业的决定。第十一条申请律师执业的人员，应当向律师事务所住所地区县司法局提交下列材料：（一）执业申请书；
美国的律师资格考试 美国律师资格考试称为Bar Exam。“Bar”是一个多义词，通常是指酒吧或是杆状物。在法律界，Bar的意思是法庭里的那一道齐大腿高的栏板，将法官席和律师及当事人分开。栏板中间有扇小门，若律师与法官需要直接沟通，则从小门进入。 我在1994年夏天参加纽约州的律考，那年共有7,737位考生，6,091位通过，占78.7%，其中第一次参加考试的通过率为85.6%，复考的通过率为67.6%。纽约州每年举行两次律考，一次夏季，一次冬季，冬季的人数较少，不到夏季的一半，多为夏季没通过的参加复考。1994年夏季的律考通过率算是高的，历年的夏季平均通过率大约为70%以下，而冬季的平均通过率在50%以下。 夏季的通过率之所以高，是因为考生多为当年夏季的毕业生，在校学的东西还没忘记，从毕业考试之后到开始工作之前，大约有三个月的时间，可以全力以赴地复习准备考试。冬季的考生多为复考，因为第一次没通过，参加工作后无法脱产复习，所以通过率较低。 除了法律专业知识外，要通过美国的律考，考生还必须学会考试的技巧（test taking skill）。为此，美国有许多律考补习班，如PMBR（现在叫Kaplan）、Pieper和Bar Bri等。那些补习班通常在法学院的高年级学生中招募销售代表。销售代表的工作很简单，只要在学校的走廊里轮流摆摊即可。一张折叠的桌子，上面放一些补习班的材料，动员同学报名，销售代表可以免费上补习班。当年我报名担任Bar Bri的代表，便免去了几千美元的学费。“练摊”的另一个好处是，在上课时摊子上没有人，桌子上又有现成的复习资料，自己便可以趁机复习。 纽约州的律考分为两天，第一天考纽约州法，第二天考联邦法。州法考试分上、下午，上午是选择题，下午是问答题，联邦法则全是选择题，上、下午各100题，必须分别在3小时内答完。补习班的老师特别强调实战演习，平时自己练习虽然没有时间限制，但还是必须掐着表做题，目标是争取第一小时完成35题，第二小时再完成35题，第三小时完成剩下的30题。如果第一个小时不能完成35题，第二小时想赶上是几乎不可能的，只可能慢下来，第三小时累了会更慢，就有可能做不完100题。 有的考生为了保险起见，同时报考两个州的律考，如纽约州的考生，除了纽约之外，还可以在新泽西或康奈迪克州报考。因为全国各州联邦法的考试都安排在同一天，新泽西和康奈迪克州将联邦法安排在第一天，州法安排在第二天，这样纽约州的考生便可以第一天考纽约州法，第二天考联邦法，第三天再考新泽西或康奈迪克的州法，其中联邦法的成绩可以在两个州共用。 为了保险，我同时报考了纽约和新泽西。第二天考完联邦法之后，便乘火车到新泽西的Somerset，住进旅馆，第三天考新泽西的州法。第一天考纽约州法时，头脑比较清醒，还能意识到许多没有考好的地方。因为前两天太累，第三天已经考糊涂了，出来后自我感觉非常好。考完后我对家人说，如果两个州只通过一个，那一定是新泽西。到发榜的时候，偏偏是新泽西先公布结果，竟然是名落孙山，把我吓坏了。接到纽约州的通知时，我手直发抖，鼓起勇气拆开后，居然非但“一枪过”了纽约州，还因为联邦法的考分特高，免试获得了华盛顿哥伦比亚特区的律师资格，算是一场虚惊后的惊喜。当然，如果总分没通过纽约州的律考，即使联邦法考了高分，还是不能免试进华盛顿哥伦比亚特区。 纽约州的律考分两个考场，一个在纽约市，另一个在州府阿尔伯尼，大部分的考生在纽约市。1994年的考场设在纽约市的贾维茨中心（Javits Center），是华裔建筑师贝聿铭设计的一个大型会展中心，好几千名考生，每人一张桌子，场面非常壮观，气氛也非常紧张、肃穆。为了防止有人代考，在报名参加律考时，考生必须在学校教务处的监督下当面抄写一段短文，另外还要留下签名，以便将来比对笔迹。进入考场时，考生必须签名，考试当中每次上厕所，回考场必须重新签名，以防中途换人。 我有一位女同学，就住在我家附近。法学院毕业时，她父亲送她一辆崭新的奔驰车。当时她已经怀孕七、八个月了，上补习班时，她总是让我搭便车。律考的第二天，中途突然听见广播，说是发生紧急情况，希望有医学背景的考生自愿帮忙。后来我才知道，那位女同学因为考试太紧张，睡不好觉，第二天考到一半早产了，自然是没有通过，半年后考第二次才通过。据她说，几千个考生，居然没有一个停下考试帮忙的。（在我们的同学中，就有一位医生。）
司法考试杨帆宪法讲义：宪法的概念 司法考试杨帆宪法讲义：宪法的概念。宪法的概念司法考试宪法的基础考点，考生应当重点复习，小编将这一考点的主要内容进行了整理，希望能够对考生的复习有所帮助。 精彩链接： 2013司考宪法：立法 2013司考宪法：参政权 司考宪法：罢免权 司考宪法：出版自由 一、宪法的词源 1.中国 （1）在中国古代的典籍中，曾出现过“宪”、“宪法”、“宪令”、“宪章”等词语，其含义有三种情况： ①一般的法律、制度； ②优于刑法等一般法律的基本法； ③颁布法律，实施法律。 （2）在中国，将"宪法"一词作为国家根本法始于19世纪80年代。 2.西方 （1）在古代西方，宪法一词也是在多重意义上使用： ①有关规定城邦组织与权限方面的法律； ②皇帝的诏书、谕旨，以区别于市民议会制定的普通法规； ③有关确认教会、封建主以及城市行会的特权，以及他们与国王等关系的法律。 （2）宪法词义发生质的飞跃,始于17、18世纪欧洲文艺复兴时期人文主义思潮产生巨大影响以后，特别随着近代资产阶级革命的不断发展，近代意义的宪法才最终形成。
古代中国和西方在运用宪法一词的时候，既有相同之处，如都具有法律的意义，都有优于普通法的某种倾向；但又有不同之处，古代西方的宪法往往侧重于组织法方面的意义，而古代中国的宪法却没有此意。 二、宪法与法律的关系 1.宪法是法 宪法和普通法律一样具有法律规范的基本属性： （1）宪法与法律具有共同的经济基础，其性质主要取决于社会的物质文化条件； （2）宪法与法律都是由国家制定并以国家强制力保障实施的行为规范； （3）宪法和法律都通过规定社会关系参加者的权利义务来确认和保护社会秩序和法律秩序； （4）宪法和法律一样具有制裁性。 2.宪法是更高的法 虽然宪法虽然具有普通法律的属性，但是宪法是国家法，通常称之为"法律之法律"，具有自身的基本特征。 三、宪法的基本特征 1.宪法是国家的根本法。 （1）在内容上，宪法规定国家最根本、最重要的问题。 （2）在法律效力上，宪法的法律效力最高。 ①宪法是制定普通法律的依据，普通法律是由宪法派生的。 ②任何普通法律、法规都不得与宪法的原则和精神相违背。 ③宪法是一切国家机关、社会团体和全体公民的最高行为准则。 （3）宪法在制定和修改程序上,比普通法律严格。 我国宪法第64条规定，宪法的修改，由全国人民代表大会常务委员会或者五分之一以上的全国人民代表大会代表提议，并由全国人民代表大会以全体代表的三分之二以上的多数通过。 【例题·单选题】宪法是国家根本法，具有最高法律效力。下列有关宪法法律效力的哪一项表述是正确的？（）（05-1-11）
宪法学读书笔记
柏拉图VS孔子 ——由二人看中西政治思想 张翰书先生所著《比较中西政治思想》一书，从历史角度切入，逐步分析政治制度、民主法治、理想国家、政治分工、社会契约等各项课题，章与章之间相互独立而又连成一体。坦白说来，这使我顿觉迷茫，不知从何下笔。但细读之，发现关于柏拉图与孔子二人的政治思想占了书本内容的一半，正如同此二人撑起了中西政治思想的半壁江山——故借此二人为引子，浅谈一下读此书的心得体会。 先从二人眼中的理想政治说起。关于柏拉图的政治思想，首先是他的人治的理论。“柏氏在他有关政治思想的第一部著作《理想国》中，首先提出政治权威必须与哲学智识相结合的理想，所以他理想的政治是哲学家做国王。有这样的哲君主持国政时，就应该由他运用智识，随机应变去做，而无拘无束的。”《理想国》是讲专尚人治，而不用法治理论。柏拉图在其第二部著作《政治家》中就此观点再加发挥：“有这样真正的政治家出现时，就应该听他自由运用卓越智识，处理国政，而不要拿法律来拘束他……以普遍、简单的法则来拘束纷繁复杂、变化多端的国政之处理，是不合理也不可能的。”但此时柏拉图的意见稍有改变，即认为在真正的政治家不可得时，法治可以作为次一等的善政来施行。其次是他的法治的理论。有趣的是，柏氏在其第三部著作《法律篇》
中，观点来了个一百八十度大转变。“他深感理想的贤哲政治不易实施。于是主张国家要制定一部法典，以使实际政治达到最好的境地。”在该书中，柏拉图提出了一句关于法治的名言：“依法以统治自愿被统治的人民，而不是强迫的统治。”小结一下：柏拉图先主张人治，后主张法治。 再看孔子的政治思想。孔子主张以德性为中心。“大原则是德性可以指导政治，政治的好坏决定于德行的程度。君主或领导人自身行为之德性程度是政治好坏的决定性因素。”显然，孔子的观念偏重于人治，认为理想的统治者可得时，就应该听他以身作则，多发挥德政的作用，自然可以国泰民安。至于“政刑”，只是辅助作用，必要时才使用。 以下是我思考的第一个问题：柏孔二人都对理想陈义甚高，但促其理想实现的努力都以失败告终。然而，孔子始终抱持“知其不可而为之”的精神，追求并不切合实际的“德政”，望求出现理想的统治者来实现最好的“人治”，迄未改弦更张；而柏拉图则以年龄的增长，经验的加多，益以屡经挫败，乃渐感其理想之难以实现，而逐步修正，改变自己的主张，从力主人治到主张推行法治。那么，这二人之选择变或不变的原因何在？我觉得有两点。一是他们的自身性格使然。孔子偏内敛，性格偏执、倔强，故抱着“人治”、“德政”的主张“知其不可而为之”；而柏拉图性格柔和，又精通哲学，易根据情况做出理性的思考，故逐步修正其主张。二是