翻译课概论（导引）
基础建设 basic construction/infrastructure
淡季light seasons/slack seasons
淡茶weak tea
淡水 fresh water
第一产业 the primary industry
第二产业 the secondary industry
第三产业 the third industry/the tertiary industry /the service industry
裤子trousers/pants/slacks/jeans
面条noodles/pasta
黄头发yellow hair/blond/blonde
厕所 WC /toilet/men's room/women's room/ restroom/powder room
1) 一架从昆明起飞的小飞机,载着我们,飞越群山,把我们送到了景洪.
A small plane from Kunming flew over the mountains and sent us to Jinghong.
2) Party officials worked long hours on meager food, in cold caves and by dim lamps.
党的干部住寒冷的窑洞，吃简陋的饮食，靠微弱的灯光，长时间地工作着。
3) 风和日丽之时，佘山、金山、崇明岛隐隐可见。
On a fine day, you can even see …in the distance, though not very clearly.
4) In the doorway lay at least twelve umbrellas of various colors and sizes.
门口堆着一堆伞，少说也有十二把，五颜六色，大小不一．
永远记住你 remember you forever/always remember you
真遗憾it?s a pity/that's too bad/it's a shame
小心台阶pay attention to the steps/ mind the steps
我感到很痛I am painful./ I feel great pain
亚洲四小龙the Four Little Tigers of Asia
百里挑一 one in a thousand
干杯！（要一饮而尽。）Cheers! Bottoms up.
5) 我老公他看你下岗了，舍不得花钱，就自己跑到电影院买了两张票今天晚上请我们两个人去看电影。My husband has bought two film tickets for us tonight, because you‘re laid off and have to cut your expenses.
6) John can be relied on. He eats no fish and plays the game.
约翰为人可靠,他既忠诚又办事公道.
7) Wall Street is a dog-eat-dog place. 华尔街是个残酷的地方.
1. What is translation?(翻译的定义)
The Oxford English Dictionary: to turn from one language into another(从一种语言转换成另一种语言);
Webster‘s third New International Dictionary of the English Language: to turn into one‘s own or another language(转换成本族语或另一种语言)。
翻译是一种―语言转换‖活动。
The definition is:Translation is a rendering from one language into another, i.e., the faithful representation in one language of what is written or said in another language.
To be more exact, in Nida‘s & Tytler‘s words美国翻译理论家Eugene A. Nida：
Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.
（所谓翻译，是指在译语中用最切近而又自然的对等语再现原语的信息，首先在语义上，其次在文体上。)
Alexander Fraser Tytler: 综合各家之长:
翻译是把一种语言表达的意义用另一种语言传达出来，以达到沟通思想情感、传播文化知识、促进社会文明，特别是推动译语文化兴旺昌盛的目的。
Translation is an activity of reproducing in one language the ideas which have been expressed in another language.
2. Scope of Translation
in terms of languages:in terms of the mode:in terms of materials to be translated:in terms of disposal: (full-text translation, abridged translation, adapted translation)
3. Criteria in China
A. We know Xuanzang once said about translation 既需求真，又需喻俗，which means both faithful to the original and easy to understand.
B. Yan Fu‘s (严复) ―three character guide‖, which was first proposed in 1898 in the Preface of his translation of the book Natural Selection(《天演论》), is the principle of ―faithfulnes s, expressiveness, and elegance‖ (信、达、雅).
C. Some revisions such as faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness (信、达、切); faithfulness, expressiveness and fitness (信、达、贴),
D. Fu Lei‘s (傅雷) spiritual conformity/resemblance in spirit （神似)
E. Qian Zhongshu (钱钟书) transmigration (化境)
鲁迅：翻译：力求其易解, 保存原作的丰姿。反对牛头不对马嘴，提出―宁信而不顺‖之原则。
林语堂的―忠实、通顺、美‖
瞿秋白的―信顺统一‖
许渊冲的―音美、形美、意美（三美）‖
Three Principles of Translation:
（1）It is a position which if we endorse，it will really mean endorsing the rule of the jungle, that is, a world without law.如果我们认可这种状况,那就真正意味着赞同弱肉强食的原则,也就是一个没有法制的世界。
Some fishing boats were becalmed just in front of us. Their shadows slept, or almost slept, upon the water, a gentle quivering along showing that it was not complete sleep, or if sleep, that it was sleep with dreams. 眼前不远，渔舟三五，凝滞不前，樯影斜映在水上，仿佛睡去，偶尔微见颤动，似又未尝熟睡，恍若惊梦。
4. Nature of Translation
Translation is a science.Translation is an art. Translation is a craft. Translation is a skill. Translation is an operation. Translation is a language activity. Translation is communication
1) 翻译是跨语言(cross-linguistic)，跨文化(cross-cultural)，跨社会(cross-social)的交际活动。
2) 翻译是一种语言文化承载的意义转换到另一种语言文化中的跨语言，跨文化的交际活动Translation is a representation or recreation in one language of what is written or said in another language.
翻译的本质是释义,是意义的转换. Translation is always meaning-based.
对翻译的性质，有过许多描述，其中奈达(Eugene.A.Nida)的论述是:―翻译是指从语义到文体在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现原文的信息。‖ Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor/target language, the closet natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.
3) 翻译是科学(science)，是艺术(art)，是技能(craft)
翻译是科学，因为它涉及思维和语言,反映了存在与认识,主体与客体的关系,这种关系可用受一定规律支配的语言加以描述,翻译有科学规律可循,所以是科学。
translation is a kind of science because it has a whole set of rules governing it and certain objective laws to go by in the process of translating just as other sciences do.
翻译是艺术，因为翻译是译者对原文再创造的过程。译者不可避免地带有自己的主观色彩，有他自己的独创性。
translation is also an art, a bilingual art. Like painting, translation enables us to reproduce the fine thought of somebody, not in colors, but in words, in words of a different language.
翻译是技能，译者需采用增词，减词，切分,转换等方法。
besides, it‘s also a craft, because in translation, certain skills and technique are needed in order to attain clearness of style, and fluency in language.
5. The Process of Translation
STEP 1 The Stage of Understanding
1. The understanding in the process of translation is different from the understanding in our daily reading.
First of all, the aim of the understanding in the process of translation is representing (表达) the content faithfully, so we have to try to understand the text completely, deeply and in detail. Secondly, in the understanding in translation, we are thinking in two languages, and in two ways. So, it‘s very complicated.
1.Suddenly the line went limp. ―I‘m going back,‖ said Kurth. ―We must have a break somewhere, wait for me. I‘ll be back in 5 minutes. (linguistically)
2. It is good for him to do that. (logically)
STEP 2 The Stage of Representation
1.直译（Literal Translation）
Literal Translation means translating according to the surface meaning and keeping the structures of sentences. Literal translation keeps both the content and the form of the original work.
2.意译 ( Liberal Translation)
Because of the different way of thinking some of the English sentences cannot be translated in the literal way, they can only be translated in the liberal way. In liberal translation the form can be neglected but the content must always be faithful.
3. The Relation between Literal Translation and Liberal Translation
There has been the discussion about literal translation and liberal translation. In fact, they are both necessary in translation. We can‘t imagine anyone using only literal translation or liberal translation in their translating.But I hated him, and I had a feeling that he‘d surely lead us both to our ancestors. Armed to teeth
Do you see any green in my eyes
Eugene A. Nida 的翻译过程
6. History of Translation in China
1)佛经翻译时期，从东汉开始至唐宋，1000余年.The first high tide of translation in China is the translation of The Buddhist Scripture (佛经)。It began at the end of the Han Dynasty, came to flourishing in the dynasties of Sui and Tang, declined in the Song Dynasty. It lasted more than 1000 years .（支谦、道安，鸠摩罗什、真谛、玄奘）
2）明末清初：西方科技翻译（徐光启、利玛窦；李之藻）
3）清朝后期：西方哲学、文学翻译重要人物：林纾、严复
4）中国近代翻译史：五四运动是分水岭;重要人物：鲁迅、瞿秋白、林语堂、朱生豪
5）繁荣阶段：新中国的成立
7. Western translation history
1.A good command of both languages and cultures.
2.Be curious and always ready to learn new things.
3.A wide range of knowledge.
4.Necessary theory and techniques of translation.
5.Adequate use of the internet.
五.翻译练习
True Lies真实的谎言
A World without Thieves天下无贼
The Dream Factory梦工厂
Shawshank Redemption肖申克的救赎
Six of one and half a dozen of the other半斤八两
隔墙有耳Walls have ears.
鱼米之乡a land of milk and honey
白马王子、梦中情人Mr./Mrs. Right; Prince Charming
Rob Peter to pay Paul拆东墙补西墙
I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.
青春献海洋，暮年伴我妻
Smashing a mirror is no way to make an ugly person beautiful, nor is it a way to make social problems evaporate.逃避并不能解决实际问题。
第二章
英汉语言比较
English belongs to the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family(印欧语系). Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family（汉藏语系）. It is well known that English has the richest vocabulary of any European language. On t he basis of Angles‘ language (Anglo-Saxon), English was built by absorbing words in various languages.
Vocabulary
He wore dark glasses, thick jersey, and stopped up his ears with cotton wool.
他戴黑眼镜，穿厚毛衣，耳朵里面塞了棉花。
But his attack was always repulsed by a kick or a blow from a stick.
但是他每冲一次，不是让人一脚踢了回去，就是让人棍子打了回去。
（1）英语句子重形合，汉语句子重意合.
Never get on or off the bus before it comes to a standstill.车未停稳，请勿下车
（2）英语句子重心在前，汉语句子重心在后。
I was all the more delighted when, as a result of the initiative of your Government, it proved possible to reinstate the visit so quickly.
由于贵国政府的提议，才得以这样愉快的重新进行这次访问，这使我感到特别高兴。Vocabulary
吃不开(be unpopular)，吃不消(be unable to stand)，吃醋(be jealous)，吃苦(bear hardships)，吃亏(suffer losses; be at a disadvantage)，吃一堑，长一智(a fall into the pit, a gain in your wit)。努力学习（work hard），半年six months，学知识gain/ acquire knowledge，
儿童票价减半：half-price fare for children
一次专访：an exclusive interview
必须引起密切注意：require immediate attention
身体状况良好：in good shape
走错了路：be on the wrong track
一目了然 see with half an eye
一模一样 as alike as two peas
三言两语 in a few words; in one or two words
三心二意 to be in two minds
三思而后行 look before you leap
三三两两 by ones and twos
四面八方 all directions; all around; all quarters; far and near
七嘴八舌 all talking at once
半斤八两 six of one and half-a-dozen of the other
十之八九 ten to one
十全十美 be perfect in every way; be out of this world; to the nines
talk along parallel lines 英雄所见略同
familiar talk 庸俗的交谈
goldbrick懒汉，赝品
大忙人busy bee
自食其言to go back on one‘s words
张衡还创造了世界上第一台观测气象的仪器——候风仪anemograph 。他还制作了
已经失传的指南车。这种车不管怎么转弯，车上的木制小人总是把手臂指向南方。
Zhang Heng also created the world's first meteorological instrument —— anemograph. He made a pointing-south cart with a wooden figure always pointing southward no matter what direction the cart was moving in. The cart has since been lost.
一、直线型与螺旋型
①Time is an equal opportunity employer. ②Each human being has exactly
the same number of hours and minutes every day. ③Rich people can‘t buy more
hours. ④Scientists can‘t invent new minutes. ⑤And you can‘t save time to spend it on another day.
②每个人每天所拥有的小时数和分钟数完全相同，③富人不可能购买更多的小时，④科学家也不能发明新的分钟，⑤并且你还不能把时间留到另一天用，所以说，①时间是机会均等的雇主。
二、分析型与综合型
①As it is too late for you to go home now, you had better stay overnight at this place.
现在回家太晚，你最好在这儿住一晚。
②天长地久有时尽，此恨绵绵无绝期。（白居易）The eternal universe sometimes comes to an end, but my unceasing complaint knows no limit.
三、抽象型与形象型
1. 英语常用大量含义概括的词来表达复杂的理性概念
work with meticulous care（精雕细刻）
accept sth. uncritically(生吞活剥)
be full of fears and misgivings(前怕狼后怕虎)
画饼充饥(feed on illusions)归根到底(in the final analysis)冷言冷语(sarcastic comments)弱不禁风(be in delicate health)
2.英语中一些较抽象的概念在汉语中常常用一些习惯性的具体词来转述：
Time mutes all feelings. 时间的流逝会使各种感情变得淡漠。
Odd thought it sounds, cosmic inflation is a scientifically plausible consequence of some respected ideas in elementary-particle physics, and many astrophysicists have been convinced for the better part of a decade that it is true. 宇宙膨胀说虽然听似奇特，但它是基本粒子物理学中一些公认理论在科学上看来可信的推论，许多天体物理学家七、八年来一直认为这一学说是正确的。
Marriage may be compared to a cage: the birds outside despair to get in and those within despair to get out. 婚姻好比鸟笼，外面的鸟儿想进进不去，里面的鸟儿想出出不来。
四、客观性与主观性
All the people want to be successful in life and work. Success is one of the primary motivating factors of human society. But we must not say, it is our basic biological need, although it can bring a person position or wealth he needs. In the pursuit of success, we should have a right attitude toward failure – no fear for it is the best policy –as a Chinese old saying says, ―failure is the mother of succes s.‖
每个人都想在生活和工作中取得成功。成功是人类社会主要的动力之一。尽管成功能给人带来所需的地位和财富，但是我们不能说成功是我们的基本生物需求。在追求成功的过程中，
我们应该用正确的态度看待失败---最好的办法是不惧怕失败，正如一句中国古训所说：―失败是成功之母。
Even though everyone has different concepts about what constitutes being successful, almost all individuals experience the constant pressure to succeed. While most people would still consider an important position or great wealth as a sign of success, others are realizing that the term embraces many more elements. To me, success means the achievement of one‘s goals. It includ es a feeling of accomplishment, a willingness to overcome fear in attempting something new, and a sense of self-improvement in reaching the goal. (definition)
每个人对什么是成功有不同的观点，但几乎所有的人都经历过为取得成功所承受的长期压力。虽然多数人仍然把身居要职和腰缠万贯看成是成功的标志，但也有人认识到成功包含着更多的东西。对我而言，成功就是实现了自己的目标，它包括尝试新事物的成就感和克服恐惧的积极性以及在实现目标的过程中的自我完善。
五、前重心与后重心
You need to fight for your point of view (when something that is counter to your values or threatens a project the organization supports.
当所发生的事情与你的价值观完全相反或者对你的机构所支持的项目有威胁时，你需要为你的观点而战。
There is no agreement whether methodology refers to the concepts peculiar to historical work in general or to the research techniques appropriate to the various branches of historical inquiry.
方法论是指一般的历史研究中特有的概念，还是指历史研究中适用各个具体领域的研究方法，人们对此意见不一。
六、竹节句法与流水句法
Know the enemy and know yourself, and you can win a hundred battles. 知己知彼，百战不殆。
Conquer the desires，or they will conquer you．你不战胜欲望，欲望就会战胜你。
It is sometimes the fate of a poet to succeed, only when he has one foot in the grave. 有时候一名诗人命中注定只有在一只脚踏进坟墓的时候才会成功。
Found throughout Central and South America, the sloth hangs from trees by its long rubbery limbs, sleeping fifteen hours a day and moving infrequently.
树懒产于中南美洲各地，它靠长而有弹性的四肢挂在树上，每天睡15个小时，很少移动。
It applies equally to traditional historians who view history as only the external and internal criticism of sources, and to social science historians, who equate their activity with specific techniques。
它同样适用于传统历史学家和社会科学历史学家，传统历史学家(或前者)将历史仅仅看作是对历史材料来源的内部的和外部的批评，社会科学历史学家(或后者)把历史研究活动等同于具体的研究方法。
七、理性型与绘画型
4.状语位置差异。
There is a tourist attraction①called the Badaling Great Wall②which you can
reach③in about two hours④by going northwest⑤by tourist bus ⑥ from downtown
Beijing ⑦.
从北京市区⑦坐旅游车⑥向西北走⑤大约两小时左右④可以到达③一个叫八达岭长城的
②旅游胜地①。
5.定语位置差异。
The memories a favorite old song recalls can be so clear that hearing it almost like watching a movie of your life and times.
一首你最爱的老歌所唤起的记忆可以非常清晰, 听这样一首歌几乎就像看一部描写你的生活和时代的电影。
1)We know that a cat, whose eyes can take in many more rays than our eyes,
can see clearly in the night.
译:我们知道,因为猫的眼睛所摄入的光线比人眼多,所以猫在夜间看物体很清楚.
There was something original, independent, and heroic about the plan that pleased all of them.
计划取悦了所有的人，它有原创性,独立性,也很宏大。
He insisted on building another house, which he had no use for.
尽管没有用处,他仍然坚持再盖一座房子.
Men became desperate for work, any work, which will help them to keep alive their families.
译: 人们开始急切的找工作,只要能帮助他们维持家庭生活,任何工作都行.
Yet, from the beginning, the fact that I was alive was ignored.
译: 然而从一开始，人们就忽略了我还活着这一事实.
But I knew I couldn‘t trust him. There was always the possibility that he was a political swindler. 但我知道我不能信任他.很有可能他是个政治骗子.
It does not alter the fact that he is the man responsible for the delay.
译: 他应对延误负责,这一事实无法改变.
He expressed the hope that he would come over to visit China again.译:他希望还能再次访问中国.
I have accepted my father‘s decision that I was to be a doctor, thought the prospect did not interest me at all.译: 我已经接受了父亲的决定，将来做名医生,尽管我对这种想法并不感兴趣. Exercises
丽娜阿姨听说了家庭的困难情况后，同意去找工作。After Aunt Lena had heard about the family trouble, she agreed to look for a job.
我们的衷心愿望是建立世界长久和平。Our hearty desire is the establishment of a lasting peace in the world.
我连他的模样也记不清楚了。I can‘t even remember clearly what he loo ked like.
那次战争的直接原因是入侵国境。The war was immediately caused by incursions across the borders.
拷打、审讯彻底不停，搜捕彻夜不停。All night long the beating and questioning goes on, the search goes on.
我的前三十年是在美国西部度过的。My first 30 years were spent in Western America.
判断一个人要看他对集体服务得怎样，但是集体也要重视个人的生活和才能。An individual is judged by how he serves the collective, but the collective is expected to cherish the lives and talents of its individuals.
时尚英语词汇
微博microblog山寨Copycat异地恋long-distance relationship剩女3S lady（single，seventies, stuck）/left girls熟女 cougar（Cougar Club）裸婚naked wedding百搭all-match限时抢购flash sale水货smuggled goods团购group buying发烧友Fancier骨感美女boney beauty卡奴card slave性感妈妈 yummy mummy亚健康 sub-health灵魂伴侣soul mate小白脸 toy boy精神出轨soul infidelity人肉搜索flesh search钻石王老五diamond bachelor学历造假fabricate academic credentials 散伙饭farewell dinner具有时效性的time-efficient录取分数线admission scores经适房affordable housing家庭主男house-husband小白脸，吃软饭的kept man 二奶kept woman 另类offbeat菜鸟rookie裸奔streaking
第三章词语的选择
1)He took the machine to pieces to try and find out how it operated. 他把机器拆开，想看看机器怎么运转的。
2)If there‘s an electrical failure, it‘s possible to operate the lift manually. 如果停电，可以由人力开动电梯。
3)Changes are being introduced to make the department operate more efficiently. 变革正在进行，以提高部门的工作效率。
4)Specially equipped troops are operating undercover activities in the hills. 专门部队在山上进行秘密训练。
5)We have representatives operating in most countries. 我们在许多国家都有代理开展业务。
6)Exchange rates are currently operating to the advantage of exports. 目前的汇率走势对出口有利。
Destructive forces are clearly operating within the community. 显然社区中有破坏势力在活动。发展是硬道理。Development is the absolute / cardinal / primary principle.
假日经济在我国已经呈现出广阔的发展前景。
The holiday economy has remarkable potential for growth.
1)He reached his hand out for the book I offered him. 他伸出手来接我给他的书。
2)We tried to reach them by cable. 我们试着用电报跟他们联络。
3)She reached up and picked a pear off a branch. 她抬起手从一根枝上摘下一只梨。
4)The speaker's voice couldn't reach to the back of the auditorium. 礼堂后排听不到演讲人的声音。
5)The insecticide was put out of the child's reach. 杀虫剂放在孩子够不着的地方。
6)The upper reaches of Minjiang River serves as ecological barriers of
Sichuan Province and even the west of China. 岷江上游是四川省乃至我国西南重要的生态屏障1. We had a grand view of a sea of clouds when we climbed to the top of the
mountain.当我们爬上了山巅时，看到了云海的壮观景象。
2. We must do away with the grandiose style of work.我们必须摈弃浮夸的工作作风。
3. It is indeed the most magnificent drawing-room I have ever seen.那的确是我所见到的最豪华的客厅。
4. The buildings around the Circus are rather nondescript, though some of them are large and quite imposing. 广场周围的建筑物并不起眼，不过其中有一些还比较高大、宏伟。
5. Whenever the stately national anthem is performed, I am invariably emotionally
roused.每当奏起庄严的国歌时，我总在感情上受到激发。
1. 集中精力把经济建设搞上去 go all out for economic development
2. 坚持对话,不搞对抗 persist in dialogue, refrain from confrontation
3. 不搞劳民伤财的―形象工程‖ refrain from building ―vanity projects ‖that waste both money and manpower
4. 对内搞活，对外开放 revitalize domestic economy, open up to the outside world
5. 恶搞 spoof
6. 搞花架子 do something superficial
7. 搞活国营大中型企业 invigorate large and medium-sized state-owned enterprises
8. 更加注重搞好宏观调控pay more attention to exercising macro-control
9. 开放搞活 open up and enliven the economy
10. 靠扩大财政赤字搞建设 increase the deficit to spend more on development
11）With the invention of writing, a great advance was made, for knowledge could then be not only communicated but also stored, libraries made education possible, and education in its turn added to libraries.
由于文字的发明，人类取得了巨大的进步，因为此时知识不仅可以交流，而且
可以储存。图书为开展教育活动提供了可能性，而教育又反过来增加了图书的数量和内容。
12)His plane developed engine trouble only seven miles after take-off.
他的飞机起飞后只飞行了七英里就发生了机械故障。
13)Modern aircraft are so heavy that the wings must develop a very large life force in order to sustain the aircraft.
现代飞机很重，机翼必须产生很大的升力才能保持飞机在空中飞行。
14)Most of the money came from selling the secret of a new type of potato he had developed.
大部分钱是靠出售他培育土豆新品种的秘方得来的。
15)As early as his second film, Chaplin had developed his own manner of acting, the one that was to become world famous.
早在卓别林演第二部电影时，他就已形成了自己的表演风格，这就是他后来闻名于世的那种表演风格。
16)It is believed that before writing was developed, people in China used to keep records by putting a number of stones together.
人们认为，在出现书写之前，中国人常把石头放在一起来记事。
17)Some married people who are not satisfied with their family may resort to the internet to develop an extramarital affair.
一些对家庭不满意的已婚男女也会借助互联网去搞婚外恋。
18)Photographers return and the photos are quickly developed.
摄影记者回来了，很快把照片冲洗好了。
19)In developing a design, the engineer must apply his knowledge of engineering and material science.
在进行设计时，工程师必须应用自己在工程学和材料学方面的知识。
20)While people in other countries in the world were trying to catch wild animals and birds and were still collecting seeds and nuts, farmers in China were developing the science of agriculture.
当世界上其他国家还在捕猎飞禽走兽、采集种子坚果的时候，中国农民就已经在从事农业科技研究了。
1）The factors which are likely to influence investment spending do not stop here.
译：可能影响投资开支的因素并不止这些。
2）Whether you like it or not, globalization is here to stay. We are not going to reverse the trend. 译：不管你对它的态度如何，经济全球化已成为我们生活的一部分，这个趋势不可逆转。3）Our products, if maintained properly and regularly, can at least see twenty years‘ service.
译：我们的产品如果适当地定期检修，至少可以使用20年。
4）That‘s a tall story about the town‘s high street.
译: 有关这城主街的说法是在令人难以置信。
2、词义的具体化
1) There is more to their life than political and social and economic problem, more than transient everydayness.
他们的生活远不止那些政治的、社会的和经济的问题，远不止一时的柴米油盐问题。
2) The factory is famous for its arsenal of technical geniuses.
这家工厂以拥有众多技术精英而著称。
3)Our unique concept was a response to buyer needs, bringing greater reliability, higher-quality output, exceptional user-friendliness and operational ease.
我们唯一的信念就是要适应购买者的需要，生产更可靠的、质量更高的产品，让使用
者感到格外好用和操作方便。
4) Dobbin had been in the coffee-room for an hour or more He had tried all the papers but could not read them．
杜宾在咖啡室少说也待了一个钟头。他翻遍了所有的报纸，可什么也没看进去
5) It is all very well, again, to have a tiger in the tank, but to have one in the driver's seat is another matter altogether.
当然油箱里装满优质汽油倒是好事，但是驾驶室里要是坐着横冲直撞的司机就完全是
另一回事了。
6) I want to be TV‘s Czar of script a nd grammar．
我真想成为电视这一行的霸主，所有节目我说了算。
3、词义的抽象化
1）The interest rates have see-sawed between 10 and 15 percent.
利率一直在10％到15％之间不断波动。
2）Brain drain has been Kangding‘s No.1 concern; as a matter of fact, it has been an epidemic in this area.
人才外流一直是康定的头号问题，实际上，它已经成为那一地区带普遍性的严峻问题。 3）There is a mixture of the tiger and the ape in the character of the imperialists.
帝国主义者的性格既残暴，又狡猾。
4）Every life has its roses and thorns.
每个人的生活都有甜和苦。
5）Tony is only nineteen and the baby of our crew.
托尼只有十九岁，是我们机组里的小字辈。
6. He had lived all his life in desert where every cupful of water might be a matter of life and death. 他一直在沙漠上生活，这地方每一杯水都得精打细算地用；一杯水可能是生死攸关的事。
7. Instead，an assassin‘s bullet erased in the minds of Americans any faults he had．
事实正好相反，一个刺客的暗杀行径反而使美国人忘却了他所有的毛病。
1）He was a man of high renown (fame). 他是位有名望的人。（褒）
2）The adoption of new policies will surely lead to some striking results.
采取各项新政策必将带来显著成果。
3）There would have been more painful result but for the drastic measures.
若不是采取了严厉措施，那将会出现的更痛苦的后果。
4）As a demanding boss, he expected total loyalty and dedication from his employees.
他是个苛刻的老板，要求手下的人对他忠心耿耿，鞠躬尽瘁。（贬）
5）The popularity of television and the difficulty of financing plays have helped to close many theatres. But now it seems the theatre is about to pick up again after a period of decline.
电视普及，加上戏剧筹资困难，许多剧院被迫关门。然而经过一端时间的衰落后，现在剧院似乎又将从新焕发生机。
6) Those who do not remember the past are condemned to relive it.
凡是忘掉过去的人注定要重蹈覆辙。（贬）
7）"He was polite and always gave advice willingly," she recalled.
她回忆说，―他彬彬有礼，总是诲人不倦。‖（褒）
1.集中精力把经济建设搞上去 go all out for economic development
2. 坚持对话,不搞对抗 persist in dialogue, refrain from confrontation
3. 不搞劳民伤财的―形象工程‖
refrain from building ―vanity projects ‖that waste both money and manpower
4. 对内搞活，对外开放 revitalize domestic economy, open up to the outside world
5. 恶搞 spoof
6. 搞花架子do something superficial
7. 搞活国营大中型企业 invigorate large and medium-sized state-owned enterprises
8. 更加注重搞好宏观调控 pay more attention to exercising macro-control
9. 开放搞活 open up and enliven the economy
10. 靠扩大财政赤字搞建设 increase the deficit to spend more on development
11、假日外出旅游，成为国人最风行的节目。
(1) Traveling on holidays has become an activity popular with Chinese people.
(2) Traveling on holidays is most popular with Chinese people.
12、企业经济效益显著改善。
The economic performance of enterprises improved markedly.
13、生产生活条件明显改善。
Production and living conditions have remarkably improved.
14、中国加入世贸组织后，人才市场会出现新的潮流。
There will be new tren ds in the personnel market after China‘s entry into the WTO.
15、大力加强社会主义精神文明建设。We should vigorously promote socialist cultural and ethic progress.
16、电脑的普及为网络走进千家万户创造了条件。
The popularization of computer has paved the way for Internet‘s entry into av erage families. The popularization of computer has made it possible for the Internet to enter into average families.
17、新形势、新趋势、新技术，促进了生产力的发展，促进了创造力的发挥，促进了各国之间
的合作与交流。
The new development, trends and technologies have helped expand productive forces, given full play to creativity, and enhance exchanges and cooperation among countries.
18、我们要维护人民的权力。
We should maintain the people‘s rights.
维护统一 uphold unity
维护独立主权 uphold independence and sovereignty
维护国家主权 defend state sovereignty
维护人民利益safeguard the people‘s interests
维护自尊safeguard one‘s self respect
维护世界和平与安全 maintain /safeguard world peace and security
19、积极开展资源回收利用，大力提高资源综合利用率。
We need to increase our recycling of resources in order to unutilized our resources more effectively.
20、积极推动信息技术在各行业的广泛应用。
We need to extensively apply IT in enterprises in all industries.
21、我们将积极调整、发展第三产业。
We will be working vigorously/ energetically to restructure and develop tertiary industries. 22、工业结构调整取得积极进展。
Significant progress was made in industrial structural adjustment.
23、东部地区要积极支持中西部地区发展。
The eastern region should actively support the development of the central and western regions.
24、积极发展各项社会事业。
We will energetically / make great efforts to develop all social undertakings.
25、中国经济取得巨大发展，中国人民终于扬眉吐气了。
Chinese people feel proud and elated for the great economic development in China.
26、―五一‖假期，火车票十分紧俏，人们提前10天预订火车票。
Train tickets during the Labor Day holidays were in short supply, and people flocked to book tickets ten days in advance.
27、中国是一个发展中国家，消除贫困任重道远。
China is a developing country, and it is an arduous task to eradicate poverty.
28、家用电器和艺术品很受俄国商人的欢迎，但服装和纺织品却吃了闭门羹。
Electric appliances and handicrafts are popular among Russian businessmen, but clothes and textile products are given the cold shoulder.
29、台湾当局应该审时度势，顺应民意，走和平统一的光明大道。
The Taiwan authorities should size up the situation and go with the people‘s voice to get on the right way of peaceful reunification.
30、传统的人海战术在现代化高技术面前不堪一击。
Compared with modern high technology, the traditional huge-crowd strategy is not competitive at all.
1） My shoes are the worse for wear.我的皮鞋穿破了。
2） She has been a widow only six months.她的丈夫死了至今不过半年。
3）我十点钟等你。I‘ll expect you at ten o‘clock.
4）Active metals, organic substances, and other oxidizable materials are always subject to slow attack by oxygen when exposed to the air.
活泼金属，有机物和其它可氧化的物质，当暴露在空气中时，总是容易受到氧的缓慢侵蚀（5）我想下个月开始工作。I think that I‘ll start work next month.
6）The smaller the animal, the greater the surface area in relation to body mass.
动物越小，单位体重的表面积（与体重相比的表面积）越大。
我怎么也没料到会在这个地方见到你。This is the last place where I expected to meet you.
有关这城主街的说法是在令人难以置信。That‘s a tall story about the town‘s high street.
她对我说她那18岁的儿子是她子女中最小的。She told me that her 18-year-old son was the baby.
他正闷闷不乐，因他刚才和朋友吵了架。He is unhappy now, because he had a blue with his friend just now.
一个绝望的人a broken man 一个残废兵a broken soldier 零钱 broken money
我们应本着和平共处五项原则的精神解决争端。We should settle the disputes in the context of the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence.
我们又一次领受了他渊博的知识、丰富的经验和无穷的智慧。He once again imparted to us his great knowledge, experience and wisdom.
史密斯先生已步入成熟之年。Mr. Smith has stepped into the vintage years.
80后：80's generation百搭：all-match限时抢购：flash sale合租：flat-share烟熏妆：smokey-eye make-up水货：smuggled goods纳米技术：nanotechnology闪婚flash marriage闪电约会speeddating乐活族 LOHAS（Lifestyle Of Health And Sustainability）房奴车奴 mortgage slave 上课开小差 zone out桑拿天 sauna weather
For mistakes had been made, bad ones, he was severely criticized.
――因为已经犯了错误，而且是很严重的错误，他受到了严厉的批评‖
Rocket research has proved the strange fact…..
通过火箭进行的研究……
How she wished she could send that man to the Furies—for the punishment she thought he deserved.
她真想把那个臭男人交给那母夜叉去整治整治,也好让她出口恶气。
1. Since the first test of the atomic bomb the world has learnt that the atom can be split and its power used.
自从第一颗原子弹试验以来，全世界都已知道，原子可以分裂，原子能可以利用。
2. A fool and his words are soon parted; a man of genius and his money. 愚人会很快忘记说过的话，智者会很快放弃手里的钱。
3. Both human and cow milk are naturally spiced with a small amount of morphine.
人乳与牛乳均含有少量吗啡。
4.So-called convenience and frozen foods are now as popular in Europe as they are in America.
如今，所谓的方便食品和速冻食品风靡欧洲，就像在美国一样大众化。
5. The heart is slightly bigger than a fist, and lies between the lungs.
心脏略大于一个拳头，位于两肺之间。
6. Women have outgrown the jumping-on-chair-at –the-sight-of-a-mouse era, but he says that they have not.
女性已经不再像从前那样一见到老鼠就吓得跳到椅子上；而他则认为，今天的女性还没有取得这样的进步。
7. Population increase and decrease relatively not only to one another, but also to natural resources.
人口的增减不仅彼此有相对关系，而且也和自然资源有相对关系。
8. Without a sense of your fault, how can repentance and amendment be expected?
如果对自己的错误都不能认识到，怎么能指望你会悔改呢？
9. Since air has weight, it exerts force on any object immersed in it.
因为空气具有重量，所以处在空气中的任一物体都会受到空气的作用力。
II．增加意义上或修辞上的需要的部分
1. He left without a word.
他一句话也不说就走了。
2. What a leader he was!
他真是一个出类拔萃的领袖啊。
3. Personal tragedy haunted his entire life, in the deaths of loved ones.
亲人的相继离世使他的一生充满了个人悲剧。
4. Disappearances occurred with apparently increasing frequency.
失踪事件接二连三地发生，显然越来越频繁。
5. She warmly welcomed her guests in and brought them a cup of tea.
她热情地将客人们迎进来，然后给他们各端了一杯茶。
6. Aunt Harriet used to entertain lavishly.
哈丽特阿姨时常慷慨地款待客人。
7. They wanted to ease the tension in the Middle East.
他们试图缓解中东的紧张局势。
8. There were rows of houses which he had never seen before.
一排排的房子，都是他从来没有见过的。
9. Day after day he came to his work --- sweeping, scrubbing, cleaning.
他每天来干活------扫地，擦地板，收拾房间。
The thesis summed up the new achievements made in computers, artificial satellites and rockets.
该论文总结了计算机、人造卫星和火箭三方面的最新成就。
1). Reading makes a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man.
读书使人充实,讨论使人机智,笔记（写作）使人准确。
2) . We don‘t regret, we never have and never will.
我们不会后悔，我们从来没有后悔过，我们将来也不会后悔。
3). After the basketball, he still has an important conference.
看完篮球比赛之后，他还有一个重要会议要参加。
4). He dismissed the meeting without a closing speech.
他没有致闭幕词就宣布结束会议。
5). Histories make men wise; poets witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend.
读史使人明智，读诗使人灵秀，数学使人周密，科学使人深刻，伦理使人庄重，逻辑修辞使人善辩
1). With what enthusiasm the Chinese people are building socialism!
中国人民正以多么高的热情建设社会主义啊！
2). The crowds melted away. 人群渐渐散开了。
3). As he sat down and began talking, words poured out.
他一坐下来就讲开了，滔滔不绝地讲个没完。
4). She lingered long over his letter.
她反反复复地回味着他的来信。
5). In the films of those days, all too often it was the same one: boy tractor driver meets girl tractor driver; they fall in love and drive tractor together.
在那时候的电影里，总是老一套：男拖拉机手和女拖拉机手始而相遇，继而相爱，终而并肩开拖拉机了。
To do some shopping 买东西 To do some washing 洗衣服
1). First you borrow, then you beg. 头一遭借钱，下一遭就讨饭。
2). Mary washed for a living after her husband died of cancer. 玛丽的丈夫得癌症去世后，她靠洗衣服维持生活。
3). He ate and drank, for he was exhausted他吃了点东西，喝了点酒，因为他疲惫不堪了。
4). The development of economy remains one of the priorities of the Chinese Government发展经济仍然是中国政府的首要课题/任务之一。
5). That black jacket is indeed cheap and fine.那件黑夹克真是价廉物美。
6). He was wrinkled and black, with scant gray hair 他满脸皱纹，皮肤黝黑，头发灰白稀疏。
7). A new kind of car—small, cheap—is attracting increasing attention.
一种新型轿车正越来越引起人们的注意——这种轿车体积小，价钱便宜。
8). His arrogance made everyone dislike him. 他的傲慢态度使谁也不喜欢他。
9). After all preparations were made, the planes were flown across the U.S. to San
Francisco 一切准备工作就绪以后，飞机就飞越美国去了旧金山。
to persuade 说服 persuasion说服工作
to prepare 准备 preparation准备工作
backward 落后 backwardness落后状态
tense 紧张 tension紧张局势
arrogant 傲慢 arrogance傲慢态度
mad 疯狂 madness 疯狂行为
antagonistic敌对 antagonism 敌对态度
1). Don‘t get angry. I‘m just making fun of you 不要生气嘛！我不过开开玩笑罢了。
2). As for me, I didn‘t agree from the very beginning.
我呢，从一开始就不赞成。
3). They (the eyes) were the same colour as the sea, cheerful and undefeated.
那双眼睛啊，像海水一样的蓝，令人愉快，毫不沮丧
4). A red sun is rising slowly on the horizon.一轮红日正从地平线上冉冉升起。
5). A stream was winding its way through the valley into the Dadu river.一弯溪水蜿蜒流过山谷，汇合到大渡河去了。
6）This too was a complicate lie. 这也纯粹是一派胡言。
7). Once, they had a quarrel.有一次，他们争吵了一番。
8). Seeing is believing. 百闻不如一见。
9). The essence remains its identity while appearances may vary. 万变不离其宗。
10）Man, was, is and always will be trying to improve his living conditions.
人类过去、现在而且将来总是在尽力改善生活条件。
1. 我早晨起床后的第一件事是收拾房间。
The first thing I do after I get up in the morning is to tidy up the room.
2. 意大利著名旅行家马可?波罗曾这样叙述他印象中的杭州：……
A famous ancient Italian traveler, Marco Polo, once described his impressions
of Hangzhou like this: ……
3. 台湾是中国的领土。
Taiwan is part of Chinese territory.
4. 饭店现有三个餐厅和一个贵宾间、240个座位。
The restaurant now has three dining rooms and a VIP room with a total of 240
seats.
5. 狠抓管理，安全生产。
We should improve management and ensure safe production.
6. 月亮升得高高的，明亮犹如银盘。
The moon rose high, shining as brightly as a silver plate.
7. 突然电话铃响了。母亲让我回去送弟弟去医院看病。
Suddenly the telephone rang. It was my mother calling me. She wanted me to go home and take my brother to hospital.
8. 对确有困难的中西部地区和老工业基地，中央财政将继续给予支持。
In the case of the enterprises of western and central China and old industrial bases that are in real financial difficulties, the central government will continue to offer financial help.
9. 有条件的地方要率先实现现代化。
The areas with suitable conditions must take the lead in achieving modernization.
10. 该公司的主要经营范围包括：… …
The business scope of the company covers the following areas: …
1. 收效可能来得慢，但是有把握，而且是巨大的。
The rewards may come slowly, but they are sure and tremendous.
2. 我们应当逐步消灭城乡差别。
We should gradually eliminate the difference between city and country.
3. 我吃得不多，睡得不好。
I am unable to eat much or sleep soundly.
4. 她生来富于同情心，总是乐于帮助别人。
She is sympathetic by nature and is always ready to help others.
5. 新婚夫妇有数十位宾客陪同，坐着汽车到新房去了。
The newly wedded couple, accompanied by dozens of guests, went to their chamber by car.
6. 全国人民总体上实现了由温饱向小康的跨越。
The Chinese people nationwide have developed from the stage of having enough to eat and wear to that of living a better-off life.
7. 明朝的时候，这座城市成了一个繁荣的港口。
In the Ming Dynasty the city became a flourishing port.
8. 沿着南京路向东走，走到尽头，是靠黄浦江江岸的一个很美的地区。
Walking eastward along Nanjing Road, one finally comes to a very beautiful area bordering the bank of the Huangpu River.
1). 小不忍则乱大谋。 If one is not patient in small things, one will never be able to control great ventures.
2). 交出翻译之前，必须读几遍，看看有没有要修改的地方，这样你才能把工作做好。
Before handing in your translation, you have to read it over and over again and see if there is anything in it to be corrected or improved. Only thus can you do your work well.
3). 没有调查就没有发言权。 He who makes no investigation and study has no right to speak.
―又要马儿跑得快, 又要马儿不吃草, 简直可笑。You want the horse to run fast and yet you don‘t let it graze. Isn‘t it ridiculous!
4). 别把手搁在口袋里。Don‘t put your hands in your pockets.
5). 天一天天冷起来了。 It is getting colder day by day.
6) 尝试而失败还是比不尝试好 It is better to try and fail than never try at all.
7). 你三星期完成这项设计不容易 It was not easy for you to finish this design in three weeks.
8). 把钟拆开比把它装起来容易。
It is easier to take a clock apart than to put it together again.
1). A book is useful. 书（是）有用（的）。
2). The earth goes around the sun. 地球绕太阳转。
3). On Sundays we have no school. 礼拜天我们不上课。
4）由于时间仓促，作者水平有限，书中疏漏在所难免，欢迎广大读者批评指正。
Any advice and criticism is warmly welcome about this book.
1).He was thin and haggard and he looked miserable. 他消瘦而憔悴，看上去一副可怜相。
2). We live and learn 活到老，学到老。
3). Everywhere you can find new types of men and objects in new Campus.新校区处处可以看到新人、新事物。
4). If you give him an inch, he will take a mile. 得寸进尺。
5). I have received your letter and read it with delight. 我收到了你的信，愉快地读了。
7). I wash my face in the morning.我早上洗脸。
8). He shrugged his shoulders, shook his head, cast up his eyes, but said nothing.
他耸耸肩，摇摇头，两眼看天，一句话不说。
9）The significance of a man is not in what he attained but rather in what he
longs to attain.人生的意义不在于已经获取的，而在于渴望得到什么样的东西。10) The more he tried to hide his mistakes, the more he revealed them.
他越是想要掩盖他的错误，就越是容易暴露。
11) I saw her waving her hand and smiling sadly at me.
我看见她挥着手，对我忧愁地微笑着。
12) It took me a long time to reach the hospital.
我花了很长时间才到了医院。
1). He looked gloomy and troubled. 他看上去有些忧愁不安。
2). As the temperature increases, the volume of water becomes greater.
温度升高，水的体积就增大。
3). We knew winter vocation was coming as (because) we had seen the big stone in
the River.
（我们）看见了河里大石头，就知道寒假要来了。
4). If winter comes, can spring be far behind? 冬天来了，春天还会远吗？
5). When it is dark in the east, it is light in the west; when things are dark in
the south there is still light in the north.东方不亮西方亮，黑了南方有北方。
6) She won't be coming, as we didn't invite her。我们没邀请她，她不会来的。
7) My heart bleeds when I recall the scene --- my teacher moved with difficulty
out of the room, with tears in his eyes.
回想起老师眼含泪水艰难地走出教室的情景，我心里悲痛极了。
1). The People‘s Republic of China was founded in 1949.
一九四九年中华人民共和国成立。
2). In July, 1956, Egypt had seized the Suez Canal.
一九五六年七月，埃及占领了苏伊士运河。
3). And on July 1st, 1999, I graduated from university.
一九九九年七月一日，我大学毕业了。
4). Smoking is prohibited in public places.
公共场所不准吸烟。
5) On the morning of the exam day I woke up early.
考试的那天早上，我醒得很早。
6) It is really a tough job --- there is no help for it.
这真是件棘手的事，毫无法子可想。
1). A book is useful. （是）有用（的）。
2). The moon was slowly rising above the sea. 月亮从海面上慢慢升起。
3). A teacher should have patience in his work.当教员的应当有耐心。
4). The girl standing at the window is his girlfriend.站在窗口的（那个）女孩是他女朋友。
5). Milk is sold by the pound. 牛奶按磅计价。（牛奶是论磅卖。）
6). He left without a word. 他一句话不说就走了。
7). The children are of an age. 这些孩子都是同岁的。
8）A boy is always a boy 孩子终归是孩子。
9）Winter is the best time to study the growth of trees. Although the leaves are gone and the branches are bare, the trees themselves are beautiful.
冬天是研究树木生长的最好季节，虽则树叶落了，树枝光了，但树木本身却是美丽的。1) When the pressure gets low, the boiling-point becomes low. 气压低，沸点就低。
2) European habits have changed much along with the increase in supermarkets and
shopping centers, the number of cars, and the modernization of housing.
欧洲人的习惯随着超市、购物中心和小汽车的增多，以及住房的现代化而发生了变化。1）University applicants who had worked at a job would receive preference over
those who had not.
报考大学的人，有工作经验的优先录取。
2）Neither party shall cancel the contract without sufficient cause or reason.
双方均不得无故解除合同。
1) There was no snow, the leaves were gone from the trees, the grass was dead. 没有下雪，但叶落草枯。
2) Voting ballots are unsigned and marked by the voters in private booths so that no one else can find out for whom a citizen is voting.
选票不记名，由选民在隔离的投票站内填写，这样就不知道选民投了谁的票。
3) Matters in the world should be handled by the government and people of all countries through consultations on the basis of equality.
世界上的事情应由各国政府和人民平等协商。
1．我们说，长征是历史记录上的第一次，长征是宣言书，长征是宣传队，长征是播种机。 We declare that, the Long March is the first of its kind in the annals of
history, that it is a manifesto, a propaganda force, a seeding machine
2. 科学技术突飞猛进，给亚洲的发展带来新的机遇，也带来新的挑战。
The rapid advance of science and technology has presented both new opportunities and challenges to the development of Asia.
3. 新形势、新趋势、新技术，促进了生产力的发展。
The new development, trends and technologies have helped expand productive forces.
4. 他们为国家作的贡献比我们所作的贡献要大的多。
They have done much more contributions for the state than we have.
1. 中东有些地区仍未结束社会动荡和纷扰不安的局面。
The social unrest and upheaval has not been put an end to in some regions in the Middle East. 2. 师生关系愈好，就愈有利于教学水平的提高。
The better/ closer relations between teachers and students, the more chances
for improving teaching.
3. 迅速改变我国贫穷落后的面貌，是我国各族人民的强烈愿望。
It is the burning desire of all the people to end our country‘s poverty and
backwardness quickly.
4. 世界各地举行了许多盛大的新年庆祝活动。
Many grand new-year celebrations are held in the world.
5) 没有和平，没有稳定的政治局面，就谈不上经济发展。
Without peace or political stability, there would be no economic growth.
1）在出席会议前，我有些急事要处理。
I have some urgent business on hand before (attending) the meeting. .
2）他没有致闭幕词就宣布会议结束了。
He dismissed the meeting without a closing speech.
3) 她连续讲了两个小时的法语，没有出现任何错误。
She has been talking in French for two hours without any mistakes.
4）十万元以下的轿车的出现，激起了更多人购买私家车的热情。
The appearance of cars priced at less than 100,000 yuan aroused the enthusiasm
of more people for private cars.
1) 中国人民为此进行了长期不懈的努力。
The Chinese people have made unremitting efforts to that end/for that.
2) 为了保卫国家安全，维护祖国统一，我们必须不断增强国防实力。
We must build up our defense capability with a view to safeguarding our State security and national unity.
3) 科学技术在一些领域取得重大突破。
Breakthroughs were made in some areas of science and technology.
4) 各项社会事业全面进步。
All social undertakings developed. /The social undertakings developed in an all-round way.
5) 我们要进一步开创外交工作的新局面。
We shall open up new vista in diplomatic work.
6)我们要加强与世界各国在经济、文化等领域的交往。
We must enhance our economic and cultural exchange with other countries.
7) 市场商品供应丰富多彩。
The market had an adequate supply of commodities.
1) 科学技术日新月异。Science and technology are advancing /developing rapidly.
2) 大学校园文化包罗万象，其主流是―青春、浪漫、激扬‖的。
The campus culture in universities are all-inclusive, with the main stream of youth, romance and passion‖.
3) 各级党组织和领导干部都要旗帜鲜明地反对腐败。
Party organizations and leading cadres at all levels must take a clear stand to oppose corruption.
4) 我们满怀信心、昂首阔步迈向21世纪。
We are advancing confidently forwards to the 21st century.
In terms of conversion we mean that in translation a word in one language belonging to a certain part of speech is not necessary to be turned into one of the same part of speech in another language. As a matter of fact, conversion in the English language is very common. So, conversion is one of the important techniques and is needed primarily by the differences in syntactic structure and idiomatical way in the two languages.
Conversion occurs on many occasions.
This is the first round.
There is a round table in the room.
Round the corner slowly.
He walked round the table.
He admires the Preside nt‘s stated decision to fight for the job.
他对总统声明为保持其职位而决心奋斗表示钦佩。
1．Vietnamese War is a drain on American resources. 越南战争不断地消耗美国的资源。
2. His very appearance at any affair proclaims it a triumph.无论什么事情，只要他一露面，就算是成功了。
3. An acquaintance of world history is helpful to the study of translation.读一点世界史，对学习翻译是有帮助的。
4. A view of Mt. E-mei can be obtained from here.从这儿可以看到峨嵋山。
5.The American airline industry has enjoyed significant expansion in the last twenty years.
过去的20年里，美国的航空工业突飞猛进。
6. The growing concentration of wealth in the hands of a few people raised social
and political issues. 财富逐渐集中在少数人手中，引发了许多社会问题和政治问题。
7. He is no smoker, but his father is a chain-smoker.他倒是不抽烟，但他的爸爸却一支接一支地抽（是个老烟枪）。
8. He was a regular visitor. 他经常来。
9. What kind of sailor are you? (a bad sailor or a good sailor?) 你晕不晕船？
10．We cannot become participants in the war, but nor must we be mere spectators.
我们不能参与战争，但也不能袖手旁观。
11. Americans are great joiners, as the huge number of organizations available in
the United States attests.
美国人热衷于参加各种活动，看看不胜枚举的各种组织就足以证明这一点。
12. ―Coming!‖ Away she skimmed over the lawn, up the path, up the steps, across the veranda, and into the porch.―来啊!‖ 她转身蹦着跳着地跑了, 越过草地, 跑上小径,跨上台阶, 穿过凉台,进了门廊。
13. Jones opened the windows to let fresh air in.
琼斯把窗子打开,让新鲜空气进来.
14. That day she was up before sunrise.
那天她在日出前就起来了.
15．The Statue of Liberty was a gift to USA from France in 1886 as a mark of
friendship and also in memory of the aid France gave the Americans during the
American Revolution.
自由女神像由法国于1886年赠给美国，作为友谊的象征，并纪念美国独立战争期间法国给予的
援助。
1. She behaves as if she were a child.
她的举止跟一个孩子一样。
2. A well-dressed man, who looked and talked like an American, got into the car.
一个衣着讲究的人上了车，他的言谈举止酷似美国人。
3．Population grew both as a result of natural increase and of continued
immigration.
人口的增长是自然增长和不断移民的结果。
4. The American economy is organized in single-owner businesses, partnerships and corporations.
美国经济的组织方式是个人所有制、合伙制和公司制。
5．White policemen are now careful of how they speak and behave towards their
fellow black citizens.
白人警察现在十分注意自己及对黑人公民的言行举止。
1.They did their best to help the sick and the wounded.
他们尽了最大的努力帮助病号和伤员。
2. Robin Hood and his merry men hated the rich and loved and protected the poor.
罗宾汉和他的同伴们痛恨阔人，热爱并保护穷人。
3. Stevenson was eloquent and elegant—but soft.
史蒂文森有口才、有风度，但很软弱。
4. This problem is no less important than that one.
这个问题的重要性不亚于那个问题。
5. Glass is more transparent than plastic cloth.
玻璃的透明度比塑料布要好。
1. It is editorially said that…
社论说……
2. He is strong physically, but weak mentally.
他体力很强，可智力很弱。
3. The new type of machine is shown schematically in Figure 1.
图一所示是这种新型机器的简图。
I can note the grace of her gesture.
我可以看到她优雅的举止。
2. We have seen the beauty of Mt. Tai.
我们看到了美丽的泰山。
3. Independent thinking is an absolute necessity in study.
独立思考是学习所绝对必要的。
B. Adverbs—Adjectives
4. The English language has changed subtly and pervasively.
英语的变化很敏感，很普遍。
5. She looked at me expectantly.
她用期待的眼光看着我。
6. Hopefully, it will be done early next month.
下月初完成这项工作是大有希望的。
7．Variety is a key characteristic of the United States, both geographically and
culturally.
多姿多彩是美国地理和文化的主要特征。
1. The man nodded with satisfaction.
那人满意地点了点头。
2. He had the honor to attend the congress.
他荣幸地出席了代表大会。
B. Adjectives—Adverbs
3. He had a careful study of the map before he started off.
他在出发前仔细地看了看地图。
4. Can you give an accurate translation of the sentence?
你能准确地把这句话译出来吗？
1. 中国政府承诺不对无核国家使用核武器。
(1) The Chinese Government commits itself to non-use of nuclear weapons against
non-nuclear countries.
(2) The Chinese Government undertakes not to use nuclear weapons against non-
nuclear countries.
2．我们要确保更有效地利用外资。
(1) We shall ensure that foreign capital is more effectively utilized.
(2) We shall ensure more effective utilization of foreign capital.
3．那个国家片面地注重工业，忽视农业和轻工业，因而市场上货物不够，货币不稳定。That country‘s lopsided stress on heavy industry to the neglect of agriculture
and light industry results in a shortage of goods on the market and an unstable
currency.
4. 这次国际会议开得好。
The recent international conference was a success.
5. 中国在发展经济的过程中，逐步改善了人民的生活条件。
The economic growth in China has been accompanied by the improvement of the people
‘s living conditions.
6. 当今中国，电脑使用已经普及，上网人数与日俱增。
Nowadays, with the wide use / application of computers in China, more and more people have access to the Internet.
7. 中国仅有美国一半的可耕地，却负担为美国人口四倍的人民的吃饭问题。
China supports a population four times that of the United States with the
arable land only half that of the US.
8. 他们不顾一切困难挫折，坚持创业。
They kept on their enterprise in spite of all difficulties and setbacks.
9．他不懂知足常乐的道理，对现有的一切还不满足。
He never understands that happiness lies in contentment, so he isn‘t content
with what he has already had.
10. 得知台湾地震，全国人民深表关切。
The people in the mainland are all deeply concerned at the news that Taiwan has
been struck by an earthquake.
11. 证人不敢肯定命案发生时他不在场。
The witness isn‘t sure that he has an alibi for the time death took place.
1. 去年中国出口总额为1873亿美元。
China‘s export totaled US$187.3 billion last year.
2. 专家认为，肥胖人口增长的主要原因是人们的运动量减少。
The experts attribute the increasing number of obese people to the decrease in
the physical exercises.
3. 国民经济出现了重要转机。
The national economy has improved significantly.
4. 许多家用电器都是在中国制造的，这些家用电器性能可靠，操作方便。
A lot of household appliances are made in China, which (and they) are reliable in performance and easy in operation.
1．水资源稀缺，是我国经济和社会发展的严重制约因素。
Lack of water resources is a serious limitation on the economic and social development of our country.
2. 所有单位必须搞好卫生，清除混乱和不文明现象。
All the organization must clear up, and banish disarray and discourtesy.
3. 亚洲依然是世界上最具经济活力的地区。
Economically, Asia is still the most dynamic region in the world.
4. 一切形式的恐怖行为都严重威胁着所有人民、所有国家的和平、繁荣和安全。
Terrorist acts in all forms and manifestations are a profound threat to the
peace, prosperity and security of all people and of all nations. Terrorism of all forms poses a profound threat
5. 他慢条斯理地点了一两下头说：―是的。‖―Yes,‖ he said with a slow nod or two.
6. 他们热忱地欢迎他。They give him a hearty welcome.
9. 他会立即答复。He will give an immediate reply.
The English language has its peculiarities in negation. Of course, English
-speaking people have their own way of thinking in the negation and expressing
negative implications. What is affirmative in form in English may be implied
something negative in Chinese, and vice versa. The use of ―yes‖ and ―no‖ is a
case in point.
1. --―Are you not going tomorrow?‖
--―No, I‘m not going.‖
2. ―I don‘t think you‘re right in this point.‖
Leave me alone! Go away! 别烦我！走开！
Feel at home. 别见外，别客气。
I went to the airport to meet my friend but missed her. 我去机场接朋友，可是没接着。
Good winner, good loser. 胜不骄，败不馁。
Discussion: 你真不是东西！？
What a creature you are! What a fool you are! You are a sheer idiot. 我认为你不是东西。
I think you are an idiot.
I don‘t think you are trustworthy.
你算什么东西！
You, really, are nothing. You think you are something. No, far from it.
1．You have roused my curiosity. And now you must gratify it.
a) 你既然挑起了我的好奇心，就别再吊我的胃口了。
2．Appearances are often deceptive. 外表往往是靠不住的。
3．She was irritated at being denied the opportunity to get a pay rise.
她没有得到涨工资的机会，非常生气。
4．She is the last person to trust with a secret. 她是最不能保守秘密的人。
5．It escapes your notice that she has changed so much. 你没注意到她变化那么大。
6. The computer is beyond repair. You might as well buy a new one.
这台电脑修不好了，你不如买台新的算了。
7. Women who do house work by the hour may make nearly as much as public school teachers, if they work the same number of hours.
做家务的钟点女工在同样的时间内，其收入同公立学校的教师的工资差不多。
8. They accepted the peace proposal with dignity. 他们不失体面地接受了这项和平方案。
9. While she liked his works, she pointed out areas where improvement was possible.
尽管喜欢他的作品，但她仍指出某些地方有待改进。
10. She seemed pale from the absence of all cosmetics. 因为没有化妆，她看上去面色苍白。
11. At the news of his father‘s death, he remained quiet for several days.
得知父亲过世的消息，他好几天都一言不发。
12. Before too many years passed, corner gasoline stations may be replaced by
battery-recharging terminals.
用不了多少年，街头加油站就有可能被蓄电池充电站所代替。
13. Decision has to come. 决定还没有做出。
14. He was 75, but he carried his years lightly. 他75岁了，可是并不显老。
1．The hotel staff spared no pains to ensure that our stay was as joyable as possible.
旅馆工作人员竭尽所能让我们住得舒适些。
2．Nothing but a miracle could prevent the company from going bankrupt.
只有奇迹发生，这家公司才能免于破产。
3．Your negligence was nothing less than criminal.
你的疏忽简直是犯罪。/ 你的疏忽无异于犯罪。
4．She couldn‘t find anywhere to live, though not for want of trying.
她四下里寻找住处，仍是找不到。
5．Don‘t lose time in handing in the exerc ise books. 立即把作业本交上来。
6．If all three of you take part in it, there can be no further questioning of
your courage.
要是你们三位都参加，那就足以证明你们勇气可嘉。（反译）
要是你们三位都参加，无疑你们是有勇气的。（正译）
7．We could not be more mistaken. 我们大错特错了。
8．You can not be too careful in proofreading. 校对时越仔细越好。
9．I couldn‘t agree with you more. 我完全同意。
10．Anybody less like a dictator they would not find.
他是他们所见到的最霸道的人了。（反译）
他们再也找不到比他更霸道的人了。（正译）
1. Such a chance denied me. 我没有得到这样一个机会。
2. The doubt was still unsolved after his repeated explanations.
虽然他一再解释，疑团仍然存在。
3. ―Don‘t unstring your shoes, Rody,‖ she said. 她说：―把鞋带系上，罗迪。‖
4. Many agreed that the Prime Minister had in effect given up his position
dishonorably.
许多人认为首相辞职实际上很丢面子。
5. We may safely say so. 我们这样说万无一失。
6. The explanation is pretty thin. 这个解释相当不充分。
7. His refusal is not final. 他的拒绝并非不可改变。
8. He was an indecisive sort of person and always inconstant.
他这个人优柔寡断，而且总是反复无常。
9. Miss Smith kept to her room all day. 史密斯小姐终日足不出户。
10. You should seize the opportunity at any moment to put in a good word for me.
你应该不失时机为我说说情。
11. The examination left no doubt that the patient had died of cancer.
调查结果清清楚楚说明病人死于癌症。
12. Students, with no exception, are to hand in their papers this afternoon.
今天下午学生统统要交书面作业。
13. Jim was no end upset because he couldn‘t go swimming. 吉姆非常心烦，因为他不能去游泳。
14. If it worked once, it can work twice. 一次得手，再次不愁。
15. Let bygones be bygones. 既往不咎。
16. He was not going to lose sight of me. 他一直在监视我的行踪。
重复译法主要体现在以下几个方面：
1、英语中常重复使用前置词，而将第二个、第三个前置词的名词省略，翻译时则往往要把名
词重复；
2、英语句子常常用一个动词连接几个宾语或表语，在译文中要重复这个动词；
3、英语句子中动词后有前置词时，在第二次第三次往往只用前置词而省略动词，在译文中则
要重复动词以代替英语中重复的前置词；
4、英语中两个并列句中后句的动词承接前文省略，而在汉语中独立的分句必须具备谓语，翻
译时必须重复译出英语中省略的动词。
1. Since most new smokers apparently are women, my friend‘s confu sion was understandable. And there are more than ever since September 11.
（2）大多数的新烟民似乎都是女性，我的朋友误以为她们是妓女也情有可原。自9.11事件发
生后，抽烟的女性人数比以往任何时候都多。
2. Americans view relationships in terms of ―rights‖; Chinese in terms of―obligations‖ --- to family, to one‘s el ders, to the country.
美国人以―权利‖看待关系，而中国人则以―义务‖看待关系：包括对家庭的义务、对长
辈的义务和对国家的义务。
3. Detroit owes its rapid growth and one-time prosperity to the automobile, and above all to Henry Ford.
底特律的迅速发展和一度繁荣归功于汽车业，尤其归功于亨利-福特。
4. Westerners think in ―prose‖, ea ch sentence or paragraph following from the
preceding.
西方人思维方式是―散文式‖的，每句话、每个段落都承接着前句或前段。
5. Populations increase and decrease relatively not only to one another, but also to natural resources. 人口的增减不仅彼此有相对关系，而且也和自然资源有相对关系。
6. Americans are beginning to realize that this terrible problem of poverty is their problem and not just the Government‘s.
美国人开始意识到可怕的贫困问题不仅是政府的问题，更是他们自己的问题。
7. Genetically engineered rice is the key to Asia‘s food security, to feed
impoverished millions.
转基因大米对于保障亚洲粮食供给十分重要，对于保证贫穷的数百万人民温饱也十分重要8. Justice will inevitably prevail over evil, light over darkness and progress
over backwardness.
正义终将战胜邪恶，光明终将送走黑暗，进步终将替代倒退。
9. The 21st century executive must be a global strategist, working as deftly in tokyo as in New York. He sees --- then seizes --- markets worldwide.
21世纪的行政主管必须是全球战略家，无论在东京还是在纽约，都能应付自如。他能够纵
览全球市场，把握市场机遇。
10. Ericsson launched its slim and smart new model which analysts expect will boost profits but not market share in the tough mobile phone market.
手机市场竞争激烈，爱立信公司推出小巧时尚的新机型，专家预测这种机型能够增加利润，但不会扩大市场份额。
12. Some theaters concentrate on the classics and serious dramas, some on light comedy, some on musicals.
有些剧院集中上演经典剧目和严肃戏剧，有些剧院集中上演轻喜剧，而有些剧院则集中上
演音乐剧。
13. Around the world, laws on human cloning research are either restrictive, absent, or are lagging behind what is happening in the laboratory.
（1）全世界关于克隆人研究的法律要么加以限制，要么缺乏，要么落后于实验室的进程。1). Jesse opened his eyes. They were filled with tears.
杰西睁开眼，眼里充满了泪水。
2).He hated failure;he had conquered it in his own life,risen above it,despised it in others.
他讨厌失败，他一生中曾战胜失败，超越失败，并且藐视别人的失败。
3). Happy family also had their own troubles.
幸福家庭也有幸福家庭的苦恼。
4). Big powers have their strategies while small countries also have their own lines.
强国有强国的策略，小国有小国的路线。
5). Each country has its own customs.
各国都有各国的风俗。
6). Whoever violates the disciplines should be criticized.
谁犯了纪律，谁就该受到批评。
7). Come to my office and have a talk with me whenever you are free.
你什么时候有空，就什么时候到我办公室来谈一谈。
8) Some have entered college and others have gone to the countryside.
上大学的，上大学了，下乡的，下乡了。
或：有的上大学了，有的下乡了。
1). We want such materials as can bear high temperature and pressure.
我们需要能耐高温、高压的材料。
2). Everybody appreciates polite words and manners.
每个人都会赞赏礼貌的言辞和礼貌的举止。
3). They are loyal to the motherland and the people.
他们忠于祖国，忠于人民。
1). There had been too much publicity about his love affairs.
他的风流韵事已经是满城风雨、人人皆知了。
2). The boasts were flat.
祝酒辞时平平淡淡的。
3). The kid is always in rags as if he were an orphan.
那个孩子整天穿得破破烂烂，就像个孤儿似的。
1. The fine would serve as a warning to other drivers who drove without due care.
罚款对于驾车不够小心的司机可以起到警告作用。
2. The era of globalization has begun with new communication and information technologies, and capital could flow freely to those regions, industries and companies that promise the best returns. 随着通信和信息技术的发展，全球化时代已经到来，资本可以自由地流向有望获得最大收益
的地区、产业和公司。
3. One of the features of London is the number of big stores, most of which are to be found in or near the West End.
伦敦的一大特色是大商店多，大多数位于西区及周边地区。
4. Like the press in most other countries, American newspapers range from the
sensational, which feature crime, sex and gossip, to the serious, which focus on
factual news and the analysis of world events.
美国报纸和其他国家一样，既有耸人听闻的小报，报道犯罪、色情和小道消息，也有严肃报
刊，聚焦实事新闻，分析国际时事。
5. The high-tech explosion has created a new group of workers that like challenge and treasure the independence and the diversity of work.
高科技迅速发展，造就了一批新的员工，他们喜欢挑战，珍视独立和工作的多样性。
6. Cambridge University has nurtured great scientists, thinkers and poets such as Newton, Bacon, Milton, Byron and Darwin, who made outstanding contribution to the progress of mankind.
剑桥大学培养出了牛顿、培根、弥尔顿、拜伦、达尔文这样伟大的科学家、思想家和诗人，
他们为人类的进步做出了杰出的贡献。
7. The idea that the family is the traditional unit of society is challenged by
American youth who are increasingly turning down marriage.
家庭是社会的传统组成成分，而美国青年越来越拒绝婚姻，使这种观念受到了挑战。
8. Technology is creating a global economy that is supplanting the old national
economies.
（1）由技术带来的经济全球化正在取代旧有的民族经济。
9. Foundations are based on the money that would otherwise go to the government in
taxes. 基金会所依赖的资金本来会以税收的形式上缴政府。
10. The trend of home working is surging in the field of finance where trading can
卡特福德英国《翻译的语言学概论》篇章等值 翻译是把一种语言的话语材料用另外一种语言的等值话语予以替代 行文对等形式对应 尤金·奈达美国 翻译是指从语义到语体在译入语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现原语信息 动态对等功能对等 巴尔胡大罗夫苏联《语言与翻译》 意义不变 尽可能完备的传达原文各种类型的语义，包括所指意义、实用意义和语言内部意义 彼得·纽马克英国 表达功能------ 语义翻译 信息功能呼唤功能------- 交际翻译 卡瑟琳娜·莱斯，汉斯·威密尔，克里斯蒂安·诺德。德国功能学派 功能翻译理论 以原语为取向：竺法护西晋，尼古拉斯·封·维尔德国，赛珍珠美国 以译入语为取向：支谦康僧会唐朝，鸠摩罗什东晋，西塞罗贺拉斯古罗马 以翻译目的为导向的翻译标准威密尔德国 泰勒特“翻译三原则”严复“信达雅” 翻译标准：主观向客观、散论到系统、静态向动态、单一向多元发展 第三章 佛经翻译对中国文化产生的影响 语言方面： 佛经翻译大大丰富了汉语词汇；在语法方面，汉语受佛经翻译的影响也不少 文学方面： 印度寓言故事神话传入中国，对中国文学题材内容有影响；对我国文学的思想情趣产生影响；汉译佛典对我国文学文体方面有巨大影响 哲学方面： 佛教对道教的影响；对儒家思想体系的影响，沿用了佛学的辩证逻辑思路 翻译传递的是文化信息；语言是文化的基础，是文化得以流传的载体，是文化的镜子。
译者的责任： 微观上，正确处理文字技术层面上的责任； 宏观上，促进社会发展和文化交流方面的责任 译者在技术层面上的责任： 既不能对不起原作者，也不能对不起译文，往往也就是译者自己的国文 得其精而忘其粗，在其内而忘其内 译者在社会和文化层面上的责任： 要对社会负责；要有稳定的立场 译者的素质： 彼得·马克：本国语方面，掌握丰富的词汇和各种句型；精通外语；能顺利用本国语表达原著意义 尤金·奈达：熟悉原语；精通译语；充分了解所译题材；具备“移情”本领；具备语言表达的才华和丰富的文学想象力 第六章 纽马克《翻译教程》交际翻译 将原语文本的语境意义以其思想内容和语言形式都容易为译入语读者所接受和理解的方式准确地传递出来 汉斯·威密尔翻译是一种目的性行为（功能学派） 目的论的核心概念：翻译方法和翻译策略必须由译文预期目的或功能来决定 施莱尔马赫德国将翻译方法归为两类 1、尽量不动读者而将原作者拉过来,即归化 2、尽量不动原作者，而将读者推过来，即异化（施莱尔马赫本人推崇） 雅各布逊从符号学的角度将翻译分成三类： 语内翻译、语际翻译、符际翻译 总结：翻译不仅仅是纯语言间的文字转换，而首先是一种交际行为，是为了达到特定环境和条件下的特定交际目的 第七章 翻译活动的处理方式分类：全译；节译、摘译、编译、译述（边翻边译） 文体分类：文学翻译、非文学翻译 活动方式分类：笔译、口译
翻译概论课后参考答案 HUA system office room 【HUA16H-TTMS2A-HUAS8Q8-HUAH1688】
翻译概论课后习题答案 第二章 P41-1? 试对中西传统译论作进一步研究和比较，并指出其异同之处。 西方 （1）公元前46?年，罗马帝国时期的西塞罗撰写了《论最优秀的演说家》中区分了翻译的两种基本方法——直译和意译，堪称西方译论之源。 （2）公元380?年圣哲罗姆的翻译集所作的序中，认为对词序、文采、辞格、韵味的处理存在着客观上的困难。 （3）文艺复兴时代的法国翻译家艾蒂安·多莱在1540年发表了《论佳译之方法》提出了五条翻译原则，都是从怎么译的角度来探讨翻译的。 （4）德国马丁·路德提出翻译的七条细则。 （5）以翻译《伊利亚特》与《奥赛德》而驰名译坛的英国翻译家乔治·查普曼提出了具体的译诗的原则。 中国? （1）陈福康将中国传统译学理论的发展分为古代、晚清、民国、1949?年以后四个时期。 （2）三国时支谦写的《法句经序》主张的翻译方法“因循本旨，不加文饰”。 （3）东晋、前秦时期的高僧、翻译家道安的“五失本”、“三不易”。 （4）张思洁在《中国传统译论范畴及其体系》一书中所言，自《法句经序》起，中国传统翻译思想大略经历了形成、转折、发展和鼎盛四个阶段。
（5）罗新璋从张思洁的长轴中理出四个概念，高度概括了传统译论的历程： “案本—求信—神似—化境”。 （6）王宏印对中国传统译论有五个特点：“一、以道德为本位，强调译者道德修养和敬业从业为本的主体性意识。二、服务公众和社会的群体本位思想。三、人文主义的语言观而不是科学主义的语言观，始终是中国传统翻译实践的潜在的理论导向。四、人文社科类作为主要文本翻译的类型，在材料内容、语言类型和运思方式上都倾向于文学翻译的艺术性，而不是科学翻译的科学性。五、哲学的而非科学的，美学的而非宗教的，是中国传统译论的始终如一的理论基础。 异： 中西方翻译理论译者的主体意识与客体意识。西方译论强调客体意识，注重保持“物”(文本)“我”(译者)之间的距离，注重对文本进行冷静、客观的解析。而中国传统译论强调译者的主体意识，以“人”为出发点，重视译者的主观能动性在翻译过程中的作用。中西方翻译理论表述的含蓄性与明确性。西方翻译理论以西方语言之间的翻译为研究对象，在用来指导西方语言文字之间的翻译时具有较强的解释力，并且逻辑严密，具有很强的明确性。中国传统译学理论的倡导者注重一切尽在不言中的意境，给予人们较大的联想和领悟空间，但无法给翻译实践作出精确的规定，具有含蓄性。 同： 我们发现在很长一段历史时期里，人们对翻译活动的认识主要停留在经验和文本层面，更多的是从翻译的得失与困难以及对翻译方法与技巧的探讨这两个方面来认识翻译。如何译译得如何这些可以说是从古代到近代的各国翻译家苦苦思索的一个永恒的主题。 P41-3 翻译中要达到完全等值是否可能为什么
翻译概论参考答案
在理论层面上，对翻译过程进行过比较有系统的研究，这些研究有别于一般的 经验总结，其目的在于通过对翻译过程的多角度的考察，对翻译过程中所涉及 的各种要素之间的矛盾有进一步的认识，进而为处理这些矛盾提供理论依据； 同时对整个翻译过程的步骤进行科学的分析，从理论上探索可行的翻译之路。 主要有以下几种倾向： 1 选取某一角度对翻译过程的某种特征进行研究。 2 对翻译过程的全面考察，并借助某种理论，对其进行模式化探索。 3 对翻译过程的理论概括与理性剖析。 通过梳理和总结众多翻译家及翻译研究者对翻译过程的经验性或理论性的认 识，我们对狭义的翻译过程有了一个初步的了解。尽管不同学者研究的侧重点、 所借鉴的理论和研究方法各有不同，但他们对狭义翻译过程的认识从本质上来 说是一致的。也就是：狭义的翻译过程是译者将出发语文本转换成最终的目的 与文本的过程，而译者的理解与再表达是这一过程的两个基本步骤。在这两个 步骤中，理解总是先于表达，它是一切翻译活动的前提。对原文本理解的好坏 直接影响到译文的质量。 三．试分析“复译”现象产生的原因。 从文本的生成，传播的生命历程来看，首先遇到的便是“时间”与“空间”。 一个文本的生命，既有时间意义上的延续，也有空间意义上的拓展。而无论是 时间上的延续还是空间的拓展，“语言”的问题便不可避免地凸现出来。语内 翻译所涉及的原语与译入语之间主要是时间上的差距，而语际翻译，除了时间 上的差距之外，还要面对不同空间或文化语境中所使用的不同语言。从理解层 面上说，从前不可译的因素在新环境下可能变得可译，从表达层面上说，旧译 本的语言可能变得不可理解甚至不可接受，这一切都召唤着复译的产生，以推 动文本的生命继续发展。正是这种不断延续的翻译，构成了我们所说的“复译” 现象。 四.试阐述为什么翻译的根本任务是意义的再生。 加拿大的维纳和达尔贝勒在《法英比较修辞》一书中明确指出：“译者总是 从意义出发，在语义的范围内进行所有的转换活动。”也就是说，“意义”既是翻译的出发点，也是翻译的归宿。美国翻译理论家奈达也有一句著名的言论：“翻译，即译意”。此外，古今中外众多翻译理论家在对翻译作出定义时，都 把原文的意义的传达当作翻译的根本任务。于是，我们可以这么说：“意义” 是翻译活动致力传达的东西，是翻译的核心和根本。 五. 简述索绪尔的语言意义观与传统语言意义观的不同之处，并分析索绪尔的 语言意义观给翻译活动带来的启示。 1. 传统语言意义观 传统语言意义观即“语言为分类命名集”的观点。这一观点是相当普遍的， 无论在东方还是在西方。这种语言观有着悠久的历史。将语言视作是“分类命 名集”的观点首先强调了指称和概念的一一对应，有一个事物，就有一个与之 对应的名称。其次，这种语言观也暗示着指称和概念。由传统语言观，我们可 以得到以下结论：语言的不同，只是外在的语言符号的差异，或者说只是“名” 的差异。正是在这种语言观和语言意义观的影响下，在相当长的一个历史时期 内，字对字、词对词的的翻译方法被许多翻译家当做最可信、最可靠且最可行 的翻译方法，当做对原文忠实的根本保证。 2. 索绪尔的语言意义观
27.书面语：书面语是用文字记录的语言形式，它是文字产生或在口语的基础上产生的，书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。 26.口语：就是有声的口头语言，任何一种语言都有口头存在形式。它是书面产生的基础。 28．语言相关论：语言相关论是萨丕尔和沃尔夫提出的关于语言与思维关系的观点，主张语言决定思维，不同的语言就有不同的思维方式。 29．大脑语言功能临界期：大脑语言功能临界期是指大脑的单侧化，大脑左半球的分区以及语言的遗传机制，都只提供人具有语言能力的潜在可能性，这些潜能必须在一定期限内被一定的语言环境激活才可能起作用。26．语言符号的所指 :语言符号的所指是符号的形式所指的意义内容。 29．机器翻译：通过计算机把一种语言自动翻译成另一种或多种自然语言的信息处理技术。 26.语音：语音是人的发音器官发出的、用于人与人之间交际并表达一定意义的声音。 27.词：词是最小的、有意义的、能够独立运用的语言单位。 28.语用：语用指语言运用，即人们在一定的交际环境中对语言的实际运用。 29.文字：文字是记录语言的书写符号系统。 27．单纯词：单纯词是由一个构词语素构成的词。 29．屈折：屈折是通过词的内部发生语音的交替变换来改变词的语法意义的手段。 28．意译词：是用本族语言的构词材料和规则构成新词，把外语中某个词的意义翻译过来。 27.仿译词：是用本族语言的语素逐个对译外语原词的语素造成的词，它不仅把原词的词义翻译过来，而且保持了原词的内部构成方式。 29．主谓词组：两个成分之间具有被说明和说明关系的词组是主谓词组。 27．复辅音：一个音节内处于同一个肌肉紧张的渐强阶段或渐弱阶段上的两个或两个以上辅音的组合。 27.双语现象：某一言语社团使用两种或多种语言的社会现象，具体而言是社团内的全体成员或部分成员双语并用的现象。 28.亲属语言：从同一种语言中分化出来的各个语言叫亲属语言，亲属语言之间具有历史同源关系。 26．调位：利用音节内的音高差别来起辩义作用的语音单位叫做调位，调位是一种非音质音位，依附在音位的组合序列上。 29.词组：实词与实词之间具有直接联系的相对独立的词群。 28．语素：语素是语言中音义结合的最小单位。 28．词尾：附着在词干后的，能改变词的语法形式，但不能构成新词的语素。 29．语素：音义结合的最小语言单位。 26．词类：词类是词在语法上的分类。它指可以替换出现在语法结构某些共同组合位置上的词的类，即具有聚合关系的词的类。 27．词法：（1）词法主要描写词的形态特征和词形变化规则。例如，俄语的名词在形式上有单数和复数的区别，有阳性、阴性、中性等性的区别，有主格、宾格、属格等格的区别，这些都是典型的词法现象。（2）由于印欧语言中构词单位、构词方式和词类都与词的形态变化相关，因此构词和词类问题也成为词法的一部分。27．语法意义：语法意义是语法形式所体现的意义，是语言中通过一类形式或功能所获得的意义。二者相辅相成，不可分离。如“动词+名词”有动宾关系的意义，汉语所有的同类组合都是如此，这种意义就是一种语法意义。 27.语法形式：语法形式就是能体现表达某种语法意义的形式。表示某一类语法意义或者有共同作用的形式，如词类形式、组合形式、虚词形式，就是语法形式。语法形式不是个别的语音形式和词语形式，但能产生某一类意义或者有共同作用的语音表现形式或者词形变化形式也是语法形式。 27.语法手段：根据语法形式的共同特点所归并的语法形式的基本类别叫做语法手段。语法手段可分为词法手段和句法手段两大类。通过词形的变化来表现语法意义的形式是词法手段；通过结构的变化来表现语法意义的形式是句法手段；例如英语名词后加s表示复数，英语动词后面加ed表示过去时，就是词法手段中的词形变化。 28．自源文字：自源文字指独立发展起来的文字。如古埃及文字、苏美尔文字、汉字，这些文字的形体、体系都是由最早使用该文字的人们独创的。 29．语音合成（1）语音合成是语音信息处理研究中的主要工作。 （2）语音合成就是让计算机模拟人的发音器官的动作并发生类似的声音。如汉语的语音合成目前已初步实现自动生成声韵调结合的音节。 26．句子:句子是词或词组按一定规则组合成的、能表达相对完整的意义、前后有较大停顿并带有一定的语气和句调的语言单位。 27．异化：语流中两个相同或相近的音，其中一个因受另一个影响而变得不相同或不相近。
翻译概论期末复习 1. 基本概念（互译） 补偿compensation 不可译性untranslatability（untranslatable） 达/ 易懂intelligibility/expressiveness 等效原则principle of equivalent effect 等值翻译equivalent translation 动态对等dynamic equivalence 读者反映论reader's response 读者为中心的翻译标准reader-centered for translation 对等物（词语）equivalent 对应（部分对应/ 完全对应）（partial /full ）correspondence 翻译程序/步骤translation procedures 翻译体/翻译腔translationese 翻译学translatology/Translation Studies 风格style 佛经Buddhist Scriptures/sutra 符际翻译intersemiotic translation 改变说法rewording 功能对等functional equivalence 归化domestication/naturalization/adaptation/endogenization/target-accommodating translation 机器翻译machine translation（MT） 交际翻译communicative translation 交替口译consecutive interpreting 解码decode 可译性translatability（translatable）理解understanding/comprehension 流畅fluency 乱译/ 胡译excessively free translation 明析化explicitation 模仿imitation 目的论skopostheorie 诗学poetics 视点转换shift of perspective 释义法/解释法explanation/paraphrase 死译/ 硬译mechanical translation 套译/ 仿译/仿拟imitation 通顺smoothness 同声传译simultaneous interpreting 透明（度）transparency 歪译（意义扭曲）distortion 伪译pseudotranslation 文本text 文本等值textual equivalence 文本为中心的翻译标准text-centered criteria for translation 文化沟(空缺/ 非对应)cultural gap 误译mis-translation 信/ 忠实faithfulness/fidelity 形合hypotaxis 形式对等formal equivalence 形式对应formal correspondence 雅/ 优美elegance/gracefulness 异化foreignization/alienation/exoticization/ exogenization/source-oriented translation 译本/ 译著translated text/translational work 译借(语义转借)calque(loan translation) 译文target text, translation, target version, rendering, rendition 译语/ 译入语target language(TL), receptor language, receiving language 译语读者target-language reader/TL reader/receiving audience 译语文化target-language culture/target culture/receiving culture 译者为中心的翻译标准translator-centered criteria for translation 译者隐形translator ' s invisibility 意合parataxis 意识形态ideology 意译free translation/liberal translation/semantic translation 音译法transliteration 语际翻译interlingual
翻译概论课后习题答案 第二章 P41-1 试对中西传统译论作进一步研究和比较，并指出其异同之处。 西方 （1）公元前46 年，罗马帝国时期的西塞罗撰写了《论最优秀的演说家》中区分了翻译的两种基本方法——直译和意译，堪称西方译论之源。 （2）公元380 年圣哲罗姆的翻译集所作的序中，认为对词序、文采、辞格、韵味的处理存在着客观上的困难。 （3）文艺复兴时代的法国翻译家艾蒂安·多莱在1540年发表了《论佳译之方法》提出了五条翻译原则，都是从怎么译的角度来探讨翻译的。 （4）德国马丁·路德提出翻译的七条细则。 （5）以翻译《伊利亚特》与《奥赛德》而驰名译坛的英国翻译家乔治·查普曼提出了具体的译诗的原则。 中国 （1）陈福康将中国传统译学理论的发展分为古代、晚清、民国、1949 年以后四个时期。 （2）三国时支谦写的《法句经序》主张的翻译方法“因循本旨，不加文饰”。 （3）东晋、前秦时期的高僧、翻译家道安的“五失本”、“三不易”。 （4）张思洁在《中国传统译论范畴及其体系》一书中所言，自《法句经序》起，中国传统翻译思想大略经历了形成、转折、发展和鼎盛四个阶段。 （5）罗新璋从张思洁的长轴中理出四个概念，高度概括了传统译论的历程： “案本—求信—神似—化境”。 （6）王宏印对中国传统译论有五个特点：“一、以道德为本位，强调译者道德修养和敬业从业为本的主体性意识。二、服务公众和社会的群体本位思想。三、人文主义的语言观而不是科学主义的语言观，始终是中国传统翻译实践的潜在的理论导向。四、人文社科类作为主要文本翻译的类型，在材料内容、语言类型和运思方式上都倾向于文学翻译的艺术性，而不是科学翻译的科学性。五、哲学的而非科学的，美学的而非宗教的，是中国传统译论的始终如一的理论基础。 异： 中西方翻译理论译者的主体意识与客体意识。西方译论强调客体意识，注重保持“物”(文本)“我”(译者)之间的距离，注重对文本进行冷静、客观的解析。而中国传统译论强调译者的主体意识，以“人”为出发点，重视译者的主观能动性在翻译过程中的作用。中西方翻译理论表述的含蓄性与明确性。西方翻译理论以西方语言之间的翻译为研究对象，在用来指导西方语言文字之间的翻译时具有较强的解释力，并且逻辑严密，具有很强的明确性。中国传统译学理论的倡导者注重一切尽在不言中的意境，给予人们较大的联想和领悟空间，但无法给翻译实践作出精确的规定，具有含蓄性。 同： 我们发现在很长一段历史时期里，人们对翻译活动的认识主要停留在经验和文本层面，更多的是从翻译的得失与困难以及对翻译方法与技巧的探讨这两个方面来认识翻译。如何译？译得如何？这些可以说是从古代到近代的各国翻译家苦苦思索的一个永恒的主题。 P41-3 翻译中要达到完全等值是否可能？为什么？ 答：翻译中不能达到完全等值。卡特福德对翻译的定义如下：用一种等值的语言（译语）的文本材料去替换另一种语言（原语）的文本材料。“替换”与“等值”之间具有逻辑的联系，翻译既然可以等值，就只是一种替换行为。苏联的费道罗夫明确提出“等值论”：翻译的等值，就是表现原文思想内容的完全准确和作用上、修辞上与原文完全一致。然而翻译不仅仅是一种纯语言层面的活动，更是一种重要的文化实践。语际翻译实际上是一个涉及因素多、范围广的复杂实践活动。其中的许多问题，如翻译者的主观因素、语言转换中的文化移植、影响翻译的社会、政治因素等问题，在语言学层面难以展开系统和深入的分析，得不出令人信服的答案，翻译历史上的众多现象也无法做出辩证的解释。翻译的语言学研究途径暴露出的这些局限，使其他学科理论的介入显得非常必要。 第四章 P103-1 试简述为什么翻译的根本任务是意义的再生。 答：加拿大的维纳和达尔贝勒在《法英比较修辞》一书中明确指出：“译者总是从意义出发，在语义的范围内进行所有的转换活动。”也就是说，“意义”既是翻译的出发点，也是翻译的归宿。美国翻译理论家奈达也有一句著名的言论：“翻译，即译意”。此外，古今中外众多翻译理论家在对翻译作出定义时，都把原文的意义的传达当作翻译的根本任务。于是，我们可以这么说：“意义”是翻译活动致力传达的东西，是翻译的核心和根本。
从中西翻译大家看译者素养 -----《中西翻译简史》读书报告 《中西翻译简史》（a brief history of translation in china and the west），谢天振等著，这本书共包括十五个章节---翻译与宗教，翻译与知识传播，翻译与民族语，翻译与当代各国的文化交流，可见本书把中西翻译发展的历史放在一起进行描述，既强调中西发展史的共同点，也展示两者发展过程中的各自的独特性。 在编写原则上，本书强调“三抓”：一抓主线，即抓住中西翻译史上的主要事件；二抓主角，即抓住中西翻译史上的主要代表性人物；三抓主题，即中西翻译史上最有代表性的翻译思想和理论。我的心得体会便是从第二条主线入手的，即中西翻译史上的主要代表性人物。 我想着重从翻译大家的身上总结一下作为一名二十一世纪的翻译专业的学生，到底应该具备什么样的素养才算合格甚至是优秀。 首先，让我们看一下他们的所处的时代背景。罗马帝国时期的翻译家如西塞罗，贺拉斯，昆体良，哲罗姆等都是顺应时代的要求，从翻译大量的希腊文化典籍到翻译圣经。中国的翻译思想出现的时间虽然晚得多，但是也是从宗教典籍---佛经开始的。无论中西方翻译大家翻译宗教典籍的目的是出于政治统治，还是为了劳苦大众的信仰服务，我们都不难得出结论，他们的翻译工作正是因为顺应历史的要求才取得了如此伟大的成就。 其次，再来看翻译大家各自的出身情况。哲罗姆的《通俗拉丁文本圣经》是在他任教皇达马苏一世的秘书时完成的。而我国著名僧人中诸如彦琮，玄奘虽所处朝代不同，但都是奉召主持翻译佛经的。我国近代著名的翻译家和文学评论家傅雷，上海市南汇县人，1927年赴法学习，主攻美术理论和艺术评论。而恰恰在1931年回国后，他便开始了穷其一生的法国文学工作，且译作丰硕，共30余种，且风格独特，备受好评。他之所以能取得如此令人瞩目的翻译成就，和他几年的赴法经历不无联系 最后，个人因素。看了著名翻译家的详细介绍之后，还有两点共性不难被发现。一是他们对母语以及至少一门语的熟练应用。二是他们的博学。其中最值得一提的就是中国著名学者和作家钱钟书先生，他从小就接受过良好的古典文学教育，不仅在文学创作上成就卓著，其长篇小说《围城》被译成多种语言广为流传；他在学术研究领域的成就也是举世瞩目，其学术巨著《管锥编》以及诗论《谈艺录》，论文集《七缀集》等都是中国学界的经典之作。 以上是一些列的史实，现在让我们听一下关于译者素养的问题，翻译大家们的看法是怎样的。英国著名翻译理论家泰特勒对译者该具有的专业素质进行了概括，认为译者应该在语言和相关的知识方面是行家，这样才能满足翻译的要求。生活于南北朝时期的彦琮在他的翻译专论《辨证论》中对历代译经的得失进行了分析和评点，并在此基础上提出了一个合格的佛经翻译者所必须具备的八个条件，即“八备”说：“诚心爱法，益人，不殚久时，其备一也；将践觉场，先牢戒足，不染讥恶，其备二也；诠晓三藏，义贯两乘，不苦暗滞，其备三也；旁涉坟史，工缀典词，不过鲁拙，其备四也；襟抱平恕，器量虚融，不好专执，其备五也；耽於道术，淡於名利，不欲官衔，其备六也；要识梵言。乃闲正译，不坠彼学，其备七也；薄阅苍雅，粗谙篆隶，不昧此文，其备八也。热爱佛法，立志帮助别人，不怕费时长久。品行端正，忠实可信，不惹旁人讥疑。彦琮的“八备”说是我国翻译史上较早论及翻译主体译者
语言学概论读书笔记 汉语言文学邝云梅 第一章语言和语言学 第一节语言的客观存在形式 1.语言的客观存在形式表现为：口语、书面语。 2.书面语和口语的主要差别：口语是第一性的，书面语是在有了文字之后才产生的。口语发生在一定的社会背景和语言环境中，而且交际双方或各方在进行口头交际的同时常常伴随着各种面部表情、手势和体态，还有各种不同的口气和语调，而书面语一般只记录词语，没有记录这些成分。书面语有可能比口语积累的语汇丰富，语法结构也更精密，表达方式也更多样化。 3.语言和民族的关系：它们之间的关系比较复杂，二者不存在一一对应的关系。就大多数情况而言，一个民族使用同一种语言，但在世界上也有不少这样的情况，即不同的民族使用同一种语言，同一种民族却又使用不同的语言。 第二节语言的性质 1.句子是最小的交际单位。 2.符号是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。 3.能指是语言符号的物质实体，能够指称某种意义的成分。 4.所指是语言符号所指的意义内容。 5.组合关系是一个语言单位和前一个或后一个语言单位，或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系叫组合关系，也叫“句段关系”。它体现在互相关联的语言单位组成的整体中。 6.聚合关系是在同一位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位之间的关系。 7.语言与言语的区别：语言是使一个人能够理解和被他人理解的全部语言习惯，是社会成员约定俗成共同使用的部分，是均质的，是言语活动的社会部分；言语则具有个人特色，因为每个人说话的嗓音，每个音的具体发音，使用的词语和句子结构都不尽相同。即语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的，有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分；而含有个人要素或个人杂质的说话行为和说出来的话(包括写出来的“话”)只能属于言语。 8.语言符号的特征：任意性、强制性与可变性。人们最初创制单个的语言符号时，用什么样的形式——语音与什么样的内容——语义相结合，并没有什么必然性，而带有很大的偶然性或随意性。在同一社会，同一时代，对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的。同一社会在不同时代，其语言符号的声音、意义，以及两者间的关系就会随着时间的推移和社会的变化而变化。 第三节语言学 1.索绪尔创立的语言学被称为结构主义语言学。
?、翻译的定义 ?翻译的定义: 历史上?们对于翻译的定义分为三个阶段，并且对这三个阶段进?了研究： 1）传统语?学研究阶段：借助实际经验来理解翻译，对于翻译的定义往往是?喻式的。例如：鸠摩罗什认为翻译有似嚼饭与?，傅雷认为翻译如临画； 2）现代语?学研究阶段：将?光集中在语?的对等上。例如：卡特福德将翻译视为不同语??本材料的替代，奈达认为翻译是原语信息的在现； 3）当代多学科研究阶段：研究翻译的教的变得多元，从?化、社会、符号、?理学等多个?度对翻译做定义； 由于翻译时?项极其复杂的活动，通过对翻译本质特征的简要归纳，尝试作出如下定义：翻译是以符号转换为?段，意义再?为任务的?项跨?化交际活动。 ?翻译活动 翻译活动不是?种置?于时空之外的静态活动，它是翻译主体在?定历史条件和?化背景中，通过具体的语?转换?进?的?种?的?分明确的实践活动，涉及众多内部和外部的因素。 对内部进?纵向的思考和探讨——语?：三个层次 1）思维：根本上翻译活动赖以进?的基础是全?类具有思维活动的事实，?类思维的共性构成了翻译的思维层次； 2）语义：思维的实现需要语?，以达到传情达意的?的，??种语?符号传达另?种语?符号的意义，构成了翻译的语义层次； 3）美学：语?除传情达意之外，还具有审美功能，尤其是?学语?，更?层次的要求。 对外部进?横向的思考和探索——?化：三个层? 1）意愿：翻译活动具有?的性，它总与某种政治、宗教、经济或社会需要紧密联系，因?翻译?的影响到了作品选择、翻译?场和翻译?法； 2）现实：不同国家民族在语?、?学、?化、?理??存在差异，阻碍翻译活动的顺利进?，促进?们对翻译可?性的思考； 3）道德：翻译主体——译者受社会道德的约束，?法从?所欲；对翻译的评价也?法摆脱作为社会意识形态表现之?的道德的约束； ?翻译的特性： 1）社会性：翻译活动存在是因为?之间的交流需要，?与?之间的交流所形成的关系具有社会性； 2）?化性：翻译的本质作?——克服语?障碍的精神沟通，通过?化层?的交流得到；翻译活动也收?化语境的影响；翻译的实际操作——语?转换，不能不考虑?化因素； 3）符号转换性：巴斯奈特》翻译是?种语??为，本质上属于符号学范畴，翻译活动?先体现在符号的转换层?； 4）创造性：翻译的全过程是参与原?创造的能动的过程——语?结构重建、?化语境重建、新的读者和解读； 5）历史性：翻译随着历史发展不断丰富着内涵和形式；翻译能?随历史发展——新的翻译可?性；翻译?定本——翻译活动的历史局限以及不断超越局限不断突破的必要性；
外交学概述 学习和研究外交学，首先有必要对外交的界定、外交的发展及外交的研究对象的基本问题有所了解，并尽可能地明确自己的态度。倘若对这些关键点避而不谈，或者含糊不清，在理论上、实践上都将有害而无益。在系统而深入地学习和研究上述基本问题时，科学的态度应该，是理论联系实际，坚持与时具进，既要善于对具体问题进行具体分析，又要善于积极地进行独立思考。 第一节外交的界定 学习和研究外交，一定要首先明确何谓外交。假如对外交这一外交学最为基本的概念缺乏正确理解，则必将使外交学的学习和研究出现方向性的偏差。 无论是学习研究外交学，还是具体地参与外交学活动，实际上都有必要首先对外交做出明确的界定。也就是说，一定要科学地准确地为外交学这一外交学的基本概念划定清晰的界限，并且严谨地具体地确定外交的内涵和外延。 一、外交的本质 外交的本质，在外交学研究中一向属于敏感之点。从理论上进行概括，前人所使用的有关外交的概念，大致上可以被归纳为两大基本类型：一是广义的外交，二是狭义的外交。 1、广义的外交 现代意义上的“外交”概念，最早是从古希腊语“外交官”一词转变而来的。使用罗马字母所拼写的这一古希腊的单词应为
“DIPLOMA”，它的本意为“证书”，指的是发给驻外使臣的经过折叠的一种专门证明其使节身份的文书。到了1796年，英国学者埃德蒙·伯克正式采用“DIPLOMACY”来表示外交，“外交”一词方才正式出现。 著名学者欧内斯特·萨道义指出：“外交是运用智力和机智处理各独立国家的政府之间的官方关系，有时也推广到独立国家和附属国家的关系。”① 英国人费尔萨母认为：“外交的基础是国家之间（目前日益扩展到国际组织之间）交换彼此的思想和观点。”② 周恩来总理曾明确表示：“外交是国家和国家间的关系，还是人民和人民间的关系？外交工作是以国家为对象，还是以人民为对象？……但就外交工作来说，则是以国家和国家的关系为对象的。外交是通过国家和国家的关系为对象的。外交是通过国家和国家的关系这个形式来进行。” 在《中国大百科全书》里，外交的释义是：“国家以和平的手段对外行使主权的活动。通常指国家元首、政府首脑、外交部长和外交机关代表国家进行的对外交往活动。③ 在《世界外交知识词典》里，外交“就是国与国之间的交往、交涉。它是国家实现其对外政策的重要手段”。④ 综观以上定义，可见其有四点共同之处： ①转引自[英]戈尔—布思主编：《萨道义外交实践指南》，3页，上海，上海译文出版社，1984。 ②[英]费尔萨姆：《外交手册》，1页，北京，中国对外翻译出版公司，1984。 ③《中国大百科全书》，政治卷，336页，北京，中国大百科全书出版社，1992。 ④计翔翔等主编：《世界外交知识词典》，1页，杭州，杭州出版社，2001。
传播学概论读书笔记 《传播学概论》一书原名《Media， Communication and Human》，中文直译为《男人、女人、讯息和媒介—人类传播概论》，是威尔伯·施拉姆对他在一九七三年出版的《人、讯息和媒介——人类传播一瞥》一书(同威廉·波特合作)的修订本，于一九八二年出版。本文是品才网小编精心编辑的传播学概论个人读书笔记，希望能帮助到你！ 传播学概论读书笔记学术著作的使命是传播高深的理论知识，一般是晦涩难懂的。作为传播学的奠基者，威尔伯·施拉姆在构建传播学理论时，并没有故弄玄虚，而是从人们接受和理解信息的规律出发，从人的认识规律出发写作，传播“传播”的真谛，使得这一理论容易被人们所接受。他认为，大众传播与人际传播相结合是最好的传播方式。上世纪八十年代来中国讲学时，他就对中国特色的“开会读报”现象大加赞赏。他认为，大众传播与人际传播并不是排斥的，二者可以相互结合以实现优势互补：“大众传播媒介在迅速而有效地满足社会的一般需要上具有不可比拟的力量……另一方面，广播、电视、电影和报纸在满足不同的人们在不同时间的需要以及在一定时间仅为少数人感到的需要上则是效率甚低的渠道。……但是，我们切不可认为个人之间的交流同通过媒介的传播是针锋相对、互相排斥的。事实上，
正如我们想力图指明的那样，两者之间的区别与界限是远没有那样清楚的。大多数以说服、教育为目标的运动都力图把大众媒介同个人渠道结合起来，使其互相加强、互为补充。”在具体的写作实践中，也可以将两种方式结合运用。 《传播学概论》一书原名《Media， Communication and Human》，中文直译为《男人、女人、讯息和媒介—人类传播概论》，是威尔伯·施拉姆对他在一九七三年出版的《人、讯息和媒介——人类传播一瞥》一书(同威廉·波特合作)的修订本，于一九八二年出版。该书对于人际传播元素的吸纳，在学术专著中是独树一帜的。该著作使得学术专著一改“严肃晦涩”的面孔，以轻松自如的笔调阐述道理，又不失学术著作的深度。整部书一直在与读者对话，像一位乐于与人交流的健谈者在侃侃而谈，娓娓道来，不断有新的问题，时起时落，时深时浅。这种效果主要是吸纳人际传播元素，通过营造“对话感”、“形象感”和采用“故事化”的写作方式取得的。 “对话感”：“以人为本”的学术著作 学术著作为了体现客观性，一般要去掉“人”的语气(尤其是避讳以作者第一人称出面叙述，以示价值中立)，以“事理”为主进行客观描述。而施拉姆在这部著作中，以“人”为主语，用自然轻松的方式讲清楚“传播”的大道理。可以说，是一本“以人为本”的学术著作。该书开篇突破一般学
多项选择： 1. Roman Jakobson’s tripartite classification: intralingual translation (rewording), interlingual translation (translation proper), and intersemiotic translation (transmutation) 2. text types: technical, institutional, literary translation 3. outline of major theories of translation: (1) Chronologically (by the time of their birth or occurrence): the philological, hermeneutic, linguistic, communicative, sociosemiotic, skopos, manipulative, norm, post-structuralist, postcolonial (2) topologically (by the particular approach adopted or focus directed by their proponents): their approaches to translation may be grouped into the philological, linguistic, functionalist, semiotic, cultural, philosophical. 重要概念： 1. translation studies: (1). The paper “the name and nature of translation studies”written by James Holmes in 1988, marks the birth of the discipline of TS.
郑州大学外语学院研究生课程论文 翻译概论课程综述 课程名称:翻译概论 学号: 研究方向:英语笔译 成绩: 任课教师: 2015年12月30日
目录 一、我国翻译理论概述 (1) （一）、佛经翻译 (1) （二）、西学翻译 (2) （三）、五四时期的翻译 (2) （四）、抗战建国以来的翻译 (3) 二、西方翻译理论概述 (3) （一）、翻译学科的创立 (3) （二）、翻译三原则 (4) （三）、归化异化翻译理论 (4) （四）、翻译的语言学问题 (4) （五）、功能对等翻译理论 (5) （六）、交际翻译与语义翻译理论 (5) （七）、功能翻译理论 (6) （八）、多元系统理论 (6) （九）、翻译规范理论 (7) （十）、改写理论 (7) 三、重要翻译理论对比 (8) （一）、鲁迅与韦努蒂的异化翻译比较 (8) （二）、严复与泰特勒翻译理论比较 (8) （三）、归化异化与直译意译的比较 (8) （四）、奈达与纽马克翻译理论的比较 (8) 四、总结 (9)
翻译概论课程综述 摘要：本文以课程内容、翻译理论原作以及相关研究文献为依据，综述了课程中涉及到的国内外重要的翻译理论，并对其中几个翻译家及其翻译理论进行了比较。关键字：翻译理论综述比较 Abstract: Based on the course content, some original works about translation theories and relevant literatures, this thesis sums up the major translation theories both at home and abroadinvolved in the contend of the course “General Introduction to T ranslation”, and makes comparisons between several translators as well as their translation theories. Keywords: translation theories, summarization, comparisons 一、我国翻译理论概述 国学大师季羡林认为，中华文化好比一条长河，正是得益于翻译，才保证了河水没有枯竭。“一次是从印度来的水，一次是从西方来的水。而这两次的大注入依靠的都是翻译。中华文化之所以能长葆青春，万应灵药就是翻译。翻译之为用大矣哉！” 我国的翻译历史按时间顺序和译著类别可以分为五个时期：东汉至唐宋的佛经翻译，明末到清的科技翻译，清朝到民国的西学翻译，五四时期的翻译及建国以来的翻译。 其中佛经翻译就是从“印度来的水”，西学翻译就是从“西方来的水”，对我国的文化发展起到了补充和促进的作用。 （一）、佛经翻译 佛经翻译又主要分为三个时期： 第一时期的主要代表人物为安士高和支谦。安士高于翻译的经典义理明晰，文字允正，可说是佛经汉译的创始人，也是将禅观带入我国的第一人。支谦在《法句经序》指出“名物不同，传实不易”。支谦“翻译不易”的观点在翻译历史上具有史论价值。 第二时期的主要代表人物有道安和鸠摩罗什。道安提出“案本而传，不令有损言游字”，主张直译。同时，他的“五失本，三不译”的翻译理论在翻译史上具有译论价值。所谓“五失本”是指1、经文乃外语，其词序由汉人看来是颠倒
L1中国翻译发展： 1. The earliest historical documents 周朝《周礼》and《礼记》 2. 汉代传译的《四十二章经》是佛经最早的中译本 3. 东汉桓帝时，安世高一一《明度五十校计经》是正式见于史籍记载的翻译佛经 4. Zhi Qian (支谦) extremely literal translation. follow the original intention of the author without any embroidery"(因循本旨，不加文饰) 5. Dao An (道安) literal translation translate according to the original without any additioin and deduction"(案本而传，不令有损言游字) Personal activity-official organization ( fifth century) 6. Kumarajiva (鸠摩罗什) He emphasized the accuracy of translation. free translation the first to suggest tran slators sig n their n ames to tran slated works. 7. The First Peak of Tran slation in Chi na : from the Sui dyn asty (581-618) to the Tang dyn asty (618-907) thoroughly studied tran slation theory. tran slators should: " (1) be faithful to the Buddhist doctri ne, (2) be ready to ben efit the readers (Buddhist believers), (3) concentrate on the translation of the Buddhist doctrine rather tha n tran slati ng for fame." 8. 玄奘：将佛经由梵文译成汉文，而且把老子著作的一部份译成梵文，成为第一个把汉文 著作向国外介紹的中国人Con tributio n to theory: set dow n the famous tran slati on criteria that translation "must be both truthful and intelligible to the populace."( 既須求真又須喻俗，意即忠实、通順) Aiming to achieve an in telligibility of the tran slati on for the target Ian guage readers 9. P3.明清之际的科技翻译 Western Christian missionaries (利玛窦...) Assisted by Chinese collaborators (徐光启、李之藻)利玛窦、徐光启：《几何原本》、《测量法义》，利玛窦、李之藻《同文算指》，利玛窦：论语、孟子、大学、中庸一一拉丁文 第二次翻译高潮 (1) The subject of tran slati on shifted from Buddhist scriptures to scie ntific and tech no logical kno wledge; (2) translators in this period of time were mainly scientists and government officials who were erudite scholars, and the western missionaries who brought western knowledge to Chi na. 10. the 3rd peak : from the mid 19th century to May 4th Movement emphasis on Western works of social soie nces, military scie nces and literature 11. 林则徐(1785-1850): Geography ( Gazette of the Four Continents《四洲志》)；李善兰(1811- 1882)：Geometry《几何原本》； 严复：《天演论》、《原富》； 林纾：《茶花女》，《块肉余生述》，《黑奴吁天录》《鲁滨逊漂流记》 12. Tran slation in Modern period ( 1919-1949): focus on the tran slation of Karl Marx's (1818-1883) and Lenin's (1870-19224) works on socialist and communist theories (社会主义和共产主义) ,and the translation and re-translation of western literature. 朱生豪：莎士比亚戏剧全集 张谷若：德伯家的苔丝》和《还乡》，哈代的《无名的裘德》、狄更斯的《大卫?考坡菲》P7,鲁迅，矛盾，郭沫若，付东华，傅雷，林语堂