THE YEAR IN ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION BIOLOGY,2009
Forest Wildlife Management
and Conservation
David B.Lindenmayer
Fenner School of Environment and Society,The Australian National University,
Canberra,Australia
Forests are critical for the world’s biodiversity,the regulation of the Earth’s climate,and the provision of goods and services for humans.This review focuses on four broad top-ics:(1)key processes threatening forest biodiversity;(2)broad strategies for mitigating threatening processes;(3)climate change and forest biodiversity;and,(4)plantations and biodiversity.How key issues within these broad topics are addressed will have pro-found effects on forest biodiversity and the Earth’s climate.A signi?cant global problem for biodiversity conservation is the conversion of natural forests to other land uses,both in developing and developed nations;ways must be urgently identi?ed to halt forest con-version.When forests are logged for timber or pulpwood and then regenerated,impacts on biodiversity are harder to quantify than when forests are converted to other land uses.Hence,the effectiveness of efforts to mitigate such impacts(where they occur)is frequently not well known.Climate change may result in substantial changes to forest ecosystems,and its effects may interact in additive or cumulative ways with other hu-man disturbances in forests,although work on such combinations of impacts is in its infancy.The establishment of plantations of trees is frequently proposed to sequester large amounts of carbon and/or produce biofuels to mitigate the climate-change effects. However,there is potential for perverse outcomes,such as biodiversity loss where plan-tation establishment is narrowly focused and other environmental values are ignored. Key words:forests;biodiversity;reserves;off-reserve management;climate change; plantations;adaptive management;monitoring
Introduction
Native or natural forests are among the most species-rich environments on earth,making them critical reservoirs for many groups of biota ranging from vertebrates to microbes(Torsvik et al.1990;Gill1995;Crozier et al.1999).Na-tive forests are also key stores of forest carbon (IPCC2007;Mackey et al.2008)and as a result have a major role to play in the mitigation of climate-change impacts.
It is not the aim of this chapter to comprehen-sively review the broad range of topics within forest management and forest biodiversity con-Address for correspondence:David B.Lindenmayer,WK Hancock Building West(43),The Australian National University,Canberra,ACT, 0200,Australia.david.lindenmayer@https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,.au servation.This would be an almost impossible task given the massive proliferation of journals and other kinds of literature examining such subjects.Nor does this review attempt to repeat the considerable content of key texts on for-est biodiversity conservation(e.g.,DeGraff and Miller1996;Hunter1999;Lindenmayer and Franklin2002).Rather,this review examines a subset of existing and emerging issues associ-ated with the management and conservation of the world’s forests and forest biodiversity. Four broad(and strongly interrelated)top-ics are covered:(1)key processes threatening forest biodiversity.(2)broad strategies for miti-gating threatening processes.(3)climate change and the conservation of forest biodiversity.and (4)plantations,biodiversity conservation,and the risks of“bio-perversity.”A brief overview of each topic is accompanied by a discussion of
The Year in Ecology and Conservation Biology,2009:Ann.N.Y.Acad.Sci.1162:284–310(2009). doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04148.x C 2009New York Academy of Sciences.
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complexities,challenges,and unresolved issues. The?nal part of this review touches on some key challenges for the conservation and man-agement of forest ecosystems and identi?es some of the knowledge gaps that need to be closed.
Processes Threatening Forests
and Forest Biodiversity Several key factors threaten,or have the po-tential to threaten,forest biodiversity.Four of these are(1)forest conversion to other forms of land cover,(2)logging,(3)salvage logging, and(4)altered natural-disturbance regimes. They are brie?y discussed in the remainder of this section and are a prelude to the follow-ing one on mitigating their impacts.An entire section of this review is dedicated to a brief dis-cussion of a?fth threatening process—climate change.
Forest Conversion
Forest conversion is the clearing and replace-ment of native forest with some other kind of land cover,such as for grazing for domestic live-stock and agriculture,plantation establishment, and urban settlement.
Land conversion is one of the greatest threats to native forests and forest biodiversity on all of the Earth’s vegetation continents and in both developed and developing nations.For-est conversion removes habitat for many forest-dependent species.This is a major issue because habitat loss is the primary driver of species loss worldwide(reviewed by Groombridge and Jenkins2002;Fahrig2003;Lindenmayer and Fischer2006;Schipper et al.2008). Calculating annual rates of forest conversion is problematic because of inadequate satellite coverage and arguments over de?nitions of for-est clearing.The Food and Agraculture Organ-isation of the United Nations(FAO2007)esti-mates that0.3%of the world’s area of forests or 13million ha is cleared annually.Annual?gures for tropical humid forests are～120,000km2 with most of the world’s14–18million km2now cleared,primarily in the last50years.For trop-ical dry forests,annual rates of conversion have been estimated to be40,000km2(Chivian and Bernstein2008).Such estimates of forest con-version do not include the area of forest subject to traditional forms of high-intensity logging such as clearfelling,which removes temporar-ily forest cover but aims to regenerate stands following harvesting(see later in the chapter). They also do not include areas of forest sub-ject to illegal logging where stands may not be clearfelled,but large structurally and?oris-tically important trees are removed(Koenig 2008).
In many jurisdictions,the primary reason for forest conversion is to create areas for domestic livestock grazing and agriculture(UNEP1999; Foley et al.2005;Millennium Ecosystem Assess-ment2005;UNEP2007).Other factors can re-sult in forest conversion.For example,clearing of native forests to establish plantations is a ma-jor form of land conversion worldwide(Jackson et al.2005;FAO2007)and has been a driver of biodiversity loss in such places as Australia (Tyndale-Biscoe and Smith1969),Asia(Ara-trakorn et al.2006),and South America(Grez et al.2006;Barlow et al.2007).For example,in Malaysia alone,several million hectares of na-tive forest have been cleared to establish planta-tions.Relatively large areas of private forest in the United States are at risk of conversion from expanding urban development,putting an ar-ray of species at risk,including many threatened taxa(Robles et al.2008).
Complexity and Issues
A major challenge is the development of better social,economic,ecological,and other strategies to slow(and eventually halt)forest conversion(Koh and Wilcove2007),includ-ing in those areas such as central Africa where extensive areas of intact rain forest are unpro-tected in reserves,although not currently sig-ni?cantly threatened(Koenig2008).
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From an ecological perspective,there is a re-markable paucity of empirical?eld studies in the conservation biology literature that have directly quanti?ed relationships between for-est conversion and species loss(Fazey et al. 2005a).It may be that many conservation bi-ologists perceive that quantifying relationships between habitat loss and species loss are too trivial to warrant detailed examination(Fazey et al.2005a).Y et important questions remain about the relative in?uence on species richness and species persistence of the total amount of habitat versus the spatial pattern of that habi-tat(Fahrig2003).This,in turn,has signi?cant implications for the way forests are managed, particularly the number and location of harvest units across landscapes(Franklin and Forman 1987).
Forest Logging Substantial areas of native forests are logged globally each year.For example,as estimated 5000km2of forest is cut annually in Asian Russia,primarily by clearcutting.Over four bil-lion cubic metres of timber and pulpwood are produced annually(FAO2001).Many forms of forestry result in the maintenance of vegeta-tion cover,but forest suitability for many species and assemblages can be signi?cantly reduced (Franklin et al.1981;Lindenmayer and Franklin 2002).
There is an enormous and highly complex literature on the effects of logging on ecosys-tem processes and biodiversity.Logging modi-?es forest environments in diverse ways over a range of spatial and temporal scales.Some of the many effects of logging include:?Altered forest composition.Harvesting and re-generation aimed at maximizing timber production typically leads to long-term changes in forest composition(Kellas and Hateley1991;Mueck et al.1996;Ough 2001).Both tree and nontree compo-nents can be altered by harvesting,thin-ning,or culling(Halpern and Spies1995).
Some species(especially commercial tree species and aggressive understory shrubs and herbs)are often favored while other species decline.Successional trajectories after logging often differ markedly from those that occur after natural disturbances (McRae et al.2001).In other cases,log-ging can inadvertently result in the intro-duction of invasive plant species(Linden-mayer and McCarthy2001;Brown and Gurevitch2004).
?Altered abundance and spatial distribution of structural attributes.Logging can reduce the structural diversity of stands,such as that associated with live trees,snags,large logs, and thickets of understory vegetation(Lin-der and¨Ostlund1998),as well as altering the spatial distribution of these attributes (Hilmo et al.2005).Stand structure is of-ten simpli?ed,sometimes drastically,such as when clearcutting is repeatedly utilized (Lindenmayer and Franklin1997).Animal populations that depend on particular for-est attributes,such as cavity trees and de-caying wood,are often negatively affected by commercial logging(deMaynadier and Hunter1995;Lindenmayer et al.2002b; Karraker and Welsh2006).
?Altered spatial patterns of vegetation types and stand age classes.Logging of managed forests usually occurs with higher frequency and greater regularity than natural distur-bances(McCarthy and Burgman1995), at least in forest types that are subject to episodic,stand-replacing disturbances.As a consequence of forest regulation and fre-quent harvesting,natural stand age-class distributions are truncated to support uni-form areas of younger stands(Seymour and Hunter1999).Those uniform areas also tend to be of a smaller size and have more discrete edges than those created by natural disturbances(McRae et al.2001). Changes in the spatial pattern of forest age classes may affect populations of some el-ements of the biota,such as large forest owls(Milledge et al.1991;Lamberson et al.
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1994)and some wide-ranging forest mam-mals(Noss and Cooperrider1994;Linden-mayer et al.1999).
?Landscape dissection by transportation infrastruc-ture.Transportation networks constructed for moving logs can provide access to previ-ously remote regions,encouraging the ex-pansion of human populations and associ-ated agricultural practices(Harcourt1992;
Putz et al.2000),as well as increasing pres-sure on species that are hunted(Redford 1992;Bull et al.2001).The World Commis-sion on Forests and Sustainable Develop-ment(World Commission on Forests and Sustainable Development1999)estimates that between400and2000ha of forest are lost for each kilometer of new road constructed in Brazilian Amazonia.
Forest roads and railways also may have the following effects.
?Redirect large quantities of runoff and
silt into aquatic ecosystems(Naiman and
Bilby1998).
?Increase mortality of animal species
through collisions with vehicles
(Trombulak and Frissell2000;Forman
et al.2002).
?Facilitate movement of native predators
and feral predators(e.g.,the red fox
[Vulpes vulpes]and feral cat[Felis cattus]
in Australia)(May and Norton1996;
May2001)and weeds or invasive plant
species(Wace1977).
?Alter habitat connectivity(sensu Linden-
mayer and Fischer2006)for particular
organisms.As an example,culverts un-
der roads change patterns and speeds
of water?ow in aquatic ecosystems and
can provide signi?cant barriers to the
movement of some organisms such as
?sh(Boub′e e et al.1999;Walker1999).
Logging and associated forest-management practices can directly or indirectly affect key ecosystem processes and forest biota in a range of other ways.For example,logging can com-pact the soil(Rab1998),and fertilizers ap-plied to promote tree growth or herbicides used to control undesired plants can accumulate in the soil or in hydrological systems(White et al. 2006).
Prescribed?re or hazard-reduction(“slash”) burning is a management activity often asso-ciated with logging and is used to encourage postharvesting stand regeneration and/or re-duce the likelihood and intensity of wild?re (Whelan1995)(but see Moritz et al.2004).It can in?uence hydrological regimes,rates of soil ero-sion,and patterns of nutrient cycling(Van Lear et al.1985;Carter and Foster2004;Morley et al. 2004).Prescribed or hazard-reduction burn-ing also can alter(1)vegetation composition (Haskins and Gehring2004;Syphard et al. 2006),(2)the spatial pattern of vegetation types, (3)the structure of stands,and(4)the com-position of animal communities(James and M’Closky2003;Schurbon and Fauth2003; Noss et al.2006).
The spatial and temporal patterns of logging can have many in?uences on forest ecosystems. These in?uences may be small,for example, where logging involves cutting relatively small areas,very long rotations,or the retention of high levels of biological legacies(sensu Franklin et al.2000).Conversely,short rotations,and high levels of utilization,such as occur with clearcutting and even-aged stand management, produce numerous homogenous cut blocks in a landscape.Such outcomes may have signi?cant negative impacts at multiple spatial scales,in-cluding landscape-level cumulative effects(e.g., Franklin and Forman1987).
Complexity and Issues
The impact of native forest logging on forest biodiversity has been a controversial topic for many decades(Yaffee1994;Dargarvel1995; Lindenmayer and Franklin2003;Ajani2007). Studies quantifying logging impacts are an im-portant part of developing effective strategies to mitigate such effects.However,robust stud-ies of logging impacts are far from straightfor-ward.Many investigations to date have been
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problematic for a range of reasons.Just three of
these are:
?A number of studies have contrasted logged and unlogged areas,but have con-
founded logging impacts with the effects
of site productivity on biodiversity.This
is because low productivity areas that re-
main unlogged(but support inherently low
abundances of some taxa)have been com-
pared with higher productivity logged sites
(Lindenmayer and Franklin2002).?Detecting long-term impacts of logging on biodiversity can be extremely dif?cult be-
cause forest trees can be long-lived organ-
isms and the stand development process
can span hundreds of years.Many investi-
gations have substituted space for time in
an attempt to overcome this,but this can
fail to account for the important in?uence
of site history on biodiversity(Gustavsson
et al.2007),leading to erroneous conclu-sions(Pickett1989).
?Some of the most signi?cant impacts of logging on biodiversity are cumulative over space,over time,or both.That is,the im-pact of a single cutblock in a forest land-scape might be limited,but substantial effects may arise when many areas are harvested over the course of a rotation (Franklin and Forman1987).For exam-ple,the loss of structural complexity within stands can accumulate over many cutover sites and result in highly homogenised landscapes.
Some of these problems can be overcome
through the careful design and implementation
of true experiments and natural experiments,
although these can be limited in spatial scale
with associated constraints for inference about
particular groups of biota such as wide-ranging
species(Lindenmayer and Franklin2002).Ex-
periments also often will not provide much use-
ful information about cumulative logging ef-
fects on forest biodiversity.Such kinds of effects
are extremely dif?cult to quantify(Cocklin et al.
1992;Paine et al.1998)and may require the integration of a range of kinds of data such as those from observational studies,landscape analyses,monitoring programs,and simulation modeling.
It is clear that it is not possible to conduct the “perfect”study to quantify logging effects on forest biodiversity.However,researchers need to be more aware of the limitations of their work and account for them in interpreting their results,particularly in the context of improved management for forest biodiversity.
Salvage Logging
Salvage logging is de?ned by the Society of American Foresters(Helms1998)as:“the re-moval of dead trees or trees damaged or dying because of injurious agents...to recover eco-nomic value that would otherwise be lost.”Its potential effects on forest biodiversity are best considered separately from those of traditional (green-tree)logging considered in previous sec-tions because(1)it may have additional and/or different effects,(2)salvage logged timber and pulpwood is an increasing component of the wood harvested from forests in many parts of the world,and,(3)salvage logging is likely to become more common in the future,as climate change may result in large-scale natural distur-bances becoming more frequent(Cary2002), widespread(Breshears et al.2005;Flannigan et al.2005),intense(Emanuel2005),or all of these(Goldenberg et al.2001;Westerling et al. 2006).
Salvage logging is widespread around the world and takes place after such disturbances as:
?wild?res(Hutto2006);
?insect attacks(Government of British Columbia2007a);
?hurricanes,cyclones,and windstorms (Foster and Orwig2006);
??oods(Gregory1997)and debris?ows (Beschta1979);
?volcanic eruptions(Dale et al.2005). Lindenmayer and Noss(2006)noted that salvage logging can differ from traditional
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(green-tree)logging in four ways:(1)the con-ditions preceding logging,(2)the conditions under which logging takes place,(3)what is logged,and(4)the prescriptions used to guide logging operations.
As in the case of green-tree logging,the impacts of salvage logging on forest biodi-versity will vary in response to factors such as:
?type,intensity,frequency,and spatial pat-tern of logging;
?the levels and types of biological legacies that are retained;
?speci?c nature of the ecosystem,ecological processes,and biota involved. However,three additional factors will in?u-ence the magnitude of salvage logging effects:?the type and severity of the preceding natu-ral disturbance(e.g.,windstorm vs.wild?re vs.insect attack);
?combined impacts of the type and intensity of a preceding disturbance and a speci?c intensity and pattern of logging(Odion et al.2004;Thompson et al.2007);?postdisturbance weather conditions(e.g., their in?uence on mass movements of de-bris(Helvey et al.1985).
Salvage logging can have a range of nega-tive impacts on forest ecosystems.It may re-duce or eliminate biological legacies,modify rare postdisturbance habitats,in?uence popu-lations,alter community composition,impair natural vegetation recovery,facilitate the colo-nization of invasive species,alter soil properties and nutrient levels,increase erosion,modify hydrological regimes and aquatic ecosystems, and alter patterns of landscape heterogeneity (Bergeron et al.1993).
Complexity and Issues
As in the case of traditional(green-tree)log-ging discussed in the preceding section,ro-bust studies to document the effects of salvage logging are critically important for designing strategies to mitigate its impacts on forest bio-diversity.However,few such studies have been completed to date(reviewed by McIver and Starr2001;Lindenmayer et al.2008a),and there are signi?cant de?ciencies in several of those that have been conducted.There is an ur-gent need for more and better designed salvage logging investigations because salvaged wood is a large component of the cut from native forests (Nappi et al.2004),and this is likely to further in-crease with climate change–driven increases in large-scale/high-severity natural disturbances (Lindenmayer et al.2008a).
Altered Natural-Disturbance
Regimes
Logging operations have the potential to signi?cantly alter natural-disturbance regimes with corresponding impacts on some ele-ments of biota.This is important because natural-disturbance regimes are increasingly recognized by ecologists as critically impor-tant ecosystem processes that help create habi-tats and resources for biodiversity(Connell 1978;Sousa1984;Parr and Andersen2006). Many aspects of the composition and struc-ture in forests at the tree,stand,ecosystem, and landscape scales are shaped by natural dis-turbances(Parminter1998;Cary et al.2003; Frelich2005).In addition,many species have strong associations with natural-disturbance regimes—some positive and some negative (Bergeron et al.1993;Bunnell1995;Spies et al. 2006).
Logging-induced altered natural-distur-bance regimes can result in the development of such problems as(1)the direct loss of species associated with particular frequencies,intensi-ties,or timing of disturbances(Woinarski1999), (2)failure to recruit key elements of stand struc-tural complexity such as large-diameter cavity trees(Gibbons et al.2008)with correspond-ing impacts on taxa dependent on such struc-tures(Fischer and McClelland1983;Rose et al.
290Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
2001),and(3)increased risks of subsequent high-severity disturbances(e.g.,wild?res and pest outbreaks),with corresponding negative impacts on plants and animals(Thompson et al. 2007).
A key aspect of landscape-level sustainable forest management and biodiversity conserva-tion is the management of natural disturbances such as?re(R¨u lcker et al.1994;Keith et al. 2002)and grazing(Vera2000).In the partic-ular case of the management of?re regimes, this may involve both the suppression of un-wanted(wild)?res and ignition of prescribed ?res(Gill1999).Issues associated with the im-pacts of disturbances by?re and its effects on biota are complex.This is because in some landscapes,such as those in Sweden,problems like a lack of regeneration of particular plant species have been created by the absence of ?re(Zackrisson1977),whereas in others such as ponderosa pine(Pinus ponderosa)stands in the southwestern United States,?re suppres-sion together with livestock grazing mean that wild?res are too intense(Moore et al.2004; Noss et al.2006).The objectives of?re man-agement will vary depending on the proximity of people and property and the relative im-portance of values like timber resources,con-servation,and water production(Keith et al. 2002).The most appropriate?re regime also will depend on the characteristics of the system (R¨u lcker et al.1994).Differences between veg-etation communities and individual elements of the biota in their response to?re mean that there are no simple management recipes(Whe-lan1995).Natural-disturbance regimes may be varied between and within landscapes,to create a range of conditions.Therefore,if un-suitable habitats are created in one area for a given species,there will be other places it can survive.
Complexity and Issues
Many natural disturbance–related issues in forests have yet to be resolved.Some paradigms such as the intermediate-disturbance hypothe-sis have equivocal support as do others like“py-rodiversity begets biodiversity”(Parr and An-dersen2006).Complexities arise because,while single intensive and/or large-scale disturbances can have profound impacts(Turner et al.2003), in many cases it is the disturbance regime(sensu Gill1975)or the sequence of disturbances over time and the timing,intensity,and spatial pat-tern of each perturbation in the regime,that has the greatest impacts.It is hard to quan-tify the most appropriate disturbance regime(s) for a given species,forest type,or forest land-scape because of the spatial and temporal vari-ability in attributes,such as intensity,frequency and timing(Gill1975),and relationships with other issues,such as the ensembles of patch types and conditions that underpin the devel-opment of landscape mosaics(sensu Bennett et al.2006).
A further issue is that although the use of natural-disturbance regimes to guide human-induced disturbances has considerable merit (Hunter2007),it also has limitations.First,the concept is both dif?cult to test and actually remains largely untested in most forest ecosys-tems.Second,some complex forest ecosystem processes are extremely dif?cult to emulate (James and Norton2002).Third,natural distur-bances sometimes induce nonlinear or thresh-old changes in ecological processes,species in-teractions,and population sizes in which there is a sudden switch from one state to a markedly different one(Walker et al.2004).Fourth,the needs of particular taxa and the conservation requirements for particular areas may not be met.Many landscapes have changed as a result of human disturbances such as vegetation clear-ance,and“natural”disturbance regimes may no longer be appropriate or achievable.Human disturbance will never be a perfect analog for natural disturbance,nor are human and nat-ural disturbances independent.Rather,there may be magni?ed or cumulative effects result-ing from both of them occurring in the same broad area.Salvage logging after natural distur-bance is a prominent example(Lindenmayer et al.2008a).
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Broad Strategies for Mitigating the Impacts of Processes Threatening
Forest Biodiversity
Two broad kinds of strategies are fundamen-tal for the conservation of forest biodiversity: reserve-based conservation and off-reserve con-servation.A third—the implementation of ap-propriate natural-disturbance regimes(see ear-lier in this chapter)—is relevant both to reserves and areas outside them.The importance of off-reserve conservation is sometimes ignored by some conservationists,perhaps because it is felt that it might undermine the case for increased reservation.Nevertheless,off-reserve areas,in-cluding those that have had a history of human use(including past logging),are important for forest biodiversity conservation.
Forest Reserves
Large ecological reserves are an essential part of all comprehensive biodiversity conser-vation plans(Gaston et al.2008).They are critically important for at least three promi-nent reasons(after Lindenmayer et al.2006)as follow.
?They support some of the best examples of ecosystems,landscapes,stands,habitat, and biota and provide opportunities for natural evolutionary processes.
?Many species?nd optimum conditions only within large ecological reserves,which become strongholds for these species.
These include taxa intolerant of human intrusion,and for which it is imperative to retain some areas that are largely exempt from human activity.
?Large ecological reserves provide“control areas”against which the impacts of hu-man activities in managed forests can be compared.
Complexity and Issues
Many issues are associated with the design and management of forest reserves.There is an urgent need to improve the comprehensive-ness,adequacy,and representativeness of forest reserves around the world(Gaston et al.2008). The adequacy of the surrogate schemes used to drive reserve design algorithms and other approaches such as gap analysis also needs ad-ditional careful appraisal(Pressey et al.2007). Some authors have suggested alternative and/or additional approaches to improve the ef?ciency and effectiveness of reserve design and conservation actions.For example,the number of species conserved may be signif-icantly enhanced by targeting protection ef-forts at biodiversity hot spots where there are exceptionally high levels of species richness and endemism(Mittermeier et al.1998;Myers et al.2000).While this concept has consider-able merit,areas that are hot spots for partic-ular groups may not be species-rich for oth-ers(Ceballos and Ehrlich2006).Mittermeier et al.(2003)suggested that the protection of existing areas of wilderness could make a sig-ni?cant contribution to conservation because these areas are inhabited by few humans.How-ever,they recognized that these areas are often not species-rich(Mittermeier et al.2003).In ad-dition,some threats,such as those created by invasive species,may occur in areas where hu-man population densities are low(Mackey et al. 1999.
In summary,several ways of prioritizing bio-diversity conservation have been developed,al-though they are primarily underpinned by a framework of irreplaceability and vulnerabil-ity(Brooks et al.2006).The relative merits of these approaches remains poorly understood, not only for forest reservation but for biodiver-sity conservation per se.
Because forest ecosystems,and hence stand conditions,are dynamic,particular kinds of forest often need special attention,either im-plicitly within planning tools for reserve design or explicitly outside them.For example,the ecological values of early-successional forests recovering from large-scale,high-severity nat-ural disturbances have only recently been rec-ognized(Franklin and Agee2003;Turner et al.
292Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
2003).The formal reservation of these areas can be particularly important so as to exempt them from the additional negative impacts of activities such as salvage logging(Lindenmayer et al.2008a).In some areas,such as the Cana-dian province of Quebec,early-successional forests can be rarer and far less well represented in reserves than late-successional or old-growth forests that have been the traditional focus of preservation by conservationists(P.Burton in Lindenmayer et al.2008a).
Finally,a sobering issue is that although enor-mous effort by conservation biologists has been dedicated to developing methods for reserve selection and design,far less is known about the effectiveness for biodiversity conservation of forested areas once they have been reserved. For example,there is very little empirical data available on whether reserves are effective in achieving biodiversity conservation objectives (Chape et al.2005).
Off-Reserve Forest Biodiversity
Conservation
All credible plans for forest biodiversity conservation must incorporate off-reserve ap-proaches to complement reserve-based ap-proaches.There are a range of reasons for this, and three of them are listed here.?Approximately10%of the world’s forests
are located in protected areas(Hoekstra et al.2005).Hence,the substantial amounts of the Earth’s forest biodiversity occurs in unprotected areas(Lindenmayer and Franklin2002).
?Large ecological reserve systems are rarely comprehensive,representative,and ade-quate for all elements of biodiversity(Mar-gules and Pressey2000;Scott et al.2001;
Gaston et al.2008).Thus,off-reserve areas often support species of conservation sig-ni?cance not found or poorly represented in formally protected areas(Gustafsson et al.1999;Lindenmayer and Burgman 2005;Robles et al.2008).This is true even
for the protected areas of regions with a high proportion of forest cover in reserves, such as in Tasmania,in southeastern Aus-tralia(Mendel and Kirkpatrick2002).?Past land management may mean there are few or no opportunities to set aside large ecological reserves in some areas(e.g., in parts of southern Sweden;Gustafsson et al.1999),making off-reserve conserva-tion a vital approach for forest biodiversity conservation in those places.
Because biodiversity is a multiscaled entity, off-reserve conservation strategies also should be implemented at a range of spatial scales, but particularly at the landscape and stand levels(Lindenmayer and Franklin2002).Off-reserve forest biodiversity management at the landscape level can include the following.?The protection of aquatic ecosystems and networks(such as rivers,streams,lakes,and ponds),specialized habitats and biological hotspots(e.g.,cliffs,caves,and spawning areas),wildlife corridors,and rare habi-tats.These may include remnants of late-successional or old-growth forest(Franklin and Hemstrom1981),and disturbance refugia(Mackey et al.2002).
?The establishment of landscape-level goals for retention,maintenance,or restoration of particular habitats or structures as well as limits to speci?c problematic condi-tions[e.g.,the amount of a forest land-scape subject to prescribed burning(Gill 1999)].
?The selection of the spatial and temporal pattern for harvest units or other manage-ment units(Franklin and Forman1987).?The design and subsequent management of transportation systems(generally a road network)to take account of impacts on species,critical habitats,and ecological processes(Forman et al.2002).
Off-reserve management at the stand level can have a signi?cant in?uence on the de-gree to which a managed forest can sustain
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biodiversity and maintain ecosystem processes. Several broad types of strategies include:?structural retention at the time of regen-
eration harvest,for example,large-cavity trees and associated recruit trees(Fries et al.1997),understory thickets(Ough and Murphy1998),and large fallen logs (Harmon et al.1986);?management of regenerated and existing stands to create speci?c structural condi-tions,for example,through novel kinds of thinning activities(Carey et al.1999);?long rotations or cutting cycles(Seymour and Hunter1999);
?application of appropriate disturbance management regimes such as prescribed burning to reduce fuel loads and reduce the risk of high-intensity?re(Spies et al.
2006).
Off-reserve forest biodiversity management is a complex task for which there are no generic recipes that can be applied uncritically every-where(Lindenmayer and Franklin2002).Spe-ci?c prescriptions for forest and biodiversity management will depend on context,physi-cal and biological conditions,species assem-blages,ecological processes,human develop-ments(such as roads),the objectives of the landowner(s),and regulatory and social direc-tives.One approach to deal with such complex-ity is to create checklists of factors that resource managers need to consider in developing strate-gies for forest and biodiversity management (Lindenmayer et al.2006).Indeed,such kinds of checklists are critical because,for example, ecological processes found to be important for forest biodiversity(e.g.,edge effects)in some jurisdictions appear to be relatively benign in others(Kremsater and Bunnell1999;Linden-mayer and Hobbs2007).
Complexity and Issues
Many complex issues are associated with off-reserve forest management and forest biodi-versity conservation,but have yet to be ade-quately resolved.A key one is setting manage-ment objectives.Setting speci?c management objectives for off-reserve forest areas is not done or if it is,it is often not done well(Possingham 2001).As Andersen et al.(2005)have stated, informed management must go beyond sim-ply saying“we need to conserve biodiversity”or“we need to maintain species throughout their ranges.”Better targeted operational and measurable goals objectives might be,for ex-ample:“maintaining(with at least95%con-?dence)a selected subset of forest-dependent species in populations no less than90%of their estimated maximum population sizes within a given forest-management unit for the next 50years”(Wintle and Lindenmayer2008). Without these kinds of explicitly stated man-agement objectives,it is dif?cult to determine if management practices are appropriate or suc-cessful(Possingham2001).
A problem in setting valid multiple-use man-agement objectives for off-reserve forests is that forest resources from an area are often over-committed.That is,sustained yields of timber and pulpwood are preset at levels too high to accommodate other forest values.This prob-lem can be especially exacerbated when the impacts of natural disturbances on timber and pulpwood yields are not appropriately taken into account.
Another important issue is that the effec-tiveness of stand-level strategies for enhancing forest biodiversity conservation remains poorly known in many jurisdictions.Relatively few studies have rigorously quanti?ed the biodi-versity bene?ts of recently developed silvicul-tural systems for temperate and boreal forests such as the Variable Retention Harvest System (Franklin et al.1997).An increasing number of studies are underway(e.g.,Beese et al.2005; Swift2006;Preston and Harestad2007),but general?ndings to date are equivocal(Van-derwel et al.2007).Similar outcomes charac-terize retention-based silvicultural systems(e.g., reduced-intensity Logging,or RIL)(Putz et al. 2000)that have been developed for tropical for-est ecosystems(Felton et al.2008).
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A third key issue is that the relative value of trade-offs in off-reserve management prac-tices have received limited attention;possibly because this is dif?cult to examine empirically. Different combinations of management strate-gies or differences in the relative emphasis on particular strategies may achieve the same ob-jectives for biodiversity conservation.Three hy-pothetical examples are(1)the advantages of long rotations may be multiplied when accom-panied by structural retention at the time of harvest,(2)increased levels of stand retention such as clumps of retained trees and under-story thickets at the time of regeneration har-vest may mean that the size of cutover units can be increased or the levels of stand management reduced,and(3)increased levels of stand re-tention may make it possible to reduce rotation times.
Despite the signi?cant complexities and challenges associated with developing off-reserve conservation strategies,it is essential that considerable efforts are made to improve them.This is not only because of the sub-stantial amount of biodiversity that off-reserves area currently support but also because of the impacts climate change may have on the ef-fectiveness of reserves(see the following sec-tion)(Hannah et al.2007;Dunlop and Brown 2008).Hence,sympathetic management of off-reserve areas will be critical in playing conser-vation roles that are complementary to those of reserves,such as accommodating range shifts of species and facilitating movements of taxa between formally protected areas(Hughes 2008).
Climate Change
and Forest Biodiversity
Few scientists doubt that major changes are taking place in the Earth’s climate.Emis-sions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases appear to be the major driver of these changes(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005;IPCC2007;Rosenzweig et al.2008).Rapid climate change will have substantial im-pacts on forests and the biodiversity they sup-port(IPCC2007).Some of these include:?Signi?cant changes in the ranges of many taxa (Hughes2000;Parmesan and Y ohe2003;
Chambers et al.2005;Parmesan2006;
Colwell et al.2008).Species with restricted distributional ranges,narrow niches,or that occupy places characterized by a con-?ned range of bioclimatic conditions are among the many kinds of species con-sidered to be at risk of a severe range reduction(Brereton et al.1995;Beau-mont and Hughes2002;Schwartz et al.
2006).The extinction of cloud forest–dependent amphibians in Costa Rica is
a well-documented example(Pounds et al.
2006).In other cases,climate change may lead to major gaps in distributions with knock-on effects on the population con-nectivity and viability(Colwell et al.2008).
Conversely,exotic and invasive species have been predicted to be those likely to undergo range expansions as a conse-quence of climate change(e.g.,Bear et al.
2006;Thomas and Ohl¨e muller2008).?Major changes in interactions between forest species
(e.g.,predation,pollination,and seed dispersal).
As an example,changes in the timing of ?owering of forest trees have been well documented in forest biomes in many parts of the world.This has,in turn,al-tered plant–animal interactions(e.g.,pol-lination)as well as predator–prey relation-ships(reviewed by Parmesan2006).It has been predicted that climate change will al-ter the nutrient composition of leaves of forest trees with corresponding impacts on folivorous species(Kanowski2001).The impacts of species interactions can be pro-found and even result in changes in ecosys-tem state(May1977;Walker et al.2004).
For example,changes in climate in west-ern Canada appear to have contributed to massive infestations of the mountain pine beetle(Dendroctonus ponderosae),which have
Lindenmayer:Forest Wildlife Management&Conservation295
killed vast areas of lodgepole pine(Pinus contorta https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,tifolia)(Government of British Columbia2007a).Subsequent salvage log-ging operations—the largest in the world within the last century(Lindenmayer et al.
2008a)—resulting in some areas of sub-boreal forest being converted to agricul-ture,primarily for grazing by domestic livestock.
?Major changes in the ways forests grow and re-generate.For example,a number of stud-ies have demonstrated poleward shifts in treelines(Kullman2001)as well as in-creased rates of growth of trees in these areas(Lapenis et al.2005).
?Signi?cant alterations in natural disturbance regimes(Franklin et al.1991;Cary2002;
Westerling et al.2006).
Rapid climate change is widely considered to be a signi?cant threat to the ecologically sus-tainable management and conservation of the Earth’s natural resources,including forests and forest biodiversity(IPCC2007).However,the precise nature of the changes and responses associated with rapid climate change is very dif?cult to forecast accurately(Schwartz et al. 2006).There will be unanticipated shocks and surprises.Some changes may not be smooth linear ones,but rather abrupt shifts when par-ticular“thresholds”are crossed.
Complexity and Issues
Human-induced landscape change has been the major driver of land degradation and bio-diversity loss to date(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment2005)(Lindenmayer and Fischer 2006).Climate change may lead to the creation of an additional set of species at risk that are cur-rently not threatened by the traditional drivers of decline(Pimm2007).However,as biotic responses to climate change will be superim-posed on already heavily altered forest environ-ments,the impacts of climate change and land-scape change on biodiversity and key ecosystem processes may not take place independently (Thomas et al.2004;Ib′a′n ez et al.2006).Rather, there could be additive or cumulative effects (Pearson and Dawson2005)with signi?cant impacts on forest biodiversity(Ward2004;Mil-lennium Ecosystem Assessment2005).Rapid climate change in already modi?ed landscapes may(1)further accelerate habitat loss(Pyke 2004)and extinctions(Travis2003),(2)make pest and exotic species more invasive and/or magnify their effects on landscapes(Thuiller 2007;see Fig.1),(3)increase destructiveness of major disturbance events(Westerling et al. 2006),and(4)further disrupt key ecological processes such as the movements essential for the maintenance of biotic communities(Davis and Shaw2001;Pearson ans Dawson2005). Rapid climate change poses a signi?cant challenge both for the design and manage-ment of forest reserves(Hannah et al.2007; Dunlop and Brown2008).Computer-based tools to assist reserve selection have tradition-ally been applied,assuming largely static back-ground climatic conditions.However,rapid cli-mate change has the potential to undermine the effectiveness of areas set aside for bio-diversity conservation(Opdam and Wascher 2004;Dunlop and Brown2008),in part be-cause of major alterations in species distribu-tions(Parmesan2006),but also because of changes in key ecological processes(such as disturbance regimes).Conversely,because the decline and/or extinction of many species is often the result of multiple interacting threat-ening processes(Simberloff1988;Caughley and Gunn1996),existing large ecological re-serves may assume increasing importance for biodiversity conservation under rapid climate change(Hannah et al.2007).This is,in part,be-cause they will be places where there are fewer stressors.Increasing the size of forest reserves under changing climatic conditions also may increase the chances they support some areas where few environmental stressors occur. How landscapes have been managed and continue to be managed by humans will either mitigate or exacerbate the impacts of future cli-mate change.For example,there is increasing
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Sciences
Figure1.A landscape in interior British Columbia,Canada,that was recently dominated by lodgepole pine,but that is being dramatically altered by an epidemic of mountain pine beetle(Dendroctonus ponderosae)and subsequent salvage logging(Government of British Columbia2007a,2007b).This appears to be an interacting effect of climate change on beetle biology(see Parmesan2006),past forest landscape use,and current management practice(Lindenmayer et al.2008a).(P HOTO CREDIT:George Bruckner.)
evidence that the clearing of forests and other kinds of native vegetation cover has exac-erbated the effects of rapid climate change (McAlpine et al.2007).However,although there is a vast and rapidly increasing body of work on climate change and a similarly vast body of ecological research on landscape change(Lin-denmayer and Fischer2006),research at the intersection of the two remains in its infancy (Hill et al.1999;Warren et al.2001;Opdam and Wascher2004;McAlpine et al.2007).Ma-jor knowledge gaps remain on how to deal with the additive and/or cumulative effects of land-scape change and climate change on biodiver-sity,not only for forests but also for other areas with signi?cant human uses such as agricultural zones.
Despite the prospects of rapid climate change,large areas will continue to be man-aged for the production of timber,pulpwood,and other forest products.A challenge will be to identify management strategies that main-tain forest resilience.However,managing for increased resilience is not a straightforward task (Walker and Salt2006).First,what is meant by forest resilience is often poorly de?ned,and hence,poorly understood,by resource man-agers and researchers.The practical on-ground application of the concept is useful only if it is well circumscribed(Fischer et al.2007).Sec-ond,attempts to increase resilience to a par-ticular stressor may increase susceptibility to others(Walker and Salt2006).Third,attempts to develop a“resilience silviculture”in forests have met with limited success in some juris-dictions,and it may even have lead to nega-tive regionwide impacts on forest biodiversity (Brooks2004;Foster and Orwig2006).This has occurred in the forests of the northeast-ern United States where preemptive salvage
Lindenmayer:Forest Wildlife Management&Conservation297
logging has been applied widely as part of at-tempts to improve forest resilience against fu-ture disturbances(Kyker-Snowman2000). Although is it currently not possible to make speci?c recommendations about ways to in-crease forest resilience,some general strate-gies are likely to enhance the management and conservation of forests under rapid climate change.The?rst is to take urgent steps to re-duce greenhouse-gas emissions(IPCC2007). The second is to limit the number of threaten-ing processes acting on forest ecosystems,for example,by halting forest conversion,degra-dation and fragmentation,controlling the neg-ative impacts of invasive species,and limiting the risks of novel kinds and/or combinations of natural disturbances.
The already documented range shifts in forests and forest biota resulting from rapid climate change(Parmesan2006)has led to calls to increase“connectivity”to enable bio-diversity to move(Dunlop and Brown2008; Hughes2008).However,what constitutes con-nectivity is often poorly understood both by resource managers and by researchers(Linden-mayer and Fischer2007).Attempts to increase connectivity as part of tackling the problems of rapid climate change need to be prefaced by posing questions like:Connectivity for what? What kind of connectivity?And,connectivity at what spatial scale?Lindenmayer and Fischer (2007)have suggested there is a need to make a careful distinction between(1)habitat connec-tivity or the connectedness of habitat patches for a given taxon,(2)landscape connectivity or the physical connectedness of patches of a particular land cover type as perceived by hu-mans,and,(3)ecological connectivity or con-nectedness of ecological processes at multiple spatial scales.Lindenmayer and Fischer(2007) further noted that although these three con-nectivity concepts are interrelated,they are not synonymous.In some circumstances,habitat connectivity and landscape connectivity will be similar(Levey et al.2005).In others,habitat connectivity for a given species will be differ-ent from the human perspective of landscape connectivity.Resolving an appropriate spatial scale for the various kinds of connectivity is also important.Tischendorf and Fahrig(2000) consider connectivity to be a landscape-scale concept,whereas Moilanen and Hanski(2001) argue that it is better understood as a patch-scale concept.
Addressing key questions about connectiv-ity is essential because there are circumstances where increased connectivity could have neg-ative effects on forest biodiversity,such as pro-moting the spread of wild?res,diseases,and pests.There are also cases where large and ex-pensive actions to create“movement corridors”may prove to be ineffective for many key species under the effects of rapid climate change(e.g., for some species of forest trees;Pearson and Dawson2005)and other kinds of actions might better achieve conservation objectives.
A controversial proposed approach to pro-mote connectivity under rapid climate change has been assisted by colonization,under which selected taxa would be moved to new areas that they have not previously occupied(Hunter 2007;Hoegh-Guldberg et al.2008).The ap-proach has already been trialled in the United Kingdom(Willis et al.2009).Some forest-dependent taxa may be appropriate candidates for assisted colonization,such as those currently con?ned to areas characterized by very narrow environmental envelopes.An example is the re-stricted endemic species con?ned to rainforest mountain tops in north Queensland(Williams et al.2003).Assisted colonization may be par-ticularly important for tree species that have relatively slow migration rates.
Knowledge about forests and forest biodi-versity is fundamentally important for making informed management decisions under rapid climate change.However,there are signi?cant knowledge gaps,particularly for many forested areas with high biodiversity.The vast major-ity of studies of climate-change impacts on forests have focused on temperate and bo-real ecosystems in the northern hemisphere (Felton et al.2007).Y et it is well known that most of the world’s forest biota occurs in other
298Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
environments,particularly in tropical regions (Gaston and Spicer2004).This mismatched research investment re?ects differences in fund-ing capability between developed and de-veloping nations—an attribute not only of the climate-change literature but also of the conservation-biology literature more generally (Fazey et al.2005b).There is a clear need to reconsider forest research and impact mitiga-tion priorities given the extent of biodiversity in many developing tropical nations,the sever-ity of existing environmental risks(in addition to climate change)in many developing tropi-cal nations(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005),and the potential for tropical forests and their biota to respond to rapid climate change in ways different from those quanti?ed for tem-perate forests(e.g.,poleward and upslope dis-tribution shifts).
Plantations,Biodiversity Conservation,and“Bioperversity”Plantations are“Stands of trees of native or exotic species,created by the regular place-ment of cuttings,seedlings or seed selected for their wood-producing properties and man-aged intensively for the purposes of future tim-ber harvesting”(Australian Forestry Standard 2007).
There is a global trend toward a greater re-liance on wood sourced from plantations(FAO 2001;Franklin2003;Brockerhoff et al.2008). Plantations are also being established as part of carbon sequestration schemes in an attempt to tackle problems associated with rapid cli-mate change(Jackson and Schlesinger2004). There has been a steady increase in planta-tion establishment throughout most regions of the world(FAO2007).In1996,the combined area of plantations worldwide was estimated to exceed130million hectares(Cubbage et al. 1996),and in2001it was187million hectares (FAO2001).Plantations are being established globally at a rate of3million hectares per year(2000–2005)(FAO2006),and currently provide almost50%of the world’s wood pro-duction(FAO2007).In some nations,plan-tations comprise a substantial proportion of national forest area(FAO2006;Brockerhoff et al.2008).There is an extensive literature on the biodiversity value of plantations(reviewed by Lindenmayer and Hobbs2004;Brocker-hoff et al.2008).Some of the issues associated with the use of plantations by various groups of biota are discussed in the remainder of this section.
Plantations and Biodiversity
In many cases,the value of plantations for biodiversity needs to be assessed against the vegetation cover type they have replaced. Clearing native forests to establish plantations of trees is widespread.Two of the10high-est land-clearing nations(Brazil and Indone-sia)are among the10countries with the largest area of tree plantations(FAO2005).Conver-sion of native forests to tree plantations is also occurring in developed countries such as the United States.(FAO2005)and Australia(Com-monwealth of Australia and State of Tasmania 1997).
Plantations of trees do not replace the bio-diversity values of natural vegetation(Linden-mayer and Hobbs2004;Barlow et al.2007). Rather,a large body of literature shows that plantations contain an impoverished subset of native fauna and?ora relative to that found within natural forests(Hartley2002;Linden-mayer and Hobbs2004;Aratrakorn et al.2006; Barlow et al.2007;Brockerhoff et al.2008). Conversely,plantations often support an in-creased abundance and species richness of exotic species.Given this,it appears entirely inappropriate that native forests that have been converted to plantations can attain certi?ca-tion for being managed in an ecologically sus-tainable way(e.g.,see the Australian Forestry Standard2007).
Some of the world’s new plantations are generally established on what were formerly agricultural lands(Sedjo1999)that are often
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of marginal economic value for farming or cropping(Lamb et al.2001).Under these cir-cumstances,plantation establishment may pro-vide environmental bene?ts.For instance,plan-tations can be used to sequester carbon and thereby reduce net greenhouse-gas emissions (Jackson and Schlesinger2004),lower wa-ter tables to help reduce dry-land salinization (Walker et al.2002),and under some circum-stances,relieve some of the pressure of timber demands from natural forests(Hartley2002).
A recent review and metaanalysis(Felton et al.in review)compared the species rich-ness and abundance of plantations and pas-ture lands for plants,invertebrates,reptiles and amphibians,mammals,and birds.In general, birds exhibited signi?cantly higher species rich-ness in plantations than in pasturelands.No signi?cant difference in species richness be-tween plantations and pasturelands was found for the other groups they examined.In both plantations and pasturelands,the species rich-ness and abundance of particular biotic groups was found to be related to land-use practices, landscape context,and other factors.Thus, Felton et al.(in review)found insuf?cient ev-idence to support assumptions that planta-tions contain higher species richness or abun-dance than pasture or crop-based agricultural land.
The biodiversity value of plantations is a function of factors at multiple spatial scales, in particular at the stand and landscape levels (Lindenmayer and Hobbs2004).The stand-level features of a plantation that have been found to in?uence biodiversity include the cultivation of native or exotic timber species (Hartley2002),the use of mixed species stands or monocultures(Hartley2002;Catterall et al. 2004),the intensity of harvesting(Cummings and Reid2008)such as the retention or re-moval of understory plant species(Bonham et al.2002),and the preservation or removal of biological legacies such as remnant trees, windrows,and logging slash(Hartley2002; Lindenmayer and Hobbs2004).At the land-scape scale,patches of remnant native vegeta-tion within and adjacent to a plantation are features likely to increase the species richness of the plantation(Hartley2002;Lindenmayer and Hobbs2004).These patches contribute to the creation of a landscape mosaic(sensu Ben-nett et al.2006),and the associated landscape heterogeneity appears to promote the number of species that a given plantation can support (Lindenmayer and Hobbs2004).In addition, the diversity of fauna is often found to be higher within plantations when native vegetation is proximate to their edges(Gepp1976;Curry 1991;Lindenmayer et al.2002a).In these cases, the adjacency of native vegetation provides a source from which populations can migrate to the plantation,and also enables species to occur within the plantation,even if the entire com-plement of necessary resources is not provided (Hobbs et al.2004;Lindenmayer and Hobbs 2004).
In summary,the design of plantations and the practices used to manage them can have a signi?cant effect on their value for biodiversity. Lindenmayer and Hobbs(2004)argued that biodiversity conservation is an important part of plantation management and should be part of the design of new plantations.Balancing con-servation values with other uses,such as wood and pulp production,becomes particularly rel-evant when extensive areas of land are involved (Kanowski et al.2005).
Complexity and Issues
The management of plantations to promote landscape heterogeneity and stand structural complexity will,in many cases,involve trade-offs that will in?uence wood and pulp produc-tion(Lindenmayer and Hobbs2004;Brock-erhoff et al.2008).The extent to which this occurs will be dependent on the objectives of plantation management,the kind of bio-diversity outcomes desired,and the scale at which these objectives are being considered. For example,intensi?cation of plantation man-agement in a given area(with corresponding increases in timber and pulpwood production,
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but reductions in biodiversity),may allow other parts of a landscape to be less intensively logged or to be set aside in formal protected ar-eas(Hunter1994).The arguments for and against such approaches have recently been outlined in the context of biodiversity conser-vation in agricultural areas,but are relevant to conservation–production trade-offs in planta-tions(Fischer et al.2008).Many of these ar-guments are associated with the replaceability of given areas for biodiversity and commod-ity production(including the suitability of ar-eas exempt from plantation establishment for various groups of biota),the spatial scale over which decisions about land uses can be made, and the landscape models used to determine how biota are distributed in a landscape(Hobbs 2006;Fischer et al.2008;Lindenmayer et al. 2008b).
Plantations and“Bioperversity”Plantation establishment is one of several strategies that have been proposed to tackle the problem of rapid climate change through reducing the net emissions of carbon diox-ide and other greenhouse gases to the atmo-sphere(e.g.,Schulze et al.2000;Jackson and Schlesinger2004;Strengers et al.2007).Incen-tives to sequester carbon through planting veg-etation are likely to increase as the impacts of climate change become more pronounced and intense,and as ecological systems and processes are further modi?ed by climate change(Read 2007).For example,income from carbon off-setting,carbon trading,and the development of a carbon economy has the potential to lead to major expansions of plantations(e.g.,Far-gione et al.2008).Attempts to develop biofuels as alternatives to fossil fuels(Ragauskas et al. 2006)also have the potential to result in signi?-cant changes in land-use practices and,in turn, drive the increasing establishment of planta-tions(Koh and Wilcove2007).
Although carbon sequestration and stor-age through establishing tree plantations will be a very important strategy in tackling cli-mate change(Harper et al.2007),there could be perverse environmental outcomes if there is a narrowly focused“?xation on the carbon problem.”“Bioperverse”outcomes from large-scale plantation tree programs may include (1)considerable losses of biodiversity resulting from clearing of native forests to establish tree plantations(as previously discussed),(2)plan-tation trees becoming invasive plant taxa(e.g., Richardson et al.1994;Crockford and Richard-son1998;Gordon1998)with subsequent nega-tive effects on biota,and(3)signi?cantly altered key ecosystem processes such as?re and hydro-logical regimes(Jackson et al.2005)with direct and indirect negative impacts on biota. Perverse outcomes almost always arise from human interventions in complex systems(Ten-ner1996),in part because complex environ-mental problems are rarely solved with simple and narrowly focused solutions(Holling and Meffe1996;Ludwig et al.2001).Attempts to tackle problems associated with rapid climate change through a narrow focus on plantation-based carbon sequestration may be no different in this regard.Therefore,the risks of bioperver-sity must be carefully examined as a key part of large-scale plantation tree programs.Possi-ble approaches to reducing the risks of biop-erversity include(1)Preventing native forests from being converted to plantations.Full car-bon accounting of native forest and plan-tation ecosystems(the management activities associated with such land uses)would be a major disincentive for such kinds of conver-sions,particularly when rates of sequestration are not confused with long-term carbon stor-age(Mackey et al.2008).(2)Using native rather than exotic trees in plantation establishment to both limit the risks of plantation trees becoming invasive species and to increase the biodiversity values of plantation-dominated landscapes.(3) Quantifying the key kinds of ecosystems pro-cesses that underpin the function of particular landscapes(e.g.,hydrological and?re regimes) and determining the extent to which they might be altered(positively or negatively)by planta-tion establishment.
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General Discussion
Forests are critical to the conservation of the world’s biodiversity,the regulation of the Earth’s climate,and the provision of key goods and services for humans.How forests are man-aged will have profound effects on biodiversity, climate,and ultimately human existence.Be-cause forests can be long-lived entities,with some species not reaching maturity for many decades or centuries,poor decisions made now can have long-lasting or even irreversible nega-tive effects.This review has brie?y touched on four of many issues associated with making de-cisions about forest conservation and manage-ment.In concluding this review,a small number of other issues are brie?y touched on below.
Additional Challenges
and Knowledge Gaps
There is currently a substantial conundrum concerning trade-offs between the demands for forest products,forest management prac-tices,mitigating climate change,food produc-tion,and environmental conservation.Natu-ral forests are major stores of biomass carbon and logging them in traditional ways can result in signi?cant carbon emissions(Mackey et al. 2008).Growing plantations of trees offers an opportunity to sequester substantial amounts of carbon and/or create sources of energy that are alternatives to fossil fuels.However,the conversion of native forests to establish plan-tations will create signi?cant additional carbon emissions(Mackey et al.2008)and have sig-ni?cant negative effects on forest biodiversity (Koh and Wilcove2007).The establishment of plantations on cleared former agricultural areas is a land-use change option in many re-gions.For example,19million hectares of agri-cultural land is suitable for plantation estab-lishment in southeastern Australia(Burns et al. 1999),and this may have bene?ts for slow-ing or reversing such land-degradation prob-lems as soil erosion and secondary salinity (Stirzaker et al.2002).However,there are non-trivial implications of such land-use changes for water yields(Jackson et al.2005)and food production.Resolving these kinds of problems will not be easy,particularly with increasing hu-man populations,increasing demands for wa-ter and food,increasing greenhouse-gas emis-sions,but rapidly declining biodiversity.Some approaches to tackle this conundrum have been proposed,such as offsetting the intensi?cation of production(e.g.,palm-oil cropping)in one area for increased conservation efforts in an-other(e.g.,the purchase of private nature re-serves;Koh and Wilcove2007).The relative merits of such approaches have not yet received detailed scrutiny,either from a biodiversity con-servation perspective(Koh and Wilcove2007) (see Fischer et al.2008for an example in an agricultural context),or from the perspective of the extent of carbon emissions derived from alternative forest uses and practices. Another challenge is to better quantify the combined value for biodiversity of different for-est types in landscapes.For example,what is the contribution to biodiversity conservation of forest landscape mosaics(sensu Bennett et al. 2006)comprising native old-growth(primary) forests,regrowth(secondary)forests,and plan-tations?The biodiversity role of forest mosaics is currently not well understood(Bradstock et al. 2005;Parr and Andersen2006;Barlow et al. 2007).An additional challenge in many forest landscapes is to better understand the in?u-ence of the“invisible mosaic”or the historical ensembles of patches that preceded the current mosaic.Such an improved understanding is im-portant because it is increasingly clear that the in?uence of invisible(historical)mosaics may be prolonged and have profound effects on the distribution and abundance of many elements of the biota(Gustavsson et al.2007).The cross-tenure contributions of forest mosaics in dif-ferent ownerships also needs to be better con-sidered in many jurisdictions(Spies et al.2007; Robles et al.2008),as private land can have con-siderable conservation value(Gustafsson et al. 1999;Robles et al.2008).Similarly,comparisons of species persistence and abundance within
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and outside reserves is also comparatively rare (Gaston et al.2008).
A?nal issue is that the development of the body of knowledge to better man-age forest biodiversity is being slowed by the creation of tropical and temperate forest research and management“silos.”This has often led to a limited exchange of ideas and new insights between researchers working in these broad kinds of forests.This may be due, in part,to temperate and tropical researchers using quite different terminology for similar entities.It also may be in?uenced by tropical and temperate forest researchers often publish-ing in different journals.As an example,there are exciting developments in new silvicultural systems to promote biodiversity conservation in temperate forests that are appearing under the banner of variable retention harvesting or green-tree retention(Beese et al.2005;Grayston et al.2006).A parallel body of work is develop-ing in tropical forests based on the concepts of RIL(Putz et al.2000;Felton et al.2008). However,there appears to have been relatively little cross-learning between the two arenas of work.Similarly,research on plantations has of-ten focused on issues either in temperate ar-eas or tropical ones and cross-fertilization of ideas between them is comparatively rare(e.g., see Koh2008).The author of this review is as guilty of this transgression as many other workers.Therefore,a key challenge to speed the development of effective strategies is to fa-cilitate cross-learning between the two other-wise loosely linked bodies of work.
Acknowledgments
This review was possible only because of major collaborative efforts on forest and plantations research with many truly out-standing research colleagues.These include Dr.Phil Burton,Professor Ross Cunning-ham,Dr.Adam Felton,Dr.Joern Fischer, Professor Jerry Franklin,Dr.Philip Gibbons, Dr.Adrian Manning,Professor Reed Noss, Dr.Brendan Wintle,and Associate-Professor Jeff Wood.However,any errors in this paper are those of the author.The author thanks Dr.Richard Ostfeld and the Board of the New Y ork Academy of Sciences for inviting the au-thor to write this https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,ments from an anonymous reviewer improved earlier versions of the manuscript.Rachel Muntz did an out-standing job in editing the manuscript.
Con?icts of Interest
The author declares no con?icts of interest.
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微课以小见大的写作手法 今天我们一起来学习以小见大的写作手法。第一步我们要明确什么是以小见大？ （提问）某某同学，你对这四个字有什么了解？ 很好！首先从字面意思上看，以小见大是一个四字成语：以者，用也；见者，表现也。顾名思义，它的解释就是用小的表现大的。指通过小事可以看出道理，通过部分可以看出整体，那么作为一种写作手法，我们又要怎么去定义它呢？ 以小见大法，也称小中见大法，即文章作品中，通过小事件和细节来揭示重大主题写作方法。我们要抓住关键字来理解，这句话的关键字就是小事件细节和重大主题，分别是小和大的指代。 这种写作手法有哪些特点呢？ 从材料上来讲：在于抓住一事一物、一情一景；“以小见大”的基本点在于小，一事一物，一情一景都是小的选取对象。 从写法上来讲：从大处着眼、小处落笔；关键在于立意要高，要大，但要注意的是要在尽可能微小之处来体现立意的高大。 从表达效果上来讲：深入发掘，展开联想，为读者创造一个比现实生活更为广阔、更为深远的艺术境界。 （提问）那么有哪些文章用了“以小见大”的写作手法呢？某某同学，你来给大家简要介绍一下？（参考答案：鲁迅的很多作品都用了以小见大的手法，比如《药》就是通过写夏瑜的命运来写整个社会的悲惨命运。） 很好！其实这种写法在文章中比较常见。接下来我们具体来看看几个运用了“以小见大”手法的比较典型的例子： 说到“以小见大”的文章，大家可能第一想到的就是鲁迅先生的《一件小事》，《一件小事》是“以小见大”手法运用的一个典范，描写的是鲁迅出外搭乘人力车，人力车夫在本不用负责的情况下搀扶起被撞倒的老妇人，并将其送至警署的这么一件小事。这篇文章在选材上十分简单，就是日常生活中的一件极其平凡的小事，但从这么一件小事里却折射出了一个“下等人”的高尚的人格力量，这篇文章短小精悍，全文仅一千字左右，但却震撼了人们的心灵。 还有一个很典型的例子是巴金老人的《小狗包弟》，这篇文章选自《随想录》，作者通过描写一条小狗的故事来反映文革的现实，连一条小狗都不能逃过劫难，体现了在“文革”时代任何生命都不能免受侵害的现实。 这两篇文章都运用了“以小见大”的写作手法，而且都运用得非常成功，对小材料的细节描写激发了作者的真情实感，使得文章真实而且感人，达到了很好的效果。 那么以上两篇文章为例，我们来分析一下使用“以小见大”手法的好处？ （提问）同学们先来谈谈吧，某某同学，你是怎么看的？还有人补充吗？ 好，现在我们一起来总结一下： 1、这种艺术处理以一点观全面，给写作者带来了很大的灵活性和无限的表现力； （比如《一件小事》中作者只描写了一位人力车夫的故事，却能将其延伸到整个下层人民甚至整个社会，作者可以极尽表达自己的思想和情感） 2、为读者提供了广阔的想象空间，能产生丰富的联想；（比如从《小狗包弟》 中读者直接获得的情感体验是作者对包弟的歉疚和忏悔，但读者可以思考这份忏悔是否只是对包弟，忏悔又具有怎样的现实意义等，读者想象的空间很大）
快手最好听的歌有什么,快手里最好听的歌曲大全 篇一：最好听的各类歌曲推荐大全最好听的各类歌曲推荐大全电视剧歌曲：逍遥叹--------[胡歌唱的，歌词意境长近，每当听灭那首，都纪念以前看仙剑的那些岁月]六月的雨------[胡歌唱的，第一次听就迷上了，也许是因为那部电视剧的关系吧]偏心-------[驰芸京唱的，仙剑奇侠传3的插曲，旋律不错，多听几遍就好听了]健忘时间--------[胡歌唱的，仙剑奇侠传3的插曲，两头的旋律挺不错]此生不换-----[青鸟飞鱼唱的，仙剑奇侠传3的插曲，喜好看那电视剧的人必然感受好听]18爱不爱--------[翼势力企鹅演唱，台湾哪部电视剧里面的，超级典型！不听是个特大的可惜！]千年泪-------[旋律很是不错，是很是不错的一首歌曲，记适昔时我一天都要听20遍]事实大白------[动力火车唱的，仙剑奇侠传里面的片尾曲，值得一听]我只能爱你-----[彭青演唱的，射雕好汉传的插曲，就感受那首最好听]握不住的她-------[声音出格好听，不知是哪部电视剧里面的]恶做剧-------[王蓝茵唱的，声音出格无个性，第一次听就爱上了那首，以上帝概况强烈推荐]全世界的人都晓得-------[恶做剧之吻里面的典型歌曲，很是不错]接近一点点-------[南拳妈妈很是不错的一首歌曲，强烈建议去听下]听见-------[也是恶做剧之吻里面的，林依晨唱的，很是不错，听下就晓得]仙剑问情-------[电视剧仙剑里的估量也是很少人晓得]红色石头-------[电视剧十八岁的天空的从题曲，到现正在还记忆犹新]信徒-------[驰卫健唱的，他的歌曲很无他奇特的个性，值得一听]你爱我象谁-------[也是驰卫健唱的，感受旋律实的很不错，强烈建议]永久永久-------[李翊君唱的，似乎是风云的片尾曲][编
【精选】把幸福定格在心中作文600字3篇【精选】把幸福定格在心中作文600字3篇 在日常学习、工作和生活中，大家都经常接触到作文吧，根据写作命题的特点，作文可以分为命题作文和非命题作文。那么，怎么去写作文呢？下面是小编为大家整理的把幸福定格在心中作文600字3篇，欢迎阅读，希望大家能够喜欢。 把幸福定格在心中作文600字篇1 “爸爸去哪儿”这个节目办得太火了，每当我看到那些罩在明星光环下的孩子或笑或泪的纯真举动时，我的脑海中就会浮现出一张万般落寞的脸和一双泫然欲泣的眼。 谁想再听爸爸骂自己两句呢?我的同桌牟春妹就想，那是她的幸福她的梦。我在一个偶然的机会中走进她的内心世界，读懂了她的QQ签名“一蓑烟雨任平生，也无风雨也无晴”。 那天第二节课，毛手毛脚的我只听“嘶”的一声，裤子被椅子边探头探脑的铁钉剐破了，赶紧让同桌牟春妹帮我看看“伤情”。她捂嘴笑道：“挺标准的正三角形，都能看到里边的
内容了。”哎呀!我是女生啊，那么敏感的地方露出“破绽”，还不让淘气鬼们笑翻了?好在我家离学校不远，而且第三节是体育课，课间赶紧跟老师请个短假，牟春妹陪我回家换裤子。 一路闲聊着来到我家。走进老爸为我精心打造的温馨浪漫的小卧室，牟春妹忍不住四下打量着，惊羡不已。我骄傲地说：“都是按照我喜欢的方案装修的，我妈都说老爸宠我，让摘星星他不摘月亮。”抚摩着我的小书桌，她不无嫉妒地说：“你多幸福啊，有自己的小天地。我也想有个自己的小屋，只是担心我妈自己在大屋害怕。”我埋头翻找裤子，不经意地问：“你爸呢?”她停顿了一下：“在家呢。”“让你爸妈在大屋，你自己在小屋不就得了吗?”我想都没想就说。停了一会儿，她才声音低沉地说：“我爸在一年前就去世了。”我一惊，抬头望着她的脸，她的眼圈有点红了。我暗暗责怪自己不小心触到她心灵的伤处，不知道该说什么好。她低下头说：“后来我哥因一场车祸也走了。”屋里静止了片刻，她的眼泪没有落下来，反而轻轻笑了一下：“够惨的吧。以前我也跟你一样，风风火火没心没肺，可是没有爸了你就找不到根，人就像没有依靠了。每逢过节时，我就忍不住想起和爸爸哥哥在一起嬉闹、看电视的情景。我真想让他们陪在我身边，哪怕再听他说我两句、骂我两句，但现在这只能是一个梦了……” 我换好裤子要走时，爸爸下夜班回来了。“下午能请假早点回来吗?你姥爷过生日……不行的话我给你留点好菜。”他
全球公认100首最好听的歌曲.... 1. don't cry--guns n' roses这首歌曾唱哭了千万人。总是能够触痛了心底最软的地方，心抽痛着,眼圈红了，却没有眼泪渗出，每多听一次就多一次的依恋... 2. fade to black--ＭＥＴＡllic金属乐队也有很经典歌曲,相信国内有好多人都是听了这 首歌的前奏才去学吉他的!ＭＥＴＡLLICA经典中的经典,也是ＭＥＴＡLLICA饱受争议 的作品,因为当时有乐迷自杀就是出于这首歌，胆小别听哦~ 3. dreaming my dream--cranberries有着王菲一样变幻倚俪的唱腔，高雅离开了原本 浩渺的苍穹来到人间，它带着冷漠的美艳，但又说着人身上的变动和永恒，爱尔兰的 卡百利乐队就这样汲取了精灵与传说的浩渺气质，沟通了人间和天空的美，把人的故事，爱情，历史，死亡，社会都融进那飘忽而真切的女声中...(卡百利，本是蔓声浆果的藤蔓) 4. dying in the sun--cranberries不断地重复着放这首歌,简短迂回的旋律,简短迂回的歌词。平躺在这样的歌里,晕乎乎的,渴望在阳光下睡死... 5. never grow old--cranberries 最近常听朋友们说时间过得好快~! 感觉自己在一天一 天的虚度光阴! 不由得想起了这支歌~! 6. far away from home--groove coverage德国新晋乐队,这首歌已被众多知名DJ誉为 当今舞曲最为精华的传世之作，听了不下几百遍了，旋律好的很，女声好的很... 7. knocking on heaven's door--guns n' roses(“野蛮师姐”主题曲)艾薇儿翻唱的和qiang花版的都给人一种爽歪的感觉，当然女生版的更加恬静，睡觉之前是要听的奥。 8. imagine--john lennon约翰列侬是全世界最成功的摇滚乐队“甲壳虫”（或叫披头士）(beatles)的灵魂人物，死于1980年12月8日，是被一名狂热的歌迷开qiang打 死的，他的死震惊了世界，他在六十年代，目无宗教和governme-nt，在七十年代致 力研究东方宗教和宣扬童话般的爱(有一颗小星星是以他的名字命名的)，这声音听来
有关把幸福定格在心中作文600字三篇有关把幸福定格在心中作文600字三篇 在平平淡淡的日常中，大家最不陌生的就是作文了吧，作文是人们以书面形式表情达意的言语活动。你写作文时总是无从下笔？下面是小编为大家收集的把幸福定格在心中作文600字3篇，欢迎阅读，希望大家能够喜欢。 把幸福定格在心中作文600字篇1 “爸爸去哪儿”这个节目办得太火了，每当我看到那些罩在明星光环下的孩子或笑或泪的纯真举动时，我的脑海中就会浮现出一张万般落寞的脸和一双泫然欲泣的眼。 谁想再听爸爸骂自己两句呢?我的同桌牟春妹就想，那是她的幸福她的梦。我在一个偶然的机会中走进她的内心世界，读懂了她的QQ签名“一蓑烟雨任平生，也无风雨也无晴”。 那天第二节课，毛手毛脚的我只听“嘶”的一声，裤子被椅子边探头探脑的铁钉剐破了，赶紧让同桌牟春妹帮我看看“伤情”。她捂嘴笑道：“挺标准的正三角形，都能看到里边的内容了。”哎呀!我是女生啊，那么敏感的地方露出“破绽”，
还不让淘气鬼们笑翻了?好在我家离学校不远，而且第三节是体育课，课间赶紧跟老师请个短假，牟春妹陪我回家换裤子。 一路闲聊着来到我家。走进老爸为我精心打造的温馨浪漫的小卧室，牟春妹忍不住四下打量着，惊羡不已。我骄傲地说：“都是按照我喜欢的方案装修的，我妈都说老爸宠我，让摘星星他不摘月亮。”抚摩着我的小书桌，她不无嫉妒地说：“你多幸福啊，有自己的小天地。我也想有个自己的小屋，只是担心我妈自己在大屋害怕。”我埋头翻找裤子，不经意地问：“你爸呢?”她停顿了一下：“在家呢。”“让你爸妈在大屋，你自己在小屋不就得了吗?”我想都没想就说。停了一会儿，她才声音低沉地说：“我爸在一年前就去世了。”我一惊，抬头望着她的脸，她的眼圈有点红了。我暗暗责怪自己不小心触到她心灵的伤处，不知道该说什么好。她低下头说：“后来我哥因一场车祸也走了。”屋里静止了片刻，她的眼泪没有落下来，反而轻轻笑了一下：“够惨的吧。以前我也跟你一样，风风火火没心没肺，可是没有爸了你就找不到根，人就像没有依靠了。每逢过节时，我就忍不住想起和爸爸哥哥在一起嬉闹、看电视的情景。我真想让他们陪在我身边，哪怕再听他说我两句、骂我两句，但现在这只能是一个梦了……” 我换好裤子要走时，爸爸下夜班回来了。“下午能请假早点回来吗?你姥爷过生日……不行的话我给你留点好菜。”他一边洗脸一边说着，还嘱咐我，“慢点走，靠边儿。”
背景音乐 第一励志类歌曲：可用于体育、竞技等图片 梦比乌斯奥特曼之“奥特奇迹”、 JerryC的“摇滚卡农”、Rick Astly的“Never Gonna Give You Up”，beyond的“不再犹豫”、亚东的“向往神鹰”、S.H.E的“Superstar”、Bon Jovi 的“Its My Life”。 土豆豆单：励志歌曲 第二毕业类歌曲：可以用在毕业、校园等图片 星月夜（双簧管，来自专辑“纯音本色”），小虎队的“放心去飞”，范玮琪的“那些花儿”，许飞的“夏天的味道” 土豆豆单：毕业心情 第三民乐类：可以用在中国风格的cosplay图片 幕舍A ways away, Rin的“飞鸟”，回梦仙游，陈悦的“乱红“，贾鹏芳（二胡）的”旅愁“，贾鹏芳（二胡）的“睡莲”，林海的“踏古”，上妻宏光的“暁の光” 土豆豆单：新民乐 第四送别类：可以送行、出国、退役等图片 告别阿休肯 ashokan_farewell，陈慧娴的“千千阙歌”，Sara Brightman的“Time To Say Goodbye” 土豆豆单：分别时刻 第五辉煌成就类：庆典、成就展览类图片 ERA的“冠军们 The Champions", Baba Yetu 钢琴曲，班得瑞的“火战车chariots of fire”土豆豆单：辉煌 第六婚礼类：婚礼图片 Annie's wonderland， could this be love， pretty_boy，婚礼进行曲钢琴，周蕙的“约定", Taylor swift的"love story" 土豆豆单：婚礼音乐 第七回忆类：各种怀旧、童年类照片 どろろの回想（多罗罗天下之战插曲）， D大调卡农钢琴， Robert Mills的“children”，班得瑞的“childhood_memory”，钢琴阿甘正传配乐，双簧管辯護律師（韩国）插曲，Kevin Kern的“through the arbor” 钢琴，路易斯.阿姆斯特朗的“What A wonderful World ”，火影忍者-alone 回忆小时候背景音乐，宗次郎的“ 故乡的原风景” ，星月夜（双簧管）， Memory 音乐剧《猫》插曲 土豆豆单：回忆 第八明星、时尚：各种时装、明星、模特类,cosplay类照片 天堂滨崎步纯钢琴演奏，娃娃脸后弦， Enigma的“shadow in silence”， far away from home， Richard Sanderson的“Reality”，战舞之姬，青花瓷周杰伦, 花好月圆醉笛，燕子甘丹雅，水果篮子 for fruits basket 土豆豆单：明星、时尚 第九：历史、收藏品展览 东映三国志主题曲英雄的黎明 土豆豆单：历史、收藏 第十：旅游、风景
以小见大的亲情作文优秀3篇 以小见大的亲情作文（一）： 生活中有许多感人的事，它们像海底的一颗颗珍珠，珍藏在我们心中！ 一个阳光明媚的早晨，院子尽是小鸟清脆的歌声――我该去上学了！ 爸爸推着自行车，我坐在后座准备带我去上学，正在跟妈妈描述昨晚做梦时的情形，并且用手比划着，爸爸什么也不知，只顾着往前走，就在准备要过门槛的那一刻，意外发生了。自行车往前一拱，顿时我身子倾斜，两手不知所措“蹼蹬”一声，我重重的摔倒在地。地下满是尖尖的石头，我的头流淌着鲜血，失声痛哭起来，这声足能够震动山岗。爸妈一看这情形着急起来，爸爸立刻抱起我，飞奔向医院，一边跑一边安慰我但是，不知是谁惹怒了雨神，突然下起蒙蒙细雨，随着时间一分一秒的过去，下起了倾蓬大雨，路上的行人见状纷纷回家，这时爸爸皱起了眉头，不管下着多大的雨，不管路地有多么滑，爸爸都紧紧地抱着我，大步向医院奔去，最后到医院了，爸妈的衣服全湿透了，而我却是浓浓的暖意，感动地泪水夺眶而出。 爸妈我爱您们！ 以小见大的亲情作文（二）： 以小见大的亲情 父亲也真搞笑，老远的给我送月饼来，还有两个梨和一小撮茶叶，这些东西加起来也不到车费的三分之一呢。
和同学们瓜分了月饼和梨，那一小撮茶叶却弄丢了。或许是当垃圾给扫掉了吧。我一翻垃圾篮，果然在那，幸好有袋子装着。 我把那茶叶倒进开水中，刚好能泡上一杯浓浓的茶。就是这杯浓热的茶，使我又一次不能入眠。一整个下午，我就静静地想着过去的事。 我们村子里的人除了待客和供神鬼，自我是很少喝茶的，连开水也难得喝上一口。渴了就舀上一大碗带点粥的米汤咕噜咕噜地灌下去。只有我们家，四姐弟都喜欢喝茶，而我母亲向来是不主张我们喝茶的，在她眼里喝茶跟喝药一个样，只是在吃多了油腻的东西的才特许我们喝上一两杯。但我们喝得多了，她也就不怎样管我们了，只是她还是一口也不喝，除非拉肚子。说来好笑，我母亲认为浓茶是能够治拉肚子的，我小时候就十分信奉这种说法。肚子不舒服了就偷一把茶叶塞进嘴里，用口水慢慢地将它泡软，然后就咀嚼起来，有时连渣也全吞了下去。虽然有点苦，但为了肚子，我那时就很勇敢，况且吃完后很长一段时间口中还甘甜甘甜的。我很喜欢那种感觉。也真是奇怪，那方法每次都灵验。我曾把这方法传授给别的小孩子，但他们都爱不了那苦。 我渐渐长大，再也不吃茶叶了，却还是喜欢喝茶，个性是早上起来，先泡上一杯浓茶再去刷牙洗脸运动，回来时那茶已差不多泡好了。捧上一本小说边喝边看，那真是人生一大快事。 这样的快事在学校里是享受不到的。因为学校里太热闹，生活节
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【 让你忍不住收藏的十首超好听的英文歌曲！】1.《Realize》2. 《Amarantine》3.《I See You》4.《Day Too Soon》5.《Need You Now》 6.《Stupid In Love》7.《When You are Mad》8.《The Climb》9.《You Belong With Me》10.《Welcome To My Life》https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,/SUThIV
【十首英文电影插曲，很温柔的歌，适合安静的时候听】1.《Hello》2. 《Fallin out》 3.《Better in time》4.《Fallin》5.《We are one》6.《Show me love》7.《Because you live》8.《What a wonderful world》9.《You are my everything》10.《Sound Of My
【舒缓减压系音乐推荐】1.曲婉婷《Everything In the World》2.Jason Mraz《I’m Yours 》3.Adele《Chasing Pavements》4.Olivia Ong《where is the love》5.孙燕姿《直来直往》6.梁静茹《美丽人生》7.邓福如《如 果有如果》8.王菲《南海姑娘》9.王若琳《I Love You》 https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,/zWgfS0B
【?你 MP3 里不可缺少的，十首欧美歌曲！】1《Hey jude》2《Yesterday》 3《Vindicated》4《Beyond thd game》5《I like it I love it》6《Should It Matter》7《Are you the one》8《Traveling Light》9《Resta In Ascolto》 10《I Finally Found Someone》https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,/zW11ahd
【 十首英文歌曲，一个人寂寞时听】1. 《forgotten》2.《only love》 3.《Breakaway》4.《Life for rent》5.《traveling light》6.《Fire Fly》7.《lay my love on you》8.《Are You The One》9.《Breathe again》 10.《Truly Madly Deeply》 https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,/zWuLeGK
【 十首清纯英文歌曲】1.《kiss it》2.《it's okay》3.《T-SHIRT》 4.《single girl》5.《i miss you》6.《Whatever You Like》7.《this i promise you》8.《you are not alone》9.《We Will Rock You》10. 《if you come back my life》https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,/SIqX2d
《遇见》 《知足》 《突然好想你》 《蒲公英的约定》纯音乐钢琴版 很唯美~~
【十首英文，很温柔的歌，适合安静的时候听】1.《Hello》2. 《Fallin out》3.《Better in time》4.《Fallin》5.《We are one》6.《Show me love》7.《Because you live》8.《What a wonderful world》9.《You are my everything》10.《Sound Of My Dre》https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,/bTdUy
【世界著名钢琴曲排行榜】没听过的赶紧收藏了！NO.1 《梦中的婚礼》 NO.2 《秋日私语》NO.3 《水边的阿狄丽娜》NO.4 《蓝色多瑙河》NO.5 《致爱丽斯》NO.6 《悲怆奏鸣曲》NO.7 《蓝色的爱》NO.8 《雨的印记》 NO.9 《杜鹃圆舞曲》NO.10 《爱的纪念》。 https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,/zOxz5rm
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幸福在心中作文600字 人人都渴望幸福，人人都在追求幸福。下面是为你了“幸福在心中作文600字”，希望能帮助到您。 有人问，幸福是什么？对啊，“幸福”这个感受得到却说不清楚的东西到底是什么？它又在哪里呢？ 幸福在这里，在我的这张生日照上。“乖女儿，今天是你的生日，你想吃什么？老爸给你做。”这句话，是爸爸在我每次生日时千篇一律却不会不耐烦的一句话。每到这时，也会有人和我说类似的话：“你爸爸怎么这么小气啊？都 ___。不像我爸，我生日的时候他给我买了名牌裙子呢！”我听到这样的话，每次都只是一笑而过，因为再多的金钱也比不上父母对我融到骨子里的爱。他们拿着父母一个鼠标就可以买来的生日礼物时的满足，怎能比得上我与父母围桌吃饭时的愉悦、欣喜呢？没有家人陪在身边、没有父母的祝福，这个生日怎么可能真正的幸福呢？这张生日照可是一张其乐融融的全家福啊。瞧，我们三个笑得多甜！原来，幸福是过生日时家人的陪伴！ 幸福，还在这里，在我可爱学校的操场上。“怎么了？没事吧？”同学们见到我晕倒了，赶紧围过来，急切地询问着。炎炎骄阳下的那缕清风，也比不上同学间纯洁的友情。这就是我团结友爱
的班集体！同学们围在我的身边，我被温馨的气息包围着。原来，幸福就是遇到困难时朋友关心的话语。 幸福，现在又融进一首首暖心的歌曲里。动人心弦的歌曲牵着我的心翩翩起舞。我的心化作一汪粼粼清泉，享受着无尽的舒适合安恬。幸福，原来也是这静谧宜人的时光。 幸福是什么？答案就在你心中，像蜂巢里的蜜，慢慢酝酿流溢。幸福在哪里？并不需要刻意寻找，因为它就在你的身边。 在这世界上，有一样无价的东西，那就是感情。人的感情多种多样，又欢乐、幸福，也有悲伤、难过。当人们感到幸福时会笑，会永远地牢记在心中，当人们感到难过时会哭、会发泄。不管是幸福还是难过，它们都是无价的，是人生中最不可缺少的'。 我们现在还只是初中生，没有高中生的学校住宿，也没有大学生的远离他乡去读书，但我们依旧是幸福的，虽然不会太深的感受到亲朋好友的幸福、快乐。 在任何城市，在任何地区，每当开学时期，火车站总会人山人海，他们大多数是去外地读书的学生以及他们的家长，火车站总是有着人们依依不舍的感情，还有疼爱自己、关爱自己的家人。远离
豪勇七蛟龙（The Magnificent Seven） 大型颁奖晚会最喜欢用的背景音乐，地球人都知道。伯恩斯坦作曲 故乡的原风景 《神雕侠侣》多次引用，哀伤感人。出自日本作曲家宗次郎1991年的专辑《木道》 CCTV《天气预报》主题曲 据说是迄今为止中央电视台唯一没有改变过的背景音乐，《天气预报》一直使用它。 《渔舟唱晚》（即天气预报背景音乐），是当年在上海颇有名气的电子琴演奏家浦琪璋根据同名民族乐曲改编演奏的。她原来是上海乐团的独奏演员,是从“小荧星”艺术团毕业的,在艺术上颇有成就，曾与上海轻音乐乐团合作过许多脍炙人口的曲子,如:《幸福的傣乡》等等。音乐界的屠巴海经常与她合作。这首曲子完成后,浦琪璋便退出乐界。但此曲却因为被黄金档节目央视的《天气预报》采用为背景音乐而受到了广大中国人民的喜爱。当年浦琪璋用“雅马哈”三排键盘的音乐会电子琴改编演奏这首曲子时，也没有想到此曲会成为黄金时段节目的黄金背景音乐，更想不到它会影响到那么多国人。
简单的礼物（Simple Gifts） 美国VOA广播电台（****）的SPECIAL ENGLISH（慢速音乐）节目的背景音乐吗？太熟悉了，只不过电台版的速度要比这个快一些。 雪的梦幻（Snowdreams） 这首《雪的梦幻》（Snowdreams）出自班德瑞的春野这张专辑。相当经典的纯音乐，被电台和电视台使用的次数已经无法统计，常在一些情感类（尤其爱情，有一点淡淡的哀伤）的播讲中充当背景音乐。 童年（Childhood Memory） 这首《童年》（Childhood Memory）出自班德瑞的《日光海岸》这张专辑。确实曲如其名，让人回想起过去的时光，听了有种想哭的冲动……，长笛与黑管永远是管乐重梦幻组合，叠轻柔的钢琴上，顺记忆穿针引线，副歌中穿插一段凝人和声，是整首曲子接在主题后经营出来的高潮，刚巧呼应着全程串场风铃声，两者在编曲中分工架起，迷雾般的帷幕，带人回溯到孩提时代那段年幼无助但却也无忧无虑的时刻。可惜的是，像这样的甜蜜回忆，一旦成人，能分离的人也所剩无多了。
10大超级好听的歌曲推荐（附推荐理由） 根据个人这么10多年来的听歌经验，精选了以下10首个人认为超级好听的歌曲推荐给大家。 有中文歌曲，也有英文歌曲，并写了推荐的理由，只为博你开心就好！推荐1： 歌曲：大悲咒歌手：龚玥、齐豫、其它男声女声 推荐理由：果然是佛门音乐，有人听得很欢快，有的人听到哭，那种感觉无以言表，因人而异，真是千江有水千江月啊，福德无边。 推荐2： 歌曲：love mail 歌手：Nicoleta Matei是罗马尼亚流行女歌手 推荐理由：节奏一气呵成，女歌手声音高低自如，能把最细腻的感情表达出来！ 推荐3： 歌曲：彭月公子说歌手：彭月公子 推荐理由：亮点在于，怪才怪才，第一个用文字表达音乐的人，如何让我在最美丽的时候遇到你？保留有意外的发现，一切不言中。 推荐4： 歌曲：walk away 歌手：Dia Frampton 推荐理由：年轻，有张力，有音乐节奏感，只有质感的皮肤才能表达质感的音乐。 推荐5： 歌曲：蓝莲花歌手：许巍 推荐理由：只有理想主义者听到这首歌，才会有感觉的，如果不是，可以路过。有些歌曲只单单属于某个人，单单属于某个年代。 推荐6：
歌曲：把悲伤留给自己歌手：林苑 推荐理由：我听过的最有女人味的歌曲了，特别是在最近的电影《恶战》中当过插曲，总之男人听了都感觉有女人味。 推荐7： 歌曲：see you again 歌手：Wiz Khalifa 推荐理由：典型的美式风格，歌手声音很纯很和，加上速7热播，更是红了一大片，推荐一边看MV一边听，效果更佳 推荐8： 歌曲：机器铃砍菜刀歌手：张卫 推荐理由：80后不听这首歌，真是错过了，凡是80后听了这首歌曲，据说百分之八十的人都会哭，回忆80后岁月的经曲歌曲 推荐9： 歌曲：eyes on me 歌手：王菲 推荐理由：十分经典的一首英文歌曲，王菲的声音总能唱出一种超世感出来，而这首歌曲不是唱给人间，是唱给最终幻想的。 推荐10：
幸福在心中的作文5篇 幸福，时时刻刻围绕在你身旁，是母亲一声温柔的叮咛，幸福是父亲一次粗糙的抚摸。其实幸福就在每个人的心里，一直都存在着。下面，xx为大家整理关于幸福在我心中的文章，欢迎大家阅读。 作文一：幸福在我心中 今年五一劳动节，爸爸妈妈放弃了休息时间，陪我到宝应去参加围棋升段比赛。刚开始报名的时候，尽管我的实力还没有达到，但我的热情很高，我积极地向老师争取，最终老师答应了。 30日早上，我们5点半就起床，6点多出发，到宝应已经7点半了，还好，离比赛还有半小时。我的第一场比赛打的很顺手，轻轻松松地将对手拿下。从考场出来，我心情好极了，第一时间告诉爸妈我的战果，他们也为我高兴。不一会儿，其他考场我熟悉的同学也出来了，他们有输有赢，我因为自己的胜利，对他们的情况只是问问而已，并不放在心上。与他们玩的非常开心，差点忘记这次是来比赛的了。 第二场开始了，我坐进了赛场，还没有从刚才的玩乐中完全清醒过来，就听裁判老师说“可以开始了”，我心神不定的与对手摆起了棋子，他执黑，我执白，他放在这，我就紧跟在他后;他放那，我也毫不示弱，追着他放。他快，我
也不慢，就这样，两路棋子摆完，我们的速度也是很惊人的，外人看来，我们俩不像是下棋，而是在“拣豆子”，你一个，我一个。这一盘，就在我们的“拣豆子”游戏中飞快地结束了，后来听老师说只用了10分钟，比赛结果，我输，他赢。这下，我没有了第一盘的喜悦，但是，我还有的是机会，出来后，我又照样和同学在一起打打闹闹。 就这样，第一天，我赢一盘，输三盘。妈妈说，我是输在下棋太快，没有经过认真思考，就只赶着下棋子。我可不这样想，心里很不服气，我明明也思考了呀，为什么总是说我不动脑筋呢。不管了，先玩吧，明天还有三场呢，我不相信我不赢。 第二天，我又按着自己的方法，和对手15分钟就下完了第一场，结果，又被你猜中了，输。这下，我傻眼了，为什么我连输了四场呢?难道老师和爸妈的说法是对的吗?我真的没有认真思考吗?我没有看清棋盘上的局势吗?我太浮躁了吗?我在想着的时候，妈妈走过来，对我说：“儿子，这次我们只是来试试身手，妈妈对你的输赢并不太看重，但是，我最在意的你的下棋态度，这一点，你做的非常不好。希望下一场，你能够慢一点，哪怕只是下满半小时，我也看到你的进步了。”我经过好几次的失败打击之后，心情糟透了，听了妈妈说的话，我难过的眼泪都快要下来了。我答应妈妈，一定认真再认真，我就不信我不能赢。
50首经典背景音乐，每一首都将我们的心情渲染得淋漓尽致。 引导语：如果你爱音乐，请你找个星期天戴好耳机调好音量听完这50首广播电台常用的背景音乐，每一首都能将我们的心情渲染得淋漓尽致。绝对是你曾经苦苦寻找的歌！ 1、豪勇七蛟龙（The Magnificent Seven） 大型颁奖晚会最喜欢用的背景音乐，地球人都知道。伯恩斯坦作曲。 2、故乡的原风景 （神雕侠侣）多次引用，哀伤感人。出自扶桑作曲家宗次郎1991年的专辑（木道）。 3、渔舟唱晚——CCTV（天气预报）主题曲 据说是迄今为止中间电视台唯一没有改变过的背景音乐，（天气预报）一直使用它。（渔舟唱晚）（即天气预报背景音乐），是当年在上海颇有名气的电子琴演奏家浦琪璋根据同名民族乐曲改编演奏的。她原来是上海乐团的独奏演员，是从“小荧星”艺术团毕业的，在艺术上颇有成就，曾与上海轻音乐乐团合作过许多脍炙人口的曲子，如（幸福的傣乡）等等。音乐界的屠巴海经常与她合作。
这首曲子完成后，浦琪璋便退出乐界。但此曲却因为被黄金档节目央视的（天气预报）采用为背景音乐而受到了广大中国人民的喜爱。当年浦琪璋用“雅马哈”三排键盘的音乐会电子琴改编演奏这首曲子时，也没有想到此曲会成为黄金时段节目的黄金背景音乐，更想不到它会影响到那么多国人。 4、简单的礼物（Simple Gifts） 像是美国VOA广播电台（美国之音）的SPECIAL ENGLISH（慢速音乐）节目的背景音乐，只不过电台版的速度要比这个快一些。 5、雪的梦幻（Snowdreams） 这首（雪的梦幻）出自班德瑞的春野这张专辑。相当经典的纯音乐，被电台和电视台使用的次数已经无法统计，常在一些情感类（尤其爱情，有一点淡淡的哀伤）的播讲中充当背景音乐。 6、童年（Childhood Memory） 这首（童年）出自班德瑞的（日光海岸）这张专辑。确实曲如其名，让人回想起过去的时光，听了有种想哭的冲动……长笛与黑管永远是管乐重梦幻组合，叠轻柔的钢琴上，顺记忆穿针引线，副歌中穿插一段凝人和声，是整首曲子接在主题后经营出来的高潮，刚巧呼应着全程串场风铃声，两者在编曲中分工架起，迷雾般的帷幕，带人回溯到孩提时代那段年幼无助但却也无忧无虑的时刻。可惜的是，像这样的甜蜜回忆，一旦成人，能分享的人也所剩无多了。 7、宋家王朝（THE SOONG SISTER） 出自扶桑作曲大师喜多郎之手，个人感觉既恢弘又凄婉，港台的电视剧多爱用此背景音乐，比如李若彤版（神雕侠侣）。 8、你的笑颜（Your ?mile） 这首曲子出自班德瑞的（仙境）这张专辑，似乎常被用电台作为午夜节目的背景音乐。相对于其它几首情感节目的背景音乐，这首曲子并不显得特别悲伤和哀婉，但是一样会触到你的神经。 9、春野（ONE DAY IN SPRING） 出自班德瑞的专辑（春野），常被用作节目开头的曲子或是新闻、起床曲的开头背景音乐。是一首非常舒缓柔美的经典乐。
阅读下面的材料，根据要求作文。 1 21世纪，会带给我们些什么呢？面对新世纪的曙光，我们对新世纪有太多太多的渴望和憧憬，但也清楚地知道，不尽的未来带给我们的还有太多太多的未知以及什么都可能有的变数。 请以"新世纪，我的渴望和憧憬"为话题写一篇文章。 【要求】①立意自定；②文体不限；③题目自拟；④不少于800字。 【提示】本题属对象和时间的限制。写作时要注意"我"和"新世纪"，要写出自己的真情实感，要具有鲜明的时代感。 2 阅读下面一首短诗，根据要求作文。 散步的时候/ 我走直路/ 儿子却故意/ 把路走弯/ 我说/ 把路走直/ 就是捷径/ 儿子说/ 把路走弯/ 路就延长 请以"选择"为话题，写一篇抒发你对自己人生路的感受，或阐发你对人生路的看法的文章。【要求】①立意自定；②文体不限；③题目自拟；④不少于800字。 【提示】本题属范围的限制。作文选材范围是多方面的，如学生生活、社会生活、人生感悟、传统美德、哲理思辩等。本文内容一定是对"人生路"的感受或看法。 3 阅读下面的材料，根据要求作文。 人生有"四气"：奋发向上、百折不回的志气；铁面无私、令人敬畏的正气；披荆斩棘、舍生取义的勇气；求新求好、能做善做的才气。 请根据材料，以"人生的关键"为话题写一篇文章。 【要求】①立意自定；②文体不限；③题目自拟；④不少于800字。 【提示】本题属主旨的限制。文章主旨即为"四气"中的某一"气"，如：人生的关键是要有奋发向上、百折不回的志气。 4 阅读下面一则寓言，根据要求作文。 海滩上撒满了彩色的贝壳，一群孩子在拾着。一个孩子捡起一枚贝壳，随手又把它丢弃。他已经寻找了一个下午，始终没有找到自己心目中那枚最美、最稀罕的贝壳。夕阳西下，海与天连成一片深深的蓝色，他的伙伴们已经捡了满满一篮子贝壳，只有他仍然拖着沉重的脚步在海滩上寻找…… 请以寓言的寓意为话题写一篇文章。 【要求】①不得只改写、扩写材料；②文体不限；③题目自拟；④不少于800字。 【提示】本题属主旨的限制。这则寓言实际上讲的是人们对人生目标的两种态度：或执着追求崇高的理想，或脚踏实地从小事做起。 5 阅读下面的材料，根据要求作文。 宋朝大文豪苏轼读到王安石的《咏菊》"昨夜西风过园林，吹落黄花满地金"后，认为菊花并不落瓣，于是随后写道："秋花不比春花落，说与诗人仔细吟。"后来苏轼调任黄州团练副使，在重阳节后的一天步入菊园，只见满地铺金，枝上已无一朵菊花，到此才知，同为菊花竟也有落瓣与不落瓣之分。
《Kiss The Rain 雨的印记》（Yiruma）a 《Tears眼泪》（The Daydream） 《YOU&ME》（The Daydream） 《天空之城》钢琴版Carrying You 《Merry Christmas》https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,wrence（坂本龙一）（最近发现湖南台周笔畅的勇往直前的广告背景配乐就是这首） 《流动的城市》林海 《月光边境》林海 《迷失》林海 《远方的寂静》林海 《Canon In D》帕海贝尔 《鸟之诗》钢琴版 小提琴： 《流浪者之歌》萨拉萨蒂 《天空之城》久石让 《小百合》（《云之彼端约定的地方》中的曲子） 《Ave Maria圣母颂》舒伯特 《D大调卡农》帕海贝尔 《斗牛士之歌》萨拉萨蒂 《D大调第一华丽波兰舞曲》维尼亚夫斯基 《24首随想曲》帕格尼尼 《G小调恰空》维塔利 大提琴 《天鹅》圣桑（优雅的天鹅） 《G大调第1号无伴奏大提琴组曲之前奏曲》巴赫（很经典） 《降B大调第九大提琴协奏曲》博凯里尼 《西西里舞曲》福雷（非常有旋律性，好听的曲子啊）
单簧管 《单簧管波尔卡》波兰民谣 《浪漫曲》圣桑（温柔的） 小号 《亚麻色头发的少女》德彪西 《双鹰旗下进行曲》瓦格纳（进行曲） 《阿莱城的姑娘之法朗多尔》比才（较有气势） 《行星组曲之木星》霍尔斯特（温馨，却又有点忧伤的感觉） 《小夜曲》舒伯特（小夜曲，浪漫啊） 《歌之翼》门德尔松（充满着阳光的味道） 长笛 《a小调无伴奏长笛组曲》巴赫（这首曲子被认为是最不像长笛组曲的长笛组曲） 《沉思》马斯涅（浪漫的法国风格） 《培尔·金特组曲之第一组曲晨景》格里格（清新优美的小品） 《阿尔比诺尼柔板》阿尔比诺尼（忧伤、沉重） 以上就是自己很喜欢的好听的曲子哦，其中有古典的，也有现代的（我累啊） 不过真的非常好听。另外喜欢古典乐的话可以去看TV动画《金色琴弦》，很多著名的曲子里面都有，超喜欢的。 邱比特instrumental https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,/jiaoshi/gaojunying/music/qiu%20bi%20te.mp3 冰莲 https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,/files/A/S/7SB1KIQ348I.mp3 天空之城 http://59.44.142.130/music/Y/200588/14152/505172.wma irish lullaby 爱尔兰摇篮曲 https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,/mp3/haian/3.mp3 月あかりの砂のなかに https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,/himekami/music/song/b12.wma Sleepless Beauty 清和 https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,/conan/sleeplessbeauty.mp3 别人的浪漫 https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,/uuauth/138/20060922133000.mp3 TVエンディングテーマ http://61.156.7.14/upload/mp3/yydjm.mp3
幸福在那一刻绽放作文600字 【篇一：幸福在那一刻绽放作文600字】 幸福既复杂又简单；幸福既可以是父母搂住你的温暖的怀抱；幸福也可能是朋友一句短短的祝福，或是你得到老师认可时收获的一个微妙的眼神……。 去年冬天的某个夜晚，爸爸妈妈因为加班很晚都没回来。饥肠辘辘的我只能自己出门去买点吃的。冬日夜晚的街头凄冷而昏暗的灯光弥漫，一阵刺骨的冷风吹过，几片零落的叶子无力地旋转，一会儿又归于平静。马路上偶尔几辆汽车飞弛而过，似乎一刻也不愿停留。可能是因为天气冷，街上营业的店家不是很多，走了很长一段路，却看不见一家正在营业的饮食店。正当我失望透顶的时候，终于我看到了一家敞开着门，亮着灯的汤粉店。我赶忙加快了脚步来到了店门口。当我走到店门口时，看见有一位老人正在打扫卫生，他看到我正准备进店，说道：“我们店打烊了，到别的店吧”，我顿时绝望了：找了半天我就看到这一家店开着，看样子今天要饿肚子了。当我在店门口四下茫然地张望时，老人开口了：“这么晚了，你一个小孩子不要到处跑了，你进来吧，吃点什么？”“谢谢爷爷，给我来一碗肉丝汤粉”我高兴极了。老人穿着一件青色的长工作服，黑黑的脸上皱纹打堆，一双浑浊的眼睛却透出一种慈祥柔和的光，他用一双冻得开裂的手麻利地焯起米粉来。没到几分钟，一碗热腾腾的肉丝汤粉就端上了桌，我双手端起了大瓷碗，一股热流瞬间传遍了我的全身，那一刻我觉得这简简单单的一碗汤粉让我有了幸福的感觉。 时间过去了许久，每当我吃汤粉的时候，我总会不自觉地想起那个夜晚，那位穿着青衣的老人，那双浑浊但却慈祥的眼睛，那碗肉丝汤粉。那道我可以称之为幸福的感觉是那么实实在在，恍若就在昨日绽放。 【篇二：幸福在那一刻绽放作文600字】 幸福是什么？相信每个人心中都有属于自己的答案。有人认为幸福如夜空中的星星，明亮耀眼；有人认为幸福如展开的画卷，绚丽多彩；还有人认为幸福是貌若灼灼桃花，倾国倾城……。我认为幸福是一缕暖阳，是一泓清泉，是一片绿洲，是热心的付出，是生命对生命的感动。 记忆的琴弦拨回到两年前，那是一个初冬的下午，我放学后一如既往地去公交站台乘车回家，看到一辆229即将进站，我跑得气喘吁吁还是没赶上。倒霉的我只有在寒风中等下一辆车的到来，可能是等得时间较长，我有些受凉了。上公交车后，我在拥挤的车厢里找了一个位置站着，总有种想呕吐的感觉。我提醒自己分散注意力，可是难受的感觉愈发强烈，我想把背上的书包取下来拿餐巾纸，可是来不及，我“哇”的一声吐了出来，弄得手上、裤子上都是呕吐物。顿时，我的脸“唰”的一下就涨红了，我紧张地看了看四周，发现不少乘客都在看着我，我像一只惊慌失措的小鹿，心想今天可是糗大了，怎么办呀？我羞愧得低下头，不敢看他人的目光。这时一位大约20多岁的姐姐走到我身边，说：“小朋友，你怎么了？”她一边说着，
中央电视台最常用的100 首经典背景乐曲（视频制作音乐推荐） 有一种旋好象一见钟情的意中人，让你知道什么叫“曾经沧海难为水，除却巫山不是云”；有一种旋律好似相思成灾的恋人，让你体会什么叫“衣带渐宽终不悔，为伊消得人憔悴”；有一种旋律恰似相恨见晚的知音，让你感慨什么叫“此曲只应天上有，人间难得几回闻”。没错，这就是背景音乐，真正的好音乐，传说中的“销魂曲”。 1.豪勇七蛟龙（The Magnificent Seven） 大型颁奖晚会最喜欢用的背景音乐，地球人都知道。伯恩斯坦作曲。 2.故乡的原风景 《神雕侠侣》多次引用，哀伤感人，出自日本作曲家宗次郎1991年的专辑《木道》。 https://www.doczj.com/doc/3816027912.html,TV《天气预报》主题曲 据说是迄今为止中央电视台唯一没有改变过的背景音乐，《天气预报》一直使用它。这首曲子名叫《渔舟唱晚》，是当年在上海颇有名气的电子琴演奏家浦琪璋根据同名民族乐曲改编演奏的。 4.简单的礼物（Simple Gifts） 美国VOA广播电台（美国之音）的SPECIAL ENGLISH（慢速音乐）节目的背景音乐吗？太熟悉了，只不过电台版的速度要比这个快一些。 5.雪的梦幻（Snow dreams） 这首《雪的梦幻》（Snowdreams）出自班德瑞的《春野》这张专辑，相当经典的纯音乐，被电台和电视台使用的次数已经无法统计，常在一些情感类（尤其爱情，有一点淡淡的
哀伤）的播讲中充当背景音乐。 6.童年（Childhood Memory） 这首《童年》（Childhood Memory）出自班德瑞的《日光海岸》这张专辑。确实曲如其名，让人回想起过去的时光，听了有种想哭的冲动…… 7.宋家王朝（THE SOONG SISTER） 这首《宋家王朝》出自日本作曲大师喜多郎之手，个人感觉既恢弘又凄婉，港台的电视剧多爱用此背景音乐，比如古天乐、李若彤版《神雕侠侣》。 8.你的笑颜（Your Smile） 这首曲子出自班德瑞的《仙境》这张专辑，似乎常被用电台作为午夜节目的背景音乐。相对于其它几首情感节目的背景音乐，这首曲子并不显得特别悲伤和哀婉，但是一样会触到你的神经。 9.春野（ONE DAY IN SPRING） 《春野》（ONE DAY IN SPRING）出自班德瑞的专辑《春野》，常被用作节目开头的曲子或是新闻、起床曲的开头背景音乐，是一首非常舒缓柔美的经典乐。 10.安妮的仙境（Annie''s Wonderland） 《安妮的仙境》（Annies Wonderland）出自班德瑞的《仙境》这张专辑，柔美而有力度，适合朗诵配乐。 11.凤凰卫视《天气预报》主题曲