金融学专业融资融券禁令在实验资产市场毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文

有关金融市场毕业论文范文在金融市场中，金融制度是现代市场经济中资源配置的核心制度，金融制度内容的安排将会直接影响金融市场结构调整和优化的全面性。

下面是店铺为大家整理的有关金融市场毕业论文，供大家参考。

金融市场毕业论文篇一：金融市场运营监管制度研究【摘要】金融经济中的风险主要发生在金融市场的运作中，随着经济全球一体化的发展，金融市场的主体和观念都发生了变化，经济活动变得复杂，这就促进了金融市场中全新运营监管制度的出现。

对于金融市场监管制度中的模式、内容、监管目的等都要进行改革创新，从而适应经济发展浪潮。

本文研究了金融全球化下的金融市场监管制度，为金融市场的运营稳定提供了参考建议。

【关键词】金融全球化;金融市场运营;监管制度金融市场的运营中带有一定的金融风险，这种金融风险即监管的核心，在经济全球化的发展趋势下，金融市场在运营过程中会出现非常多的变化，局势或波动或复杂，这就给市场运营的稳定带来了困难。

为了提升金融市场运营的效率，减少潜在的经济动乱，需要对市场的运营监管制度进行完善。

一、金融市场运营中的金融风险(一)金融全球化全球化金融的主要特点就是经济的跨国交易，跨国证券、对外资源、国际贷款等飞速发展，资金跨国障碍的逐渐减少，各个国家均放松了对跨国交易的约束，使得国内金融与国际金融逐步对接，离岸金融市场逐渐消失，国内外金融的界限也越来越模糊，这些都标志着金融全球化正在与国内市场相接轨，使得国内市场有着更为广阔的发展空间。

但是，需要注意的是，这种全球化的金融发展虽然提升了资源的利用效率，同时也导致国家对于金融市场的控制能力减少，金融资金来源渠道增多，非常容易出现金融紊乱的情况，本土经济无法进行外界金融的管理，加上各个国家对于金融监管的制度也不尽相同，这就使得金融市场出现了不公平的竞争现象，引发了金融市场危机。

(二)金融功能一体化传统的金融发展认为，证券、银行、保险等不同金融项目之间有着不同的功能分工，其伴随的风险也各不相同。

国外关于如何加强融资融券业务风险管理的研究的具体学者事例在国内，融资融券业务一直备受关注，而国外也有许多学者就如何加强融资融券业务风险管理进行了深入研究。

他们通过实证分析和理论探讨，提出了许多有价值的观点和建议，为相关领域的研究和实践提供了重要的参考。

其中，美国学者Chen等人在其研究中发现，融资融券业务存在着潜在的风险，需要加强监管和管理。

他们提出，应当建立健全的风险管理机制，加强对融资融券业务参与者的监管，并加强市场信息披露和透明度，以提高市场的稳定性和抗风险能力。

另外，英国学者Smith对融资融券业务风险管理进行了深入研究，提出了一种基于概率模型的风险评估方法。

他认为，通过建立合理的数学模型，可以更准确地评估融资融券业务的风险水平，为监管部门和市场参与者提供科学依据。

此外，德国学者Müller等人从制度设计的角度出发，提出了一系列改进措施，以加强融资融券业务的风险管理。

他们认为，应当建立完善的市场监管制度，明确相关规则和标准，规范市场参与者的行为，防范潜在的风险隐患，保障市场的稳定和健康发展。

除了以上几位学者，还有许多国外学者就融资融券业务风险管理进行了深入研究，提出了各具特色的观点和建议。

他们的研究成果不仅对国外金融市场的监管和管理具有重要意义，也为国内相关领域的发展提供了有益启示。

综上所述，国外学者对如何加强融资融券业务风险管理进行了深入研究，提出了许多有价值的观点和建议。

他们的研究成果为相关领域的监管和管理提供了重要参考，有助于提高市场的稳定性和抗风险能力，推动金融市场的健康发展。

希望国内学者可以借鉴他们的研究成果，不断完善融资融券业务的风险管理机制，促进金融市场的改革和发展。

金融体制、融资约束与投资——来自OECD的实证分析R．SemenovDepartment of Economics，University of Nijmegen，Nijmegen（荷兰内梅亨大学，经济学院）这篇论文考查了OECD的11个国家中现金流量对企业投资的影响.我们发现不同国家之间投资对企业内部可获取资金的敏感性具有显著差异,并且银企之间具有明显的紧密关系的国家的敏感性比银企之间具有公平关系的国家的低.同时，我们发现融资约束与整体金融发展指标不存在关系.我们的结论与资本市场信息和激励问题对企业投资具有重要作用这种观点一致，并且紧密的银企关系会减少这些问题从而增加企业获取外部融资的渠道。

一、引言各个国家的企业在显著不同的金融体制下运行。

金融发展水平的差别(例如，相对GDP的信用额度和相对GDP的相应股票市场的资本化程度），在所有者和管理者关系、企业和债权人的模式中，企业控制的市场活动水平可以很好地被记录.在完美资本市场,对于具有正的净现值投资机会的企业将一直获得资金。

然而，经济理论表明市场摩擦，诸如信息不对称和激励问题会使获得外部资本更加昂贵，并且具有盈利投资机会的企业不一定能够获取所需资本.这表明融资要素，例如内部产生资金数量、新债务和权益的可得性，共同决定了企业的投资决策.现今已经有大量考查外部资金可得性对投资决策的影响的实证资料（可参考，例如Fazzari（1998）、 Hoshi(1991)、 Chapman（1996）、Samuel(1998））.大多数研究结果表明金融变量例如现金流量有助于解释企业的投资水平。

这项研究结果解释表明企业投资受限于外部资金的可得性。

很多模型强调运行正常的金融中介和金融市场有助于改善信息不对称和交易成本，减缓不对称问题,从而促使储蓄资金投着长期和高回报的项目,并且提高资源的有效配置（参看Levine（1997)的评论文章）。

因而我们预期用于更加发达的金融体制的国家的企业将更容易获得外部融资.几位学者已经指出建立企业和金融中介机构可进一步缓解金融市场摩擦。

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拒绝还盘英文范文示例1:Title: Refusing a Counteroffer - An Assertive ApproachIntroduction:In today's fast-paced business world, negotiation skills are crucial, particularly when it comes to handling counteroffers. Effectively refusing a counteroffer requires tact, assertiveness, and the ability to maintain good professional relationships. This article explores a confident and professional approach to reject a counteroffer, ensuring a respectful response while staying loyal to one's initial decision.Body:1. Acknowledge the counteroffer:Begin by expressing gratitude for the counteroffer and acknowledging the effort made by the other party. This helps maintain a positive tone throughout the conversation and ensures that the message is received with the intended respect.Example:"Thank you for taking the time to present me with acounteroffer. I appreciate your consideration and the opportunity to discuss it further."2. Reassert your decision:While acknowledging the counteroffer, it is essential to be clear and firm about your initial decision. It is crucial to minimize any ambiguity to ensure that there are no misunderstandings. Explain your reasons for making the initial decision and reiterate your commitment to it.Example:"However, after careful consideration, I have decided to maintain my original decision. This decision is based on various factors, including my long-term career goals and the current opportunities aligned with them."3. Outline the reasons behind your decision:Elaborate on the logical and practical aspects that contributed to your initial decision. Mention any key factors such as career progression, personal development, or alignment with your values. This will reassure the other party that your decision was not impulsive but a result of careful consideration.Example:"My decision aligned closely with my long-term career goals, and I believe it provides me with the best opportunities for growth and personal development. I have been working towards a specific career trajectory, and this decision ensures I remain on that path."4. Express gratitude and maintain professionalism:Maintaining a respectful and professional tone throughout the conversation is essential. Despite the refusal, express appreciation for the opportunity and the professional relationship you have built. Highlight that your rejection is not a reflection of their proposal but rather a personal career decision.Example:"I want to emphasize that my decision does not reflect any shortcomings in your counteroffer or your efforts. I genuinely appreciate the opportunity and the professional relationship we have developed. However, I must prioritize my long-term career goals at this time."Conclusion:Effectively declining a counteroffer requires assertiveness and maintaining professional relationships. By acknowledging, reasserting, outlining reasons, and expressing gratitude, individuals can gracefully decline counteroffers while ensuring open communication and maintaining mutual respect. Remember, a respectful refusal can strengthen professional bonds and ensure a positive future working relationship.示例2:Title: Politely Declining a CounterofferIntroduction:In today's competitive business environment, job offers often come with negotiations and counteroffers. While it can be tempting to accept a counteroffer, there are situations where it is necessary to politely decline. This article aims to provide a sample response for turning down a counteroffer in a professional and respectful manner.Body:Dear [Name],I hope this email finds you well. Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude for the offer you extended to me for the [position/title] at [Company]. It is genuinely flattering to be considered for such an esteemed role, and I greatly appreciate your confidence in my capabilities.After careful consideration and thorough deliberation, I have decided to decline the counteroffer made by your esteemed organization. Please allow me to explain the reasons behind this difficult decision.1. Personal and Professional Growth: Although the counteroffer is undoubtedly enticing, I firmly believe that my career goals and ambitions align better with the opportunity I have accepted elsewhere. This alternative path offers me greater chances for personal and professional growth, which I believe are crucial at this stage of my career.2. Commitment and Loyalty: I strongly value commitment and loyalty, and it is essential for me to honor my commitments. I havealready accepted an offer from another organization, and I am committed to performing to the best of my abilities in the role I have accepted. It is in the best interest of both parties involved to maintain the commitments made during the hiring process.3. Long-Term Stability: While the counteroffer seems attractive, it is important to consider the long-term stability and potential implications of accepting it. Studies have shown that accepting counteroffers often leads to dissatisfaction and uneasy working relationships. I would prefer to join an organization where I can build a solid foundation for my future career, rather than being swayed by short-term benefits.Please understand that my decision has not been taken lightly, and I genuinely appreciate the confidence you have shown in me. I am aware that declining this offer may create inconvenience, and I apologize for any disruption it may cause in your recruitment process.I would also like to express my sincere gratitude for the valuable insights and experiences gained throughout the interview process. The opportunity to interact with the exceptional team at[Company] has been both enlightening and inspiring.I remain grateful for the offer you extended and would welcome the chance to cross paths in the future should the opportunity arise. I wish you and [Company] continued success in all your endeavors.Warm regards,[Your Name]Conclusion:Turning down a counteroffer can be a difficult decision, but by articulating your reasons politely and respectfully, you can maintain professional relationships and leave a positive impression. The sample response provided above serves as a starting point for declining a counteroffer professionally, while expressing gratitude for the opportunity. Remember to tailor the message to suit your specific situation and maintain a positive tone throughout the email.示例3:Title: Rejecting a CounterofferIntroduction:In the business world, negotiation plays a crucial role in sealing deals, reaching agreements, or resolving conflicts. However, there are instances when one party must reject a counteroffer presented by the other party. This article examines the importance of refusing a counteroffer and provides guidance on how to handle such situations professionally and respectfully.Body:1. Clearly state the reasons for refusal:When rejecting a counteroffer, it is essential to clearly communicate the reasons behind your decision. By explaining the specific aspects that make the counteroffer unfavorable or unfeasible, you provide the other party with a clear understanding of why you cannot accept their terms. This clarity encourages open dialogue and helps maintain a professional relationship.Example: "We appreciate the effort put into presenting thecounteroffer. However, after careful consideration, we find that the proposed terms do not align with our current business goals and financial capabilities. Therefore, we regretfully cannot accept the counteroffer at this time."2. Be respectful and maintain a professional tone:It is crucial to keep emotions in check and maintain a respectful and professional tone when rejecting a counteroffer. By doing so, you demonstrate professionalism and a willingness to engage in further negotiations on different terms, if appropriate. Remember that maintaining a positive working relationship is often valuable in the long run.Example: "We would like to assure you that our decision is not a reflection of any personal views or beliefs. We greatly value our business relationship and hope that we can continue working together effectively in the future."3. Offer potential alternatives:While refusing a counteroffer, it can be beneficial to offer alternative options or suggestions for moving forward. This demonstrates your willingness to find common ground andencourages further negotiation to reach a mutually beneficial agreement.Example: "Although we are unable to accept the current counteroffer, we remain open to exploring alternative terms that can address both parties' concerns. We believe that with further discussion, we can reach an agreement that promotes the success of both of our organizations."Conclusion:Polite and respectful refusal of a counteroffer is an essential skill in business negotiations. By providing clear reasons for rejection, maintaining professionalism, and offering potential alternatives, you can maintain positive relationships and foster further collaboration. Remember, effective communication is key when handling such delicate situations.示例4:Title: Refusing a Counteroffer: Sample English CompositionIntroduction:Refusing a counteroffer is a delicate matter that requires tactand diplomacy. In this article, we will discuss the appropriate ways to decline a counteroffer professionally and maintain good business relations. By understanding the steps involved and utilizing effective communication techniques, you can handle such situations with grace and professionalism.Body:1. Begin with gratitude and appreciation:When rejecting a counteroffer, it is vital to express gratitude for the opportunity and appreciate the effort made by the other party. This ensures that your refusal is not perceived as disrespectful or dismissive.Example: "Thank you for considering my initial offer. I truly appreciate the time and effort you've invested in formulating the counteroffer."2. Clearly state your reasons:It is essential to clearly articulate the reasons behind your refusal. Whether it is due to budget constraints, a difference in expectations, or strategic considerations, being transparent aboutyour reasons helps the other party understand your decision and avoids ambiguity.Example: "After careful consideration, I have decided not to accept the counteroffer. This decision is based on our current financial constraints, which limit our ability to meet the revised terms effectively."3. Offer alternative solutions:While rejecting a counteroffer, it is advisable to suggest alternative solutions that could bridge the gap between your initial offer and their counteroffer. This shows your willingness to negotiate and find common ground.Example: "Although I am unable to accept the counteroffer as it stands, I am open to exploring alternative solutions that consider both parties' needs and constraints. Perhaps we can revisit the terms and find a middle ground that is mutually beneficial."4. Maintain a collaborative tone:Throughout the process, it is crucial to maintain a cooperative and collaborative tone. This helps foster positive relationships andleaves room for future negotiations or business interactions.Example: "I believe that by working together, we can find a solution that satisfies both parties. Let's continue to communicate openly and constructively to explore possibilities for future collaboration."Conclusion:Refusing a counteroffer involves more than just rejecting an offer; it's about preserving business relationships and maintaining a professional demeanor. By expressing gratitude, clearly stating your reasons, offering alternative solutions, and maintaining a collaborative tone, you can refuse a counteroffer while leaving the door open for further negotiations and future opportunities. Remember, effective communication is key to handling such situations with grace and professionalism.。

不良贷款管理中英文对照外文翻译文献不良贷款管理中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Non-performing Loans Management and RecoveryWilliam J. Bauman and Alan S. BlinderAbstractWith the deepening of China's economic system reform development and continuous improvement of the system of the market economy, banks ' lending business becomes completely open to individuals, personal loans of business growing, continues to expand the scope of business, especially the development of individual housing loan more quickly. Personal housing loan business in China at the time of its development, there are bad credit risks as well as the competitive situation is not optimistic, to a certain extent, hamper the development of individual housing loans, to sustainable development, research management must be strengthened on a number of issues. This article from the current development status of individual housing loan business to start, pointed out that because of the existing problems as well as problems and focus on how to develop personal housing loan bad credit risk reduction, foreign experiences and lessons learned, and thoughts and countermeasures for management, to promote the healthy and rapid development of the business.Key words:Housing loans to individuals; Bad credit risks; present situation; problem; Countermeasure1. IntroductionUnder the five-category loan classification, substandard, doubtful and loss loans are defined as non-performing loans.Because the reasons behind non-performing loans formation are different, credit associates must take effective measures to manage, recover and dispose of these parts of asset according to their different characteristics. The bank should first find out the responsibilities of the guarantor and dispose of the security in time. Only when they confirm that the guarantor has lost the guarantee abilities and the security is not sufficient to pay off the loan, can they begin to dispose of the non-performing loans.2. ReasonsThere are many reasons why banks have poorly performing loan portfolios. Irrespective of these causes, banks have an obligation to shareholders, depositors and creditors to maximize cash flow from assets, the most troublesome aspect of which has been the poor record of banks in recovering loans. It is this factor that has contributed the most to bank insolvency, and liquidity constraints.There are several complementary options available to banks to restructure problem loans and portfolios, including: Exercise of collateral (liens against property, inventories) through judicial or extra-judicial means.Out-of-court settlement that may focus exclusively on debt negotiation, restructuring and repayment, or lead to the financial, physical and operational restructuring of the enterprise.Bankruptcy/liquidation procedures through formal court proceedings. This may involve liquidation, reorganization or privatization of an enterprise to enforce partial or total loan repayment.(Besides the bank itself, sometimes government also leads a restructuring program to help the bank to solve the problem of NPL in order to stabilize the banking industry or the wholeeconomy, for example, Asset Management Company (AMC), a special purpose company, buys or exchanges NPL from bank and disposes of them).3. Work-Out UnitWith aggregate loan portfolios universally troubled by delinquencies and defaults, some banks have opted to develop work-out units to improve loan portfolio quality. When work-out units are established, they are usually set up to deal with most of a bank's problem loans, effectively sectioning off non-performing loans from the broader bank portfolio of performing loans. The benefits expected from work-out units include;Concentrated focus on the recovery of problem loans;More developed banking expertise and credit risk evaluation skills;Improved internal bank system (early warning systems, collateral requirements, credit information needs).Work-out units can make a significant difference in restructuring loan portfolios, particularly when supported by effective technical assistance.4.Loan Restructuring and Loan "Rollover"Case-by-case loan restructuring is common in market-oriented economies, particularlywhen borrowers are unable to meet the original terms of the loan agreement due to external factors. These restructuring invariably changes in the amount, terms and /or schedule of interest rates, principal repayment, and collateral values. Loan covenants ( ratios, report requirements) often change to facilitate compliance. In some cases, radical measures such as replacing management are involved.This approach is similar to what work-out units attempt todo: recover portions of loan portfolios which have deteriorated and are non-performing. However, workout units are often organized on the basis of sector, location or bank exposure. Case-by-case loan restructuring is conducted on an individualized basis. The benefits of individual case-by-case loan restructurings include:Reinforcement of the bank-client relationship.Retention of the loan by the bank on its balance sheet, even if provisions are made for possible losses.Preservation of the firm's relations with other parties (trade creditors, other banks, buyers, employees), thereby maintaining its reputation without embarrassing and costly bankruptcy / liquidation procedures.As with debt-equity swaps, the risk to the bank is that it is overly optimistic about prospects, and that additional resources are committed to the borrower adding to bank losses and reduced loan able funds at a future date. This has occurred frequently in transition economies (such as China, East European countries, former Soviet Union).In transition economy banks, the closest approximation to the Western loan restructuring has been the loan "rollover" which has been a common practice. Rollovers generally involve the following two techniques:Simple rollover of principal on/before the due date, with the enterprise meeting interest obligations.Rollover of principal on/before due date, with interest added b ack to the principal amount (“interest capitalization").The first technique is legitimate and rational unless the enterprise is unable to repay principal, and likely to remain impaired in the future. The second technique often reflects atroubled loan and enterprise, and has been typically practiced in transition economy banking systems. Further more, the latter technique has been accompanied by accounting treatment which mistakenly recognizes these assets as performing loans, artificially inflating income statements and balance sheet book values.5. Debt-equity Swaps and Loan Sales / Asset SwapDebt-equity swap results in bank ownership of enterprises occur with differing frequencies in different countries. In some countries, bank ownership of enterprises is common (German interlocking directorates), while in other countries it is strictly regulated (USA) or strictly prohibited (In China, debt-equity swap is done through asset management company). By swapping NPL for equity, banks can exercise more directcontrol/supervision over enterprise management while the enterprise benefits from increased debt capacity. The risk to bank is excess exposure to a risky investment which may jeopardize deposit safety and bank capital, and demand scarce management time and resources.Debt-equity swap represents nascent venture capital operation. Perhaps only one in 10 of these investments may succeed, but this should be sufficient to cover the risk of the other nine losing investment. Given existing low book values and the currently thin market that is likely to improve in the coming years, banks are prudent to allocate a small percentage of assets to enterprises they believe will generate significant profit at a later date. At that point, banks can sell their shares, and reap significant profit to bolster capital. All of this makes more sense given the current downside risk, which is limited, as most of these transactions are paper transactions that do not further impairbank liquidity.But bank equity swap may be indicative of the failure of banks in some countries to properly define bank's roles as financial intermediaries, streamline their operations, specialize in a few key areas within the limit of their current managerial and staffing capabilities, write down their assets to more accurate values, and progress toward a more stable and prudently managed system devoid of excess risk. Investment in losing enterprises raises the risk of future liquidity being drained to prop up these enterprises in the hope of eventual profitability, which puts depositors and shareholders at risk.In addition to debt-equity swaps, loan sales swaps are an option that could be used to restructure bank balance sheets. However, this option has not been commonly found in transition economy due to absence of secondary market development.6. Securitization of Non-performing LoanNon-performing loan securitization is a pooling of non-performing loans packaged and issued as securities to investors through arrangements of legal structure, cash flow, and credit rating mechanisms. Non-performing Loans are also known as bad loans, overdue loans, receivables under collection, and loans still under normal payment statuses, but with circulating bonds rated lower than CCC level. During the securitization period, the originator (seller) will select the most ideal portfolio based on a set of eligibility criteria, such as debtors' locations, credit period, currency, and overdue ratings from all available non-performing loans.After the screening process, bank will proceed with the risk assessment, cash flow simulation and credit tranche. The securities are then offered to investors after confirmation fromcredit rating agencies and regulatory approval obtained. The asset management agency is particularly important to a non-performing loan securitization since the asset management agency's expertise is instrumental to increasing collection rates of these non-performing loans. Investors' risks are minimized through credit enhancement techniques; default risks, prepayment risks, etc. are also emphasized to evaluate the risk profile of non-performing loans.7. In-court Bankruptcy / Liquidation ProceedingsResorting to legal procedures to collect the repayment of non-performing loans is the last defense line. In practice, banks should grasp the timing of litigation. Because blind lawsuits will involve banks' time, energy, money and people. In addition, they could have negative impact on the relationship between banks and their clients.Firstly, before litigation, banks should investigate the borrowers' income resources and asset categories and prevent them from hiding or transferring asset in this period of time. Banks can apply to the court for asset preservation. Secondly, banks should try best to correct the deficiencies of credit documents and win themselves advantageous conditions in litigation. Thirdly, banks should also prepare themselves for the results of reconciliation or failure.Bankruptcy/liquidation is an effective complement to out-of-cnurt approaches, and serves as a last stage of debt collection, providing creditors with control over debtors in financial distress and prompting their restructuring. For this reason, many countries (transition economies) have developed and are seeking to expand the use of formal bankruptcy to broaden the array of dispute resolution mechanisms, provide banks with long neededrecourse, and instill greater financial discipline on enterprises.8. Exercise of CollateralWhen a debt matures or is going to mature and the debtor has encountered serious operation difficulties, the debtor cannot repay the loan in cash and the guarantor cannot repay the loan in cash either. Maybe after negotiation, the two parties (the bank and the borrower) or three parties (the bank, the borrower and the guarantor) can reach a consensus. In line with the consensus or the ruling by the court, the debtor or the guarantor can make in-kind repayment of debts, which is one of the important means to dispose of non-performing loans.9. Writing-off Bad LoansIn accordance with relevant state rules and regulation, if the principal of a loan is identified as unrecoverable, the bad loan can be written off. Writing-off of bad loans is the internal activity of a bank. So the bank still enjoys the recourse right and should continue to demand the repayment of the fund.10. ConclusionWere analyzed by the non-performing loans management recycling. Bad credit risk management, there are still many problems to be solved, how the lending business in the international financial place needs to be further research and continue to explore. In short,the management of non-performing loans of China's economic development has made a significant contribution, but there are still shortcomings in their own system, the external competitive environment in the development of the personal loan there are many adverse, which requires countries to fully understand individual housing loans an important role on the basis of, for the banks internal management and external riskmanagement and reasonable planning to ongoing development. Personal loans also have to recognize their own position and where to adopt appropriate strategies and market positioning, innovation, adjustment, reform, focusing on risk management in order to more rapidly grow.ReferencesSteven Husted,Michael Melvin, International Economics [M], (the fifth edition), Higher Education Press, 2002Beck, T., Demirguc-Kunt, A., & Maksimovic, V. (2005). Financial and legal constraints to growth: Does firm size matter? The Journal of Finance, 60, 137–177.Peng, Y. (2004). Kinship networks and entrepreneurs in China's transitional economy. American Journal of Sociology, 109,1045–1074Qian, Y. (2000). The process of China’s market transition (1978–1998):The evolutionary, historical, and comparative perspectives. Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 156, 151–171.Shane, S., & Cable, D. (2002). Network ties, reputation, and the financing of new ventures. Management Science, 48, 364–381.Newton, K. (2001). Trust, social capital, civil society, and democracy.International Political Science Review, 22, 201–214.Liu, Z. (2003). The economic impact and determinants of investment in human and political capital in China. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 51, 823–850. Birner, R., & Witter, H. (2003). Using social capital to create politicalcapital. In The commons in the New Millennium: Challenges andadaptation (pp. 291–334). Cambridge and London: MIT Press.不良贷款的管理和回收威廉J鲍姆，阿伦S布林德摘要随着我国金融体系建设的进一步发展和市场体制的迅速完善，银行的贷款业务逐渐向个人完全展开，个人贷款的业务种类不断增多，业务范围持续扩大，特别是个人住房贷款业务的发展更为迅猛。

文献综述1.2011Pedro A. C. Saffi and Kari Sigurdsson 《Price Efficiency and Short Selling》(价格效率和卖空)主要研究借贷市场影响价格效率和收入分配，使用股票借贷供给和借贷费用来代理卖空限制。

主要研究结论：第一，卖空限制降低价格效率；第二，卖空限制的废除不会增加价格波动和极端负收益的发生。

2.2014Saqib Sharif, Hamish D. Anderson, Ben R. Marshall《Against the tide: the commencement of short selling and margin trading in mainland China》（应对潮流：中国大陆融资融券的开端）对于A股和H股，可卖空股票价格的下降，表明，融券主导融资的影响。

与监管部门的意图和新开发市场实验证据相反，卖空股的流动性和买卖价差都下降。

与Ausubel (1990)的结论一致，这些结果表明，不知情的投资者避开卖空股以减少和知情投资者的交易风险。

研究卖空、买空对价格、流动性和波动性的影响，使用中国大陆和香港的数据。

贡献：第一，研究融资、融券的双重影响，可以让我们评价哪个更好，我们发现卖空影响更强。

卖空交易会增加和信息知情者的交易风险；第二，我们通过新兴市场论证卖空和买空对流动性的影响。

相比发达市场，新兴市场似乎在这些方面研究较少。

新兴市场可能与发达市场不同，因为新兴市场的投资者保障更弱(Morck et al., 2000)。

与监管部门的目的和发达市场的证据不同，这种在监管上的改变导致流动性下降。

这表明，投资者避开与监管涉及的股票。

第三，新兴市场上，卖空、买空对股票收益影响有限。

Lee and Yoo (1993)发现，在韩国和台湾，买空需求和股票收益波动性之间无关，而Lamba and Ariff(2006)发现在马来西亚，买空约束的放松伴随收入的增加。

Securitization of Financial assetsAsset-Backed Securitization (ABS) is a financial tool which allows financial institutions (usually commercial banks) to move unmarketable assets ( assets mortgage assets or commercial papers) from their balance sheets in exchange for a long term loan which can be ploughed back into more profitable investments. More precisely ,the financial assets are converted into bonds (so called notes ) and the proceeds of their market issuance become a long term loan for the assets owner (the originator ).We will look at the ABS operation mainly from the point of view of this financial institution.Our analysis will concentrate on the critical phase of the ABS operation avoiding to describe in detail the role of some of the participating operators, such as banks and insurance companies, which provide the credit protection (risk hedging) of the operation .It should be noted that the issue of credit protection is an interesting research topic in itself .However ,the corresponding features such as credit guarantees and cash flow riskiness are beyond the scope of this paper .In an ABS, the assets are sold by the originator to a special purpose vehicle (SPV), an institution created solely for that purpose .The SPV funds the purchase through issuing debt securities-the notes-which are collateralized by the assets. Note that the assets transfer is a true sale. Thus , if the originator becomes insolvent or is involved in bankruptcythe transferred financial assets will not be part of the bankruptcy the transferred financial assets will not be part of the bankruptcy assets. This makes the notes an interesting investment opportunity .In apass through payment scheme the final investors who buy these notes receive periodic inflows (interests on their investments). These are directly related to the periodic installments paid by the holders of the assets (e.g. lessees or mortgage holders) to the originator (e.g. the lessor ). Using the ABS structure the originator bypasses the problem of an impossible outright sale of its assets and thus reduces its overall exposure to them. For instance ,lease or mortgage contracts which tie up the capital of leasing companies can be moved into notes. This replacement of illiquid assets improves the return on equity (ROE).From the point of view of the originator, an ABS allows the achievement of three mainFinancial objectives:1.Replacement of the assets in the balance sheet, thereby improvingROE and allowing ( if the originator is a bank) a more flexible keeping of the asset/liability composition constraints imposed by the control authorities (i.e. the Central Bank).2.Diversification of fund sources. Althrough the originator may below rated, its notes usually get a higher rating (e.g. AAA) due to thepresence of banks and insurance companies which guarantee the whole operation .This implies that such notes can be dealt on the main financial markets allowing the originator to reach markets which would otherwise be unaccessible for him since attended only by more established companies.3.Higher rated notes are more reliable investments and thus areallowed to pay lower interest rates to holders. If the cost to get a higher rating is lower than the saving obtained by issuing notes which higher rating, then the global cost to acquire funds decreases.Let us assume that an institution with a BB rating can get money ata rate such as Libor (London interbank offering rate) plus 150 basispoints. Such an institution, as originator, may decide pay an additional 100 basis points to get credit warranties 1 and be able to issue notes with rating AAA at the cost of Libor plus 10 basis points.In this case an ABS will produce a saving on interest rates of 40 basis points. This situation applies in practice, since there is no efficient market for the underlying assets. The interest in this financial operation drastically increased in the last years all over Europe. In Italy, one of the most recent and relevant ABS has been performed by the pulic institution in charge of the management of the social security system, i.e. the Istituto Nazionale della Previdenza Sociale (INPS).This operation has allowed INPS tomove delinquent contributions from its balance sheet. Other transactions of this type took place in the area of public housing agencies.The interest in this financial operation drastically increased in the last years all over Europe. In Italy, one of the most recent and relevant ABS has been performed by the public institution in charge of the management of the social security system, i.e. the Istituto Nazionale della Previdenza Sociale (INPS). This operation has allowed INPS to move delinquent con-tributions from its balance sheet. Other transactions of this type took place in the area of public housing agencies.Many papers dealing with ABS from a modeling point of view have appeared in the last few years. Since an extensive review is beyond the scope of this paper we will only mention the papers by Kang and Zenios [6,7] and by Mansini and Speranza [12,13] and refer to the references given therein. For a better insight in the complex problem of securitization we suggest the textbooks [3,5,15].In particular, motivated by the analysis of a real-world case, Mansini in [11] and then Mansini and Speranza in [12] have studied the problem of optimally selecting the assets to refund theloan. In other case only lease assets are considered, although many other types of assets have the same basic characteristics. In their paper the outstanding principal of the assets is computed based on constant general installments (the so called French amortization). The resulting problem of selecting assets at unique date can be modeled as a d-dimensional knapsack problem, which is hardly tractable by exact algorithms but is typically solved by constructive heuristics (see e.g.[1,16]) or metaheuristics (see e.g.[2,4]. The authors also show that in the special case where all lease assets share the same financial characteristics (amortization rule, internal interest rate and term ) all but one constraint turn out to be redundant and hence the model reduces to a classical 0-1 knapsack problem (KP), which is relatively easy to handle (cf.[8,9,14]). See [10] for a general introduction to knapsack problems. Their work does not take into account the occurrence of a different rule for the asset amortization. In many practical applications (both for lease and mortgage contracts) the customers receiving the assets choose to pay back their debt by constant periodic principal installments (the rule is known as Italian amortization). Up to now this common rule has been totally ignored in models formalization.The objective of this paper is twofold .First of all we innovate with respect to previous modeling approaches by introducing ageneral model to select financial assets at multiple dates. The motivation derives from the practical need of finding alternative and possibly more effective formulations for the problem of asset selection in ABS to achieve a better utilization for the long term loan. Secondly, we analyze the frequently encountered practical case in which the assets (lease or mortgage contracts) are paid back by constant periodic principal installments ( Italian amortization rule). In this way the paper aim to provide analysis of an alternative amortization rule available in practices as well as the development of better tools for the institutions responsible for the planning and management of ABS.Before defining the new model we should give a more detailed sketch of the ABS process. To help the reader in visualizing and better understanding the structure of an ABS process. The SPV issues notes on the financial market receiving funds from institutional investors who purchase the notes and hold them until maturity subject to the availability of acceptable short-term financing. The proceeds obtained by the notes’ issuance are used by the SPV to make revolving purchases of the unrated assets from the originator. The latter receives a long term loan which is payable solely by assets. In particular, the originator has to select the assets to be handed over for the loan reimbursement. These assets are“converted into” the notes issued by the SPV.The assets which are included in an ABS process have to be selected in a way such that the sum of their outstanding principals never exceeds the outstanding principal of the received loan (from now on simply the main outstanding principal) at any point in time. Now in order to maximize the financial gain of the operation the critical problem for the originator consists of minimizing the gap between the main outstanding principal and the outstanding principal of the selected assets over all points in time. This gap constitutes a loss of profit due to missing more profitable investments with higher yields.Actually the area of the main outstanding principal covered by the sum of outstanding principals of the handed-over assets yields a return for the originator ( e.g. the lessor) depending on the difference between the percent interest rate per year that the originator got from its customers (e.g. the lessees) and the lower percent interest rate paid to the note holders. If the sum of the outstanding principals of the selected assets has a global reimbursement profile which decreases more rapidly than that of the main outstanding principal, then the originator gets funds from its customers in advance with respect to the deadline at which it should pay the capital installment to the SPV. Such funds have tobe reinvested in some predefined type of investments indicated in the ABS agreement. These investments last for a brief period (from the date in which they are available to the following date of reimbursement for the main loan) and usually yield a very low interest rate. Given the rate B payed for the notes it frequently happens that B is close to zero and may also be negative involving a loss for the originator. This justifies the interest in minimizing the gap between the two profiles and stresses the importance of studying alternative shapes for the outstanding principals. Another important aspect in an ABS process is the risk of assets prepayment (cf.Schwartz and Torous [18]).A decline in interest rates may cause an earlier repayment of the outstanding principals of the assets and hence has a negative effect on the value of the objective function over time since the gap towards the main outstanding principal increases.For some types of assets such as auto loans or credit card receivables this prepayment is unusual. However, leasing-like assets do face the risk of interest-rate based prepayment. Since prepayment events are non-predictable they cannot be taken explicitly into account in a deterministic off-line optimization model. Implicitly, it is assumed that all assets have the same probability of prepayment. In all cases where the risk of earlypaybacks is particularly high, a re-optimization of the whole ABS process at a later point in time is strongly recommended. Concerning the time line, in our case the assets are handed over by the originator and purchased by the SPV starting at a closing date (initial date for the loan) and on a Fixed basis thereafter during the so called revolving period.. Each date at which a purchase takes place is called settlement date. The assets handed over by the originator at the closing date and thereafter at the settlement dates are collectively referred to as the initial and subsequent portfolios, respectively. Issued notes yield an interest payable on periodic bases (usually quarterly) and are redeemed at different final maturity dates. For this reason, notes are divided into tranches characterized by different deadlines.The reimbursement to the holders of the principals of a tranche of notes corresponds to a reimbursement installment of the main outstanding principal. Hence, the outline of the outstanding principal of the loan has as many installments (steps)as the number of notes with different maturity issued on the market.The main source of payment of interest and principal on notes are recoveries arising out of the assets. In particular, the cash-flow deriving from assets is used by the SPV to satisfy its obligations to the holders of notes. Naturally, the outstanding principal of an assetdepends on the rule used for amortization.As mentioned above, two different rules mainly appear in practice, In the first rule, usually known as French amortization, the general periodic installment (sum of periodic interests and principal installment) is constant over time. In this case the customers who hold assets (mortgage or lease contracts) have to pay the same geometrically over time .In this case the customers who hold assets (mortgage or lease contracts) have to pay the same constant amount at each deadline. Since the principal installments increase geometrically over time (see figure 2(b) ), the outstanding principal can be approximated by a concave piece-wise linear function. Source: D. Bertsimas and R. Demir. Securitization of Financial Assets: Approximation in Theory and Practice. Computational Optimization and Applications, 2008(29), P147-171。

中英文对照翻译Margin Trading Bans in Experimental Asset MarketsAbstractIn financial markets, professional traders leverage their trades because it allows to trade larger positions with less margin. Violating margin requirements, however, triggers a margin call and open positions are automatically covered until requirements are met again. What impact does margin trading have on the price process and on liquidity in financial asset markets? Since empirical evidence is mixed, we consider this question using experimental asset markets. Starting from an empirically relevant situation where margin purchasing and short selling is permitted, we ban margin purchases and/or short sales using a 2x2 factorial design to a allow for a comparative static analysis. Our results indicate that a ban on margin purchases fosters efficient pricing by narrowing price deviations from fundamental value accompanied with lower volatility and a smaller bid-ask-spread. A ban on short sales, however, tends to distort efficient pricing by widening price deviations accompanied with higher volatility and a large spread.Keywords: margin trading, Asset Market, Price Bubble, Experimental Finance1.IntroductionHowever, regulators can only have a positive impact on the life-cycle of a bubble, if they know how institutional changes affect prices in financial markets. Note that regulation is a double-edged sword since decision errors may lead from bad to worse. Given the systemic risk posed by speculative bubbles and their long history, it may be surprising how little attention bubbles have received in the literature and how little understood they are. This ignorance is partly due to the complex psychological nature of speculative bubbles but also due to the fact that the conventional financial economic theory has ignored the existence of bubbles for a long-time. But even if theories on bubble cycles have empirical relevance, it is clear that the issues surrounding the formation and the bursting of bubbles cannot be analyzed with pencil and paper. Conclusions on bubble cycles must be backed with quantitative data analysis. Given the limited number of observed empirical market crashes and their non-recurring nature, an experimental analysis of bubble formation involving controlled and replicable laboratory conditions seems to be a promising way to proceed.The paper is organized as follows. Section II reviews the related literature, Section 0 presents the details of the experimental design and section IV reports the data analysis. In section V, we summarize our findings and provide concluding remarks.2. Leverage in asset marketsDo margin requirements have any effects on market prices? Fisher (1933) and also Snyder (1930) mentioned the importance of margin debt in generating price bubbles when analyzing the Great Crash of 1929. The ability to leverage purchases lead to a higher demand, ending up in inflated prices. The subsequently appreciated collateral allowed to leverage purchases even more. This upward price spiral was fueled by an expansion of debt. From the end of 1924, brokers’loans rose four and one-half times (by $6.5 billion) and in the final phase broker’s borrowings rose at more than 100% a year until the bubble crashed. Then, after the peak of the bubble, a debt spiral was initiated. Investors lost trust and started to sell assets. Excess supply deflated prices resulting in a depreciation of collateral. Triggered margin calls lead to forced asset sales pushing supply even further. An increase in defaults on debt, and short sales exacerbated supply and finally assets were being sold at fire sale prices. It only took 6 weeks to extinguish half of the total of brokers’credit. Finally, in 1934, the U.S. Congress established federal margin authority to prevent unjustifiable increases or decreases in stock demand since margin requirements can prevent dramatic price fluctuations by limiting leveraged trades on both sides of the stock market: extremely optimistic margin purchasers and extremely pessimistic short sellers.Recent experimental evidence suggests short sale constraints to increase prices. Ackert et al. (2006)and Haruvy and Noussair (2006) find prices to deflate–even below fundamental value in the latter study –while King, Smith, Williams, and Van Boening (1993) find no effect. In a setting with information asymmetries, Fellner and Theissen (2006) find higher prices with short sale constraints but not depending on the divergence of opinion as predicted by Miller (1977). In a setting with smart money traders, Bhojraj, Bloomfield, and Tayler (2009) report short selling to exacerbate overpricing, even though it reduces equilibrium price levels. Hauser and Huber (2012) find short selling constraints with two dependent assets to distort price levels. Our design deviates from the previous studies in several but one important way: We use a more empirically relevant facility in that traders have to provide collateral facing the threat of margin calls.3. Implementing Margin Purchasing and Short SellingWe conducted four computerized treatments utilizing a 2x2 factorial design as displayed in Table II. Starting from an empirically relevant situation where margin purchases Traders execute margin purchases when they purchase shares by using loan, collateralized with shareholdings evaluated at the current market value.11 In this case, traders make a bull market bet, i.e. they borrow cash to buy shares, wait for the price to rise and sell them with a profit. However, a decline in prices depreciates collateral while keeping loan constant. When prices fall below a certain threshold, such that the loan exceeds the value of the shareholdings (i.e. debt > equity), a margin call is triggered. Immediately, i) the trader’s buttons are disabled, ii) outstanding orders are cancelled, and iii) the computer starts selling shares at the current market price until margin requirements are met again or untilall shares have been sold.12 Traders execute short sales when they sell shares without holding them in their inventory, collateralized with sufficient cash at hand.13 In this case, traders make a bear market bet, i.e. they borrow shares to sell them in the market, wait for the price to decline, buy them back with a profit and return them. Note that the amount of debt equals the total amount the trader has to pay to buy back the outstanding shares. Thus, an increase in prices increases debt and reduces collateral (cash minus value of outstanding shares), simultaneously. When prices exceed a certain threshold, such that the amount to buy back outstanding shares exceeds collateral (i.e. debt > equity), a margin call is triggered. Immediately, i)the trader’s buttons are disabled, ii) outstanding orders are cancelled, and iii) the computer starts buying shares at the current market price until margin requirements are met again or until all short positions have been covered. Note that short sellers have to pay dividends for their short positions at the end of each period.14 After period 15, both long and short positions are worthless.15 In any case, a margin callcan lead to bankruptcy. However, the consequences of a margin call hold even during bankruptcy, i.e. outstanding positions continuously being closed although subjects are bankrupt. This is different to any other asset market experiment considering leverage4. Margin traders tend to make less money than othersBy leveraging purchases and sales, traders take more risks to be able to make more money. But do margin traders make more money at all? To evaluate this question, we classify traders into types, i.e. margin traders, who trade on margin at least once, and others. Table X shows the average end- of round-earnings within types for each treatment along with the number of subjects. The spearman rank correlation between type and end of round earnings is negative in both rounds and in all three treatments. The coefficient is significantly different from zero only in MP|NoSS and NoMP|SS when subjects are once experienced . Subjects, who executed both margin purchases and short sales in MP|SS earned less than subjects who refrained from trading on margin. This is significant only for inexperienced subjects . One final note on the distribution of earnings. Comparing the treatments by evaluating the dispersion of earnings using the coefficient of variation , we find that the average CV in the NoMP|NoSS is lower than any other treatment Although not statistically significant, the results indicate that it is less risky to participate in markets with margin bans than in the markets where margintrading is permitted.5. ConclusionIn an attempt to halt the decline in asset values, recent regulatory measures temporarily banned short sales in financial markets. To assess the impact of banning leveraged trading on market mispricing is a complicated task when being reliant on data from real world exchanges only. it is unclear if possible price increases following a ban on short sales would come from new long positions or from covered short positions, and the announcement of such measures affects an uncontrolled reaction of the market. Owed to the uncontrolled uncertainties in the real world, asset mispricing can be measured only with weak confidence.In comparison to other experimental studies where limits to margin debt and short sales are rare, our design involves margin requirements comparable to the real world. Highly levered investors face margin calls that lead to forced liquidation of positions, affecting a reinforcement of the swings of the market. We have studied the impact of leverage on individual portfolio decisions to find an increase in risk taking characterized by higher concentrations of risky assets eventually resulting in individual bankruptcies. Thus, our experimental results are in line with theories of margin trading by Irvine Fischer (1933) and by recent heterogeneous agents models (Geanakoplos 2009) which conjecture such effects on asset pricing and portfolio decisions. As in any laboratory experiment, the results are restricted to the chosen parameters. The baselineSmith et al. (1988) asset market design has been challenged in recent studies (e.g. Kirchler et al. 2011), arguing that some subjects are confused about the declining fundamental value and believe that prices keep a similar level in the course of time. So it would also be interesting to investigate the effects of bans Jena Economic Research Papers 2012 - 05826 of margin purchases and short sales, to see if our treatment effects can be repeated in an environment with non-decreasing fundamental values. However, recent experiments by Hauser and Huber (2012) show similar effects using multiple asset markets with a complexsystem of fundamental values but without margin calls. It would also be interesting to see how margin requirements change performance in multiple sset markets. We leave these open questions to future research.ReferencesAbreu, D., and M.K. Brunnermeier, 2003, Bubbles and crashes, Econometrica 71, 173–204.Ackert, L., N. Charupat, B. Church and R. Deaves, 2006, Margin, Short Selling, and Lotteries in Experimental Asset Markets, Southern Economic Journal 73, 419–436. Adrangi, B. and A. Chatrath, 1999, Margin Requirements and Futures Activity: Evidence from the Soybean and Corn Markets, Journal of Futures Markets, 19, 433-455. Alexander, G.J, and M.A Peterson, 2008, The effect of price tests on trader behavior and market quality: An analysis of Reg SHO, Journal of Financial Markets 11, 84–111.Bai, Y., E.C Chang, and J. Wang, 2006, Asset prices under short-sale constraints, Mimeo. Beber, A., and M. Pagano, 2010, Short-Selling Bans around the World: Evidence from the 2007-09 Crisis, Tinbergen Institute Discussion Papers TI 10-106 / DSF 1.Bernardo, A. and I. Welch, 2002, Financial market runs, NBER Working Papers 9251, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.Bhojraj, S., R.J Bloomfield, and W.B Tayler, 2009, Margin trading, overpricing, and synchronization risk, Review of Financial Studies 22, 2059–2085.Blau, B. M., B. F. Van Ness, R. A. Van Ness, 2009, Short Selling and the Weekend Effect for NYSE Securities, Financial Management 38 (No. 3). 603-630Boehmer, E., Z.R Huszar, and B.D Jordan, 2010, The good news in short interest, Journal of Financial Economic 96, 80–97.Boehme, R.D, B.R Danielsen, and S.M Sorescu, 2006, Short-sale constraints, differences of opinion, and overvaluation, Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis 41, 455–487.融资融券禁令在实验资产市场摘要在金融市场，因为专业的交易者杠杆交易允许以较少的保证金进行更大的交易。