UNIT 1 legal system
The U.S is at once a very new nation and a very old nation.
Law: definition定义, classification 分类, and sources 渊源
Ignorance of the law is no defense.不了解法律规则的人并不能被免除责任。
1.What is law?
(1) Law has been defined as a set of rules that govern the actions of people in a community.
（1）法律曾被定义为规范一个群体中人们的行为的一套规则。
(2) Law exists only in a formal setting that involves the legislative, judicial, and executive arms of a
political body and its system.
（2）法律只有在一种正式的环境中才能产生，而这种环境涉及到一个政治实体的立法、司法和行政机构及其制度。
Question: what is the difference between law and moral codes if we view law as a set of rules?
2.substantive law and procedural law实体法与程序法
(1) The rules of law that are used to resolve disputes 解决纠纷are referred牵涉to as substantive law.
(2) The legal procedures that determine决定how a law suit诉讼is begun, how the trial审判is
conducted进行, how appeals上诉are taken, and how a judgment is enforced一判决被执行are called procedural law.
(3) Substantive law defines rights and procedural law establishes 建立the procedures by which these
rights are enforced and protected执行保护.
Example:
A and
B have entered into an agreement, and A claims that B has breached the agreement. A和B
达成了协议，主张B毁约。The rules that provide规定for bringing B into court 起诉and for the conduct of the trial 审判are rather mechanical相当机械化, and they constitute构成procedural law.
Whether the agreement was enforceable可实施的and whether A is entitledA被授权to damages损害赔偿are matters of substance and would be determined 确定on the basis基础of the substantive law of contracts.
3. public law公法
(1) Public law includes those bodies of law that affect the public generally公众.
(2) It can be further divided into 划分为constitutional law, administrative law and criminal law.
4. private law私法
(1) Private law includes the areas of law that concern 关注the relationships between individuals in an
organized society.
(2) It covers覆盖the subjects 对象of contracts合同, torts侵权法and property物权法, each of which
can be subdivided再分,细分into several bodies of law.
5.the civil law system民法法系and the common law system
(1)Law in Western societies has developed along two lines.
(2) In the countries of continental大陆Europe and those areas influenced by them , the governing law
dates back to Roman law and is known as the civil law system.
Ancient Roman law
罗马法是现今许多国家法律体系的基础。所谓的“民法”就起源于罗马法。在欧洲的大陆法系国家以及南美洲的许多国家都因为法国民法典而与罗马法有着密切的联系。在适用普通法系统的国家和地区，罗马法的影响比较小。
罗马法的起源是著名的十二铜表法（公元前449年）。在此之后，罗马法取得了很大的发展，经过几个世纪，其形成了今天许多国家的法律的基石。
Code civil des Fran?ais
该法典基于个人主义思想和自由平等的观念，是近代民法典的典范。其核心为所有权的绝对化、契约自由及过失责任等三项原则。但是，随着19世纪末到20世纪资本主义的发展变化，该法典也被判例和学说加以的修正，也进行过部分的改正以及特别法的
制定。
Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch
《德国民法典》体系完整，概念科学，字义准确，对20世纪各国制定的民法典有重大影响。瑞士、奥地利、日本、东欧各国和中华民国时期的民法典的制定都在不同程度上参照了《德国民法典》
(3) The law with which Americans are more familiar is known as the common law ,which developed in English speaking countries.
Common law Equity衡平法Statutory law成文法
6.major difference between the two systems
(1) Adjudication审判under the civil law is made by the judge following principles法律原则originating起源from Roman law and embodied体现at present under an extensive广泛的code法典of law in effect in that particular country. The judge must apply应用the appropriate适当的section部分of the code to the case in court.
(2)The common law develops more through the decisions判决of judges applying prior decisions 先例of courts to the new facts at hand手头的
Under the common law system, a very substantial part of law is not to be found in statutes enacted 颁布(by legislatures 立法机关but rather in cases.
7. sources of American law
(1)the federal and state constitutions 联邦和州宪法
(2) statutes made by the United States Congress美国国会and the legislatures of the various states
(3) case law or judge-made law 案例法和法官造法
(4) rules and decisions formulated制定by administrative agencies行政机关collectively共同地known as administrative law
New words:
Cause of action 立案案由tort 侵权
enforcement执法
civil law legislative 立法机关
common law
judicial司法
substantive
procedural
lawsuit诉讼(
Phrases & Expressions
be entitled to :有权，有资格
date back to ：追溯到
at hand：手头的
UNIT 2
UNIT 2Legal Profession 法律职业
Bar 律师协会
1. A partition 划分across a court of justice法院. Only Queen’s女皇的Counsel辩护人, and parties 当事人are allowed within the bar.
2.The professional body of barristers出庭大律师的共同体，they are “ called to the bar” when admitt ed 承认into practice律师事务所.
3.Qualification资格或素质of being a lawyer
Lawyers in Private私人的practice实践
Barrister:辩护律师
A member of one of the four Inns of Court(four societies in London, of which the members are lawyers and are called to the bar as barrister) who has been called to the Bar by his Inn.
注: the Inns of Court 英国伦敦培养律师的四个学院(lnner Temple, Middle Temple, Lincoln's lnn 和Gray's lnn); 该四个律师学院所属的建筑物
The ordinary work of a barrister is advocacy辩护, drafting起草pleadings辩护词and other legal 法律的documents文件或文书and advising咨询on questions of law.
Solicitor:事务律师
A person employed采用to conduct进行legal proceedings诉讼or to advise on legal matters.问题
House Counsel内部咨询
Out of every twenty lawyers, two are employed采用by private私人的business concerns商事实体, such as industrial工业的corporations公司, insurance保险companies, and banks, usually as house or corporations公司counsel咨询in the concern’s legal department部门
Lawyers in government政府
A parallel development平衡发展has taken place 发生in government and two out of twenty lawyers
are now employees 员工of the federal联邦的, state, county, and municipal市政的governments…香港的律政司
律政司在香港特区的法律制度中担当着非常重要的角色，它负责所有检控工作，草拟政府提出的所有法例，并就形形色色的法律问题向各决策局和部门提供意见。香港特区政府律政司司长黄仁龙在接受《中国法律》杂志社记者采访时，对其工作职能及服务对象与内地的不同特别作了说明。香港律政司司长的“ 当事人” 是全香港市民，而并非我们在一般意义上所理解的仅仅是香港特首乃至香港特区政府。为此，他还特别指出：“ 律政司和其它的政策部门不同，我们的核心工作是为政府部门提供法律服务，例如是提供法律意见和处理与诉讼有关的事情，另一项主要工作是负责香港检控工作，我们正一如既往地努力去做好上述的工作。”
UNIT 3 Legal Education
Lesson One LSAT
LSAT是Law School Admission Test（法学院入学考试）的缩写。是由位于美国宾西法尼亚州的法学院入学委员会（Law School Admission Council简称Law Services）负责主办的法学院入学资格考试。几乎所有的法学院都要求申请人参加LSAT 考试。LSA T考试每年举办四次，分别在二月、六月、十月及十二月。LSAT考试满分为180分，最低分为120分一般好的学校要求的成绩都在160分以上。考试成绩一般在考后五周左右由主办机构寄出。LSA T成绩在5年内有效。 Content LSA T 考试共有五个部分，包括三个方面的内容，每部分时间为35分钟，另加30分钟的写作。三个方面的内容是阅读理解、逻辑推理及分析推理，主要测试考生下列几方面的能力：准确阅读并理解复杂文章的能力、组织有关信息并得出合理结论的能力、批判性地推理能力、对他人的推理进行分析和评价的能力。LSAT考试分为以下四个部分：（一）、阅读理解: 阅读理解部分包括4篇文章，其中每篇文章大约为400―600个单词。有6―8个问题，4篇文章共有28个问题（二）、逻辑推理推理试题共有两个部分，每部分有24―26道试题。一般每道题都有一篇小的短文或对话，然后针对此短文或对话提出问题。然后针对此短文或对话提出问题。短文或对话涉及的范围很广，包括哲学、文学、政治、科技、艺术、历史、体育等等。（三）、分析推理: 分析推理部分一般分四组，共有24个问题。每组里面的每一个问题都基于一系列的条件，这些条件共同描述一种情况，例如，把人分成几组，把物品按顺序排列等。这部分试题主要测试考生理解有关关系结构并推出结论的能力。(四)、写作部分: 时间为30分钟，其内容是就给定的题目中的两种观点选择一个，并加以阐述。写作部分不计入总分，只作为参考。
Lesson Two Degree of Law
1. Juris Doctor法律博士
Students seeking a Juris Doctor enter the School of Law in late August and attend the two semesters 学期of the regular常规academic学术的year for three years.
During the first year of law study, the student follows a course designed 课程设计to provide an understanding of basic legal principles and concepts概念and give a solid grounding稳固的根基in the fundamentals原理indispensable必不可少的, 必需的for all branches of the profession.
The year-long program in legal writing focuses on the developm ent of the lawyer’s basic skills in the uses of research tools and writing and culminates in the preparation of briefs的摘要and presentation of oral arguments口头辩论in moot court模拟法庭.
In the second half of the first year, the students is required to choose an elective选修的course.
The wide range种of electives offers by the school of law in the second and third years enables students who so wish to attain a degree of concentration达到某种程度
2. Master of Laws (LLM) 法学硕士
The LLM degree is conferred upon 授予students who have obtained获得a first degree in law from
大学having equivalent相当的requirements. Students must fulfill the following requirements:
The completion完成of a through study of some approved被认可的legal topic and the presentation表现of a paper embodying表现its results. The candidate’s攻读学位者thesis must be suitable for publication.The passing of an oral examination口试to be prescribed by the faculty.
3. Doctor of Juridical Science (SJD) 法学博士
The SJD degree is conferred upon students who have obtained the degree of Juris Doctor From Northwestern University or another university or college having equivalent requirements for that degree or who have obtained the degree of Bachelor of Laws from another university. Following requirements:
1).The completion of one academic year of residence in this school.
2) .The completion of a study to be approved by the faculty or its designated committee
完成一项研究是由全体教员或其指定的委员会。
3).The completion of other such work, if any, as may be directed by the dean in the particular case
3)其实完成其他工作，如果这样，可由院长在特定案件中
4).The passing of an oral examination to be prescribed by the faculty.
4)其实过往的口试是规定的能力。
Doctor of Philosophy
简称Ph.D. 或D.Phil.，就是哲学博士。高级学衔之一，通常是学历架构中最高级的学衔。拥有人一般在大学本科（学士）及／或研究院（硕士）毕业后，再进行相当年数的研修后，撰毕论文并通过答辩，方获发哲学博士学位。哲学博士的拥有人并不一定修读“哲学”。所谓哲学博士，是指拥有人对其知识范畴的理论、内容及发展等都具有相当的认识，能独立进行研究，并在该范畴内对学术界有所建树。因此，哲学博士基本上可以授予任何学科的博士毕业生。部分学科的博士毕业生通常有特别的学衔，例如工程科学的博士毕业生常称为工程学博士(D. Eng.), 教育学的博士毕业生常称为教育博士(Ed.D) 等。较特别的是法律博士(Doctor of Jurisprudence/Juris Doctor, J.D.) 通常是已拥有其他学科学士学位的法学学生的基本学位而并非高级学衔。另外，文学博士(Doctor of Letters, D. Litt.)通常属于荣誉性质，拥有人通常是已拥有另一个博士学位的学者。Lesson Three Case Method
Law teachers in almost all the law schools use to some extent the case method developed in the 1870’s by Christopher Columbus Langdell at the Harvard Law school, the case method looked to the common law as the source of legal principles and focused on the teaching of an abstract conception of the law as a science.
“案例教学法”（Case method），又称“苏格拉底式教学法”（Socratic method）,是英美法系国家如美国和加拿大等国法学院最主要的教学方法。这种教学方法由哈佛法学院前院长克里斯托弗.哥伦布.郎得尔于1870年前后最早使用于哈佛大学的法学教育之中。
Question : How did Socrates teach students?
苏格拉底怎样教学？
characteristics and function 特点与功能
This narrow formalistic approach was justified on the ground that it taught students how to state, analyze, evaluate and compare concrete fact situations thus developing their powers and skills of analysis, reasoning, and expression.
这条狭窄的形式主义的方法是在地上，教学生如何评估、分析和比较具体的事实的情况下，发展他们的力量和技能的分析，推理和表现。
１．通过学习、研究大量的案例来掌握法律的精神和基本原则。
２．课堂教学上，基本的方式是问答式，对话式或讨论式。
How to apply the case method案例教学如何进行？
案例分析：
"The case of the Speluncean Explorers"
洞穴探险者案
Lesson Four Clinical legal education
"诊所法律教育"是20世纪60年代美国的法学院兴起的一种新的法学教育方法.
This model of legal education was described as"clinical" because it drew lessons fro the medical education model, where student doctors received most of their education caring for patients under the supervision of experienced doctor s
〔这种法律教育模式被描述为“诊所法律教育”，因为它提请教训来回医学教育模式，学生在那里接受医生根据经验丰富的医生为病人监督他们最关心的教育。〕
In clinical legal education, students learn from their supervisors, their cases, and their clients a number of important skills they could not learn from abstract case alone.In addition,these cases serve as the laboratory for students to learn about how the law function in reality.
〔在临床法律教育，学生从他们的上司学习，他们的案件，以及他们的客户数量的重要技能，他们不能从抽象的学习情况alone.In此外，这些案件作为学生的实验室，以了解如何在法律的功能现实。特点〕
１．使用真实的背景材料
２．采用有特色的教学方法
３．学生的思维方式完全不同
４．对学生评估方法不同
诊所课程
以耶鲁大学法学院为例，该院设置的诊所法律课程包括保护父母与儿童权益、移民法律服务、保护残疾人权益、社区法律服务、房地产及社区法律服务、解决业主与住户法律纠纷、法律援助、监狱法律援助、公诉人诊所等九个诊所课程。
课程目的
１、为学生提供机会学习律师执业过程中人际关系的作用。
２、“问题”无条理或“问题”的性质不明确前，使学生学会从杂乱无章的事实和可能性中整理出分析、解决问题的方法。
３、使学生有机会学习对大多数执业律师而言，非常关键的法律计划和决策。
学生主要工作
１、会见真正的当事人并为他们提供服务，和他们面谈，辨别他们的法律问题，向他们提供建议，并且在各种会谈、谈判、听证、审判、调解及其他非正式的场合作为他们的代理人。
２、书写诉状、调查取证、询问证人、写信、打电话、去法院阅卷、与对方律师或当事人谈判、向当事人提出建议采取建议采取下一步行动。
３、学生运用自己的才智和学识帮助无力支付付律师费用的人。
Unit Four Judicial System司法系统
The American legal system features以…为特色a complexity复杂resulting作为结果的from American federalism 美国联邦的美国的法律制度具有的复杂性来自美国的联邦制. Within the federal structure联邦结构, each state retains保持a substantial degree of autonomy.
Lesson One Court
Instead of one unified set of courts, American has fifty-one sets, each of which operates independently of the others, and each of which is complete with its own trial and appellate courts.
而不是一个统一设置的法院，美国有51套，每一个独立运作的其他人，其中每个都拥有自己的审判和上诉法院的完成。
the federal court system联邦法院系统
1.Federal trial court联邦基层法院审判法院
2.Intermediate courts of Appeals 中级上诉法院
3.Court of last Resort联邦最高法院
State Court州法院书P37
1. Supreme Court 联邦最高法院
2. Appellate Court 上诉法院
3. Trial Court 审判法院
choice of courts
Subject matter jurisdiction级别管辖
Exculsive Federal Jurisdiction专属管辖
Admiralty海事
Bankruptcy破产
Copyrights, Trademarks, Patents著作权商标专利
Claims against the https://www.doczj.com/doc/3713423434.html,ernment向美国政府索赔
B. Concurrent Jurisdiction 共同管辖
Federal Question
Diversity 差异，多样性of citizenship公众身份
C. State Court jursidiction
All cases not under exclusive federal jurisdiction
不属于联邦管辖的所有案件专属
venue 地点
It is usually based on the residence of the defendant, the location of the property in dispute ,and so on.
这通常依据被告所在地，财产所在地等
Lesson Two The adversary system 对抗制
The law of procedure程序法is the body of rules that governs or provides管理或提供the framework框架of the
judicial process.The judicial process, in turn反过来, guides the operation运行of courts in the determination 认定of legal controversies法律争议
Adversary system
A distinctive element of the American procedure for resolving legal controversies is the adversary system, which is the characteristic form of trial procedure in common law countries, in civil as well as criminal cases.
在民事和刑事案件中对抗制是美国程序上的一个显著的组成部分为了解决法律上的争议，这个形式来自普通法国家的审判程序
Feature 特点
1. A decision is made by judge, or judge with jury, who finds the facts and applies the law from submissions made by partisan advocates on behalf of the parties.
是由法官（或法官加陪审团）根据双方辩护人所提出的证据认定事实并适用法律。
2. In this system of trial procedure, the responsibility for beginning suit, for shaping the issues, and for producing evidence rests almost entirely upon the parties.
在抗辩制中，提起诉讼，确定争议以及出示证据都几乎完全是争议当事人的责任。
3.Under the adversary system, the scope范围of the lawyer's power and responsibility is wide.
It is the lawyer who makes the initial and usually final decisions as to choice of court, size of claim, nature of claim stated,parties, extent and kind of pre-trial investigation, mode of trial, settlement offers, extent and kind of proofs, style of presentation and argument.
凡是有关法院的选择、索赔的多少、索赔的性质、当事人、审前调查的范围和种类、审判的模式（陪审团审判还是非陪审团审判）、调解方案、证据的范围和种类、陈述和辩论的形式等事项都是由律师作出最初的，通常也是最后的决定。
reasons for the prevalence流行of the adversary system
1. It is believed that a truer decision will be reached as the result of a contest directed定向竞争by interested parties.利害相关对方
2.The parties, who after all are the persons principally interested in the resolution of the controversy, should bear the major burden of the time, energy and costs required.
诉讼当事人，应承担所需时间，精力和费用的主要责任。
3.Since resort to law has replaced resort to force that characterized primitive ages, the human instinct to do battle is better satisfied by a means of settling disputes that are very much in the hands of the parties.
由于诉诸法律已经取代原始时代诉诸武力的特点，斗争的原始冲动被是更好地满足通过解决争端是在各方的手中手段非常满意
Lesson Three Jury陪审团
If a jury has been demanded , the first order of business at trial is to impanel the jury .
如果要求有陪审团，那么在审判中的第一件事情就是组建陪审团。
陪审团的基本作用是认定案件事实。在有陪审团的诉讼中，法官不认定事实，法官的基本作用是控制诉讼程序，根据陪审团认定的事实适用法律。
Trial Jury审理陪审团
The trial jury is used in both civil and criminal cases. In civil cases its task is generally to determine liability to pay more damages; in criminal cases its task is to determine punishable guilt.
在审理民事案件中，它的主要任务是依责任程度的不同而裁定相应的损害赔偿金；在审理刑事案件中，它的主要任务是裁定该判处何种罪行。
微软垄断案的思考
案件最初起因是微软公司与其对手网景公司关于浏览器的竞争。网景公司于1994 年4 月使全球用户都可以通过其“ 航行者” 浏览器接入互联网。同年7 月，美国政府与微软达成一项协议，微软同意不再要求计算机制造商将其视窗操作系统作为必备软件安装。这一协议获得美国地区法官杰克逊批准，10 月，微软公司开发名为“ 探索者” 的互联网浏览器。1995年5月，微软创造始人比尔?盖茨对该公司的互联网战略进行了调整。11月，微软推出“探索者”2.0版。微软公司在1995年与当时最大
的浏览器提高供商网景公司协商，希望划分浏览器市场。在遭到拒绝后，微软要求个人电脑制造商如要安装视窗95操作系统就必须同意在该系统上安装“探索者”浏览器。微软以后推出的视窗操作系统，直接内含“探索者”浏览器. 1997年10月，微软又将其浏览器与视察操作系统进行捆绑出售。由此美国司法部指控微软违反法官杰克逊于1995年批准的协议。同年12月4日，杰克逊法官发布指令，要求微软停止将“探索者”浏览器与视窗95操作系统或任何更新版本操作系统进行捆绑出售。微软不服并提出上诉。于是微软公司与美国反托拉斯部门开始了漫长的诉讼之路。其焦点集中在浏览器上。
Lesson Four Judge
每二十个被允许执业的律师里面就有一个是联邦，州，郡或市政法官。除了有有些国内的法院，法官一般都要求是执业律师，但是在法院的时候除外。
法官特点美国法院的法官不仅都受过严格的法学教育和训练，而且有丰富的司法实践经验。初审法院的法官大都是从优秀的律师中产生，上级法院的法官也要从下级法院的优秀法官中选拔，从而保证了法官队伍的高度专业性。
Federal judge
All federal court judges or justices are appointed by the president, subject to approval by the Senate. The Senate conducts hearings on all individuals nominated by the president in order to assure that only qualified individuals take the bench.
联邦法院的法官经参议院批准后由总统任命。参议院听证会上所有的个人行为由总统提名,以保证只有合格的个人可以成为法官。
Once a person takes the bench as a federal judge, that person serves for life, or until he or she retires from the bench. However, a federal judge can be removed除去involuntarily被迫through the impeachment process弹劾程序if the judge’s misconduct warrants it.由于法官的不当行为。
联邦法官法官候选人要经受各种国家机构和职业团体的审查，如司法部、联邦调查局、全美律师协会、国会，最后是白宫的审查。根据美国宪法第二条第二款的规定，联邦法院的法官由总统提名，经参议院半数通过后由总统任命。实际上，总统一般把提名候选人的主要工作交给司法部长去做。此外，总统要按惯例征询参议院司法委员会和候选人所在州参议员的意见；考虑现任和退休法官，特别是首席法官的意见；同时要考虑全美律师会联邦司法委员会对候选人的评价。
State court judge州法院法官
The selection of judges in states differs not only from the federal method but also from state to state. The selection process include election and appointment选举和任命The selection process might also invlove input投入from special nominating commissions or approval of the state senate. 特别提名委员会或参议院的批准
美国州法院法官的遴选制度有任命制和选举制等不同程序。在这两种程序上产生出一种吸收两者优势的?°密苏里方案?±，也被称为?°素质选择?±（meritselection）方案。目前有33个州采用这一方案。它的一般作法是：由律师和非律师组成的固定和非党派的委员会来挑选、调查和评价法官候选人。该委员会一般是法官提名委员会，一般包括州长、检察长、州最高一级法院的法官、律师协会的人员、州参议员和一般公民。他们一般由国家官员、律师和公民组成的班子挑选进入该委员会。该委员会需要根据它对于法官候选人的考察准备一份候选人名单。当州法院法官出现空缺时，委员会便把最具备资格人选名单（通常为一个空缺提供3名候选人）提交给有任命权的机构（通常为州长），由他从该名单中任命法官。在任命后经过一段时期的工作，如果该名新任法官想继续留任，该委员会或全体公民将通过投票（留任选举），决定他能否继续留任直至届满。
Unit Five Constitution
The constitution as Supreme law最高法
The Constitution, together with laws properly passed according to its provisions, and treaties entered into by the President and approved by the Senate, stands above all other laws, executive acts and regulations.
宪法与根据宪法条款通过的法律以及由总统签署并由参议院批准的条约的效力高于所有其他法律和行政法规。
preamble 序言
We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
我们美利坚合众国的人民，为了组织一个更完善的联邦，树立正义，保障国内的安宁，建立共同的国防，增进全民福利和确保我们自己及我们後代能安享自由带来的幸福，乃为美利坚合众国制定和确立这一部宪法。The principles of Government
Although the Constitution has changed in many aspects since it was first adopted, its basic principles remain the same now as in 1789:
The three main branches of government are separate and distinct from one another. The powers given to each are delicately balanced by the powers of the other two. Each branch serves as a check on potential excesses of the others.
All men are equal before the law and are equally entitled to its protection. All states are equal, and none can receive special treatment from the federal government.
Within the limits of the Constitution, each state must recognize and respect the laws of the others.
State governments, like the federal government, must be republican in form, with final authority resting in the people. The people have the right to change their form of government by legal means defined in the constitution itself.
第二部分政府的原则
尽管这部宪法自从其最初通过至今已经在许多方面有所改变，它仍然保持着1789年的基本原则：
政府的三个主要部门相互分离和独立。赋予一个部门的权力会受到其他两个部门的权力的微妙制衡。每一个部门都作为对其他部门可能滥用职权的制约。
所有的人在法律面前都是平等的并有权获得平等的法律保护。所有的州都是平等的，任何州都不能获得联邦政府的特别待遇。
在宪法的范围内，各州必须承认和尊重其他州的法律。
各州政府在形式上必须与联邦政府一样采取共和体制，最终权力归于人民。
人民有权利用宪法规定的合法手段改变其政府的体制。
Provisions For Amendment修正案条款
1. Background of Provisions for Amendment
The author of the Constitution were keenly aware that changes would be needed from time to time if the constitution were to endure(持续, 持久) and keep pace with the growth of the nation. 宪法的起草者非常清楚，如果宪法要能够持久并与国家的发展保持同步，有时就需要修改。
Their solution was to devise(想出; 计划); a dual process by which the Constitution could be changed. The congress, by a two-thirds vote in each house, may initiate an amendment. Or the legislature of two-thirds of the states may ask Congress to call a national convention to discuss and draft amendments. In either case, amendments must have the approval of three-fourths of the states before they enter into force. 他们的解决办法是设计一种修改宪法的双轨程序。国会两院三分之二多数票可以提出修宪动议。而三分之二的州立法机关也可以要求国会召开修宪大会讨论和起草修正案。在这两种情况下，修正案都必须得到四分之三的州的批准才能生效。
Amendment修正案1 - Freedom of Religion, Press, Expression信教自由，出版自由或言论自由.
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof(由此，因此）; or abridging(减少，消减；限制) the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress(重加权衡；恢复平衡；恢复公平合理的情况) of grievances.(委屈, 苦衷, 不满, 怨恨)
国会不得制定关于下列事项的法律：确立国教或禁止信教自由，剥夺言论自由或出版自由；剥夺人民和平集会和向政府诉冤请愿的权利。
[1791年12月15日批准]
Amendment 2 - Right to Bear Arms.携带武器
A well regulated Militia民兵, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed侵权.
管理良好的民兵是保障自由州的安全之所必需，此人民持有和携带武器的权利不得侵犯。
Amendment 4 - Search and Seizure搜查和扣押.
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and
seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized人民保护其人身、住房、文件和财物不受无理搜查扣押的权利不得侵犯；除非有合理的根据认为有罪，以宣誓或郑重声明保证，并详细开列应予搜查的地点、应予扣押的人或物，不得颁发搜查和扣押证。
Impeachment弹劾制度
The right to impeach public officials is secured by靠的是the U.S. Constitution in Article I, Sections 2 and 3, which discuss the procedure, and in Article II, Section 4, which indicates指示the grounds for impeachment: "the President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the United States shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors." 第二条第4款规定：“总统、副总统和合众国的所有文职官员，因叛国、贿赂或其他重罪和轻罪而受弹劾并被定罪时，应予免职。”
Removing an official from office requires two steps: (1) a formal 正式accusation控诉
, or impeachment, by the House of Representatives众议院, and (2) a trial and conviction by the Senate.通过参议院审判和定罪Impeachment requires a majority vote多数表决of the House; conviction is more difficult, requiring a two-thirds vote by the Senate.
The vice president presides over主持the Senate proceedings参议院程序in the case of all officials except the president, whose trial is presided over by the chief justice of the Supreme Court. 又最高法院首席大法官主持审判This is because the vice president can hardly be considered a disinterested party很难被认为是没有关系的—if his or her boss is forced out of office he or she is next in line for the top job! 如果他或她的老板是被迫离开办公室，他或她紧随其后担任最高职务
Unit six Administrative law
Creation of administrative agencies
Congress国会creates most administrative agencies through statutes法规called enabling legislation授权法.
In general, the enabling statutes contain包含broad delegations of congressional legislative power to agencies. 国会对行政管理也有着广泛的控制权力
administrative law judge行政法官1946年美国《行政程序法》（Administrative Procedural Act）规定，为了工作的需要，行政法法官和行政机关在一处办公，但是，行政法法官不接受行政机关任何部门的命令和指示，对案件拥有独立的事实认定权，有权做出初步裁决或者裁决建议，然后再由行政机关作出最终裁决。行政法法官选拔由美国人事局负责，通过公开选拔程序来挑选最合适的人选，并且只能由功绩制保护委员会进行听证才可免职。行政法法官是行政程序法制定过程中不同主张妥协的产物,即既要保留独立管制机构的存在,又要应对对其程序的批评,因此,将主持听证的官员从其供职的行政机关相对独立出来,任免、薪金待遇和考核等都由行政机关以外的其他机关负责。从理论上讲,行政法法官的设立正反映了自然正义原则和正当程序的要求. 自然正义原则包括两个最基本的程序规则：1、任何人或团体在行使权力可能使别人受到不利影响时必须听取对方意见，每一个人都有为自己辩护和防卫的权利。2、任何人或团体不能作为自己案件的法官。在行政实践中这个原则表现为行政机关的决定对当事人有不利的影响时，必须听取当事人的意见，不能片面认定事实，剥夺对方辩护权利。这个听取利害关系人意见的程序反映到法律规范中，称为听证。听证是英美法国家公认的公正行使权力的基本内容。
Functions of administrative agencies
1.rule making
https://www.doczj.com/doc/3713423434.html,rmal rule making
3. formal rule making
4. hybrid rule making混合规则的制定
5. exempted rule making豁免规则的制定
6. judicial review of rule making司法审查规则的制定
Rule making
Administrative agencies are granted the authority to perform the legislative function of making rules or regulations by
the enabling statues that bring them into existence.
行政机关根据授权法被授予在授权范围内行使订立规则或法规的立法职能的权力，
https://www.doczj.com/doc/3713423434.html,rmal rule making
Agency employees机构雇员, in consultation with咨询
Those potentially affected可能受影响by the proposed
rule, draft a proposed regulation拟议的规则，起草一份建议稿
↓
Proposed regulation is published in
The Federal Register(联邦公报）建议稿在联邦公报上公示←↓↑Array Members of the general public
Submit comments to the agenc y →
广大市民对机构提出意见
↓
Final rule is published in the Federal
Register with statement of purpose
And date of effectiveness
最终规则包括声明的目的和施行之日会在联邦公报上公示
2. formal rule making
↓
public hearing 公民听证
↓
Final rule is published in the Federal
Register on the basis of information
Received at the hearing
3. hybrid rule making
Proposed regulation is published in
The Federal Register
↓
The opportunity for submission of Written comments提交书面意见and then an Informal public hearing with a
More restricted有限的opportunity for
Cross-examination质证than in formal
Rule making
↓
Final rule is published in the Federal
Register on the basis of information
Received at the hearing and comments
4. exempted rule making
Military and foreign affairs军事和外交事务
Interpretive rules and general policy statements解释性规则和一般政策声明
When public notice and comment procedures are impracticable, unnecessary, or contrary to the public interest当通告和评论程序是行不通的，不必要的，或违背公众利益
5. judicial review of rule making制定规则的司法审查
When businesses and other parties being regulated may not be happy with a law that an angency代理promulgates 颁布, they have two options.当被监管企业和其他各方他们有2个选择。
Firstly, they may immediately bring an action in the federal district court to have the law invalidate. An alternative approach is just to ignore the law. 首先，他们可以立即在联邦法院提起诉讼使法律无效。另一种做法，只用无视法律。
The regulation is invalid for one of four reasons该规例是无效的四个理由之一
1. the congressional delegation of legislative authority in the enabling act was unconstitutional because it was too vague and did not properly limit the agency’s actions in any way.对立法权力的授权法案的国会代表团是违宪，因为它太含糊，并没有以任何方式适当限制该机构的行动。
2.an agency action violated a constitutional standard.一个机构的行动违反了宪法标准
3.the act of an agency was beyond the scope of power granted to it by Congress in its enabling legislation.一个机构的行为超出了国会的权力授予它在授权立法的范围
4.a party could demonstrate that the agency did not follow the proper procedure in promulgating the rule. 当事人能够证明该机构没有遵循正当程序颁布规则
Penalties for noncompliance违规处罚
In general , administrative penalties are less than civil and criminal penalties. By providing lesser penalties for administrative actions , violators are encouraged to settle early.
一般来说，行政处罚比民事和刑事处罚少。通过提供对行政行为较轻的处罚，违章者
，鼓励早日解决。
Administrative activities行政活动
Executive and independent agencies perform various less well-know but equally important tasks, including advising, conducting research , issuing permits, managing properly, and providing information to regulated entities, as well as to the general public.行政公务人员及独立机构执行各种人们不太知道但同样重要的任务，包括提供咨询意见，进行研究，发放许可证，妥善管理，并提供信息管理给监管主体，包括一般市民。
Unit Seven Criminal Law
an overview
Criminal law involves prosecution by the government of a person for an act that has been classified as a crime. Civil cases, on the other hand, involve individuals and organizations seeking to resolve legal disputes. In a criminal case the state, through a prosecutor检察官, initiates the suit, while in a civil case the victim brings the suit.刑法涉及由政府对一个已被列为犯罪的人提出起诉。另一方面在民事案件涉及个人和组织寻求解决法律纠纷。在刑事案件中的国家，通过检察官，发起了诉讼，而在民事案的受害者提起诉讼。
Persons convicted of a crime may be incarcerated监禁, fined罚金, or both. However, persons found liable in a civil case may only have to give up property or pay money, but are not incarcerated. 人被判定有罪者可能被监禁，罚款，或并处。但是，任何人发现在民事案件可能只是放弃财产或支付钱，但
不被监禁。
Sources
1. 美国宪法（constitution ）；
2. 源于英国并在美国各州得到不同发展的关于惩罚犯罪的普通法(common law) ；
3. 州刑法(state criminal law) ；
4. 联邦刑法(federal criminal law) 。
5. 法院的判决尤其是最高法院的判决(adjudication or court decisions)
Crime
A "crime" is any act or omission (of an act) in violation of a public law forbidding or commanding指挥统领it. Though there are some common law crimes, most crimes in the United States are established by local, state, and federal governments. “罪行”是任何作为或不作为（的行为）违反了公法。虽然有一些共同的法律的罪行，在美国大多数犯罪的确立是由地方，州，和联邦政府
Criminal laws vary significantly from state to state. There is, however, a Model Penal Code (MPC) which serves as a good starting place to gain an understanding of the basic structure of criminal liability.不过这也有一个模范刑法典（MPC）的，作为一个好的开始的地方获得了刑事责任的基本结构的认识服务。
Crimes include both felonies (more serious offenses -- like murder or rape) and misdemeanors (less serious offenses -- like petty theft or jaywalking). Felonies are usually crimes punishable by imprisonment of a year or more, while misdemeanors are crimes punishable by less than a year. 罪行包括重罪（更严重的罪行- 如谋杀或强奸）和轻罪（不严重的罪行- 如小偷小摸或不遵守交通规则）。重罪通常罪行可被判处监禁一年或一年以上的，而轻罪均为罪行，不到一年处罚。
美国刑法理论认为，某一行为要构成犯罪必须同时具备如下要件：
1. 犯罪行为(act) 犯罪行为是施加刑罚的前提，没有行为而仅有犯罪的意图，不能作为犯罪予以惩罚。犯罪行为有作为和不作为两种形式。
2. 犯罪意图(intention) 犯罪行为只有与犯罪意图相结合才能构成犯罪。关于犯罪意图有多种表述，但一般认为，犯罪意图包括故意(malice)、过失(gross negligence)。
某些犯罪的构成并不要求证明被告人主观上具有过错或者被告人实施行为时的特殊心理状态，此类犯罪被称为“严格责任”犯罪。这类犯罪通常发生在如下情形，即刑罚较轻，而且有证据证明被告人是有意识的实施犯罪或者被告人应该意识到自己的所为非法。严格责任犯罪的案件大多发生在交通犯罪领域。
3 ．因果关系(causation or cause and effect relationship) 某些刑事犯罪要求证明被告人的行为对被害人造成了损害。
普通法的“一年零一日”规则
Criminal liability
合法辩护理由是美国刑法理论中备受重视的一部分内容，其着重于研究行为虽具有刑法条文规定的犯罪本体要件的外在特征却不负刑事责任的理由。
1. 未成年nonage
美国约有半数的州明文规定了未成年人的刑事责任年龄，但各州规定的不同。纽约州的刑法典针对不同等级的犯罪规定了不同的刑事责任年龄。其中，一级谋杀的18岁；二级谋杀为13；一级非预谋谋杀、一级绑架、一级伤害等为14岁；其余则从16岁开始。
2. 精神病(insanity)
对精神病合法辩护长期以来是一个争论激烈的问题。
3. 酗酒状态Alcoholic intemperance
一般原则是主动酗酒中实施的犯罪不能辩护，即行为人主动引起的醉态不能作为免罪辩护的理由。但是在以特定故意为构成要件的犯罪中，如果醉态影响特定故意的存在，则可以作为免罪辩护的理由。
4. 被迫行为Act under coercion
是指行为人在他人胁迫之下实施的形似犯罪的行为，之所以这样，是因为在面对胁迫的情况下，要求每个人都做英雄是
苛刻、不和情理的。
5. 自我防御（self-defense ）
6. 必要行为（necessity ）
Punishment
1.牢刑Fixed-term imprisonment 有诸多案件一旦陪审员裁定被有罪，法官就必须按照法定的标准来判罪。例如，在加州，如果一级谋杀罪成立，被至少要被判十五年以上的牢刑。牢刑分为二大类，一类是州政府的牢刑，一般一年以上的牢刑都必须送到州政府经营的牢营执行，而大部份在州牢刑服完后，如果不是美国公民的话，都会被送到移民局的牢营中去，由移民局来确定是否要将犯者驱逐出境，另一类是刑期在一年以下的，这类牢刑大都是在县政府的牢营执行。因而，如果被不是美国公民的话，刑事辩护律师都会尽量将牢刑的天数保持在三百六十五天以下以避免被在服刑后被驱逐出境。由于美国被判牢刑的人数众多，因而，大部份的法院都同意服刑一天当一天半来算，因而，被判一年的人，如果行为有改过自新之意，都会在七，八个月就会放出来。
2.社区服务Community service 社区服务一般分为二类，一类是体力劳动，如到高速公路旁清扫公路，到公园拾垃圾，第二类是到教会，学校，图书馆，医院等非营利机构去做义工。社区服务主要是让犯错的人有机会去补偿社会。如属初犯者或犯罪行为不严重者，法官大都愿意犯错者用社区服务来替代牢刑。
3.缓刑假释期（Probation）严格而言，Probation 应翻译为行为观察期，只要在观察期期间不再做其它任何错事，在期满后就可以申请撤销原案。缓刑假释期分为两类，一类是正式的假释，被假释者必须定期向假释官报到，并且放弃一些基本的民权保护，如警察不须要申请搜查令就以到府搜查，第二类是非正式的假释，被假释者不须要定期服到，也没有必要与假释官保持联络，只需要在观察期间不再犯任何错，就算假释条件完成。
4.罚款Amerce 法官会依照罪名及行为的轻重而确定罚款，辩护律师与检察官会讨价还价地商讨好罚金，一般来说，法院会在罚金上加上一些额外的费用，如在洛杉矶，法院会在商定的罚金上乘上百分之一百七十五，再加上一百元的受害者基金费，因而商定好的罚金如是一百元，将所有罚款加起来，往往要交三百七十五元。
5. 法官依案件的不同而采取一些认有利于教育犯者不再重做，或补偿受害者的措施others
庭外协商（PLEA BARGAIN）九成以上的刑事案件都是在进入陪审团前达成庭外协商而解决的。法院为快速处理众多的案件，也鼓励检辩双方达成认罪协议，一来鼓励被告“ 坦白从宽，抗拒从严” ，二来节省社会资源；三来给一些初犯者更多一次机会。
Plea Bargaining辩诉交易
Many criminal cases are resolved out of court by having both sides come to an agreement. This process is known as negotiating a plea or plea bargaining. 许多刑事案件庭外解决，通过让双方达成共识。这一过程被称为谈判认罪或认罪谈判
Plea bargaining is prevalent for practical reasons.辩讼交易对于实际的理由是普遍的
Defendants can avoid the time and cost of defending themselves at trial, the risk of harsher punishment.被告人可避免的浪费时间和花费在审判辩护中，更严厉的处罚的风险。
The prosecution saves the time and expense of a lengthy trial.
检方节省了一个长时间审判的时间和费用。
Both sides are spared the uncertainty of going to trial.
双方都省去了去审判不确定性。
The court system is saved the burden of conducting a trial on every crime charged.
这个法院系统是减轻了在进行被指控的罪行审判负担。
The Miranda Rule:米兰达规则The Supreme Court recently confirmed that Miranda warnings are constitutionally required because of a 1966 case called Miranda v. Arizona. When a person is in custody, some version of the Miranda rights, such as the following, is read to the individual before questioning: 最高法院最近证实，米兰达警告是因为宪法米兰达诉亚利桑那州的一个叫做1966年的情况需要。当一个人被羁押的，一些米兰达权利的版本，例如下面的，是对个人读前提问：
"You have the right to remain silent. If you give up the right to remain silent, anything you say can and will be used against you in a court of law. You have the right to an attorney. If you desire an attorney and cannot afford one, an attorney will be obtained for you before police questioning." 你有权保持沉默。你说的一切可在法庭上用作对你不利的供词；你有权找律师，审问时可有律师
在场；你如果没钱请律师，任何审问开始前可为你指定一位律师。
The Miranda rule was developed to protect the individual's Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination. Many people feel obligated to respond to police questioning. The Miranda warning ensures that people in custody realize they do not have to talk to the police and that they have the right to the presence of an attorney. 米兰达规则的制定，以防止自己入罪的个人的第五修正案的权利。很多人都觉得有义务回答警察的问题。米兰达警告确保被羁押人知道他们没有向警方交谈，他们都向一个律师在场的权利。
If the Miranda warning is not given before questioning, or if police continue to question a suspect after he or she indicates in any manner a desire to consult with an attorney before speaking, statements by the suspect generally are inadmissible. The best rule is to remain silent. You have the right to an attorney. Insist on it. 如果不给予米兰达警告提问之前，或者如果警察继续质询疑犯后，他或她以任何方式进行磋商的愿望与前发言，陈述了犯罪嫌疑人的律师表示一般不予受理。最好的规则是保持沉默。你有一个律师的权利。坚持。
Penal Code
杀人罪Homicide Homicide is the killing of one human being by another human being. Not all homicides are criminal, however. For instance, a person who kills another in self-defense has committed no crime; it is justifiable homicide. 杀人（homicide）就是一个人杀掉另一个人。但并非所有的杀人都是犯罪。比如一个人在自卫当中杀掉另外一个人就不是犯罪，而是正当的杀人
1.murder 谋杀
Murder is the unlawful killing of a human being with malice谋杀是非法杀害一人的恶意
美国联邦刑法和大约有五分之四的州刑法都将谋杀罪划分为两个等级即一级谋杀罪和二级谋杀罪。个别州分为三级。还有少数州，谋杀罪不分等级。分级的目的在于对一级谋杀罪处以严厉的刑罚，通常包括死刑，对二级谋杀罪处以除死刑以外的不那么严厉的刑罚，如终身监禁。一级谋杀包括如下两类：一是有预谋的谋杀；二是在实行特定种类重罪过程中发生的重罪---谋杀。此外，有些州还将采用特定手段的谋杀，如投毒杀人、伏击杀人、折磨杀人；或者在特定地点如监狱实施的杀人；或者杀死特定对象如正在执行职务的警察行为，列为一级谋杀罪。二级谋杀罪具体包括：无预谋目的的谋杀、故意重伤谋杀、极端轻率谋杀，等等。
2. Manslaughter 非预谋杀人罪
Manslaughter was defined at common law as an unlawful killing of another without malice. It could be either voluntary or involuntary. Manslaughter, in contrast to murder, is usually punishable by a prison term which may range from one year to ten or fourteen years非预谋杀人在普通法中被定义为没有预谋地非法杀害他人的行为。它可以是故意或非故意。与谋杀相比，非预谋杀人通常被判处一年到十年或十五年的监禁。
(1).V oluntary Manslaughter
非预谋故意杀人罪是被告人在因受到强烈刺激而产生盛怒的心理状态下所实施的杀人，即所谓的激情杀人（great provocation and in the heat passion ）。
(2).Involuntary Manslaughter 过失杀人罪
Involuntary Manslaughter may be describe generally as an unintentional killing resulting from gross negligence, or as a result of dangerous unlawful conduct. 过失杀人罪，一搬被可描述为由于重大过失造成的非故意杀人，或作为危险的非法行为而造成的死亡
Unit Eight Civil right law
Civil Rights Act of 1964 民权法案
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a landmark piece of legislation in the United States that outlawed unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the workplace and by facilities that served the general public ("public accommodations.") 民事权利法是1964年在美国的立法里程碑，其中取缔不平等的选民登记申请的要求和种族隔离在学校，在工作场所和设施，服务市民大众（“公共膳食初”。）
Once the Act was implemented, its effects were far-reaching and had tremendous long-term impacts on the whole country. It prohibited discrimination in public facilities, in government. 该法案一旦实施，其影响深远，对整个国家带来巨大的长远影响。它禁止在公共设施方面的歧视，在政府。
Powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were supplemented during later years.
赋予的权力执行该法的最初薄弱，但在后来的几年补充。
Congress asserted its authority to legislate under several different parts of the United States Constitution, principally its power to regulate interstate commerce under Article One (section 8), its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment and its duty to protect voting rights under the Fifteenth Amendment.
国会宣称其权力，立法根据美国宪法的几个不同的地方，主要是其权力，规管在第一条（第8条州际贸易），其职责，保证所有公民享有宪法第十四修正案的平等保护的法律及其责任第十五条修正案保护下的投票权
origins起源
The bill was introduced by President John F. Kennedy in his civil rights speech of June 11, 1963,in which he asked for legislation "giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public—hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments," as well as "greater protection for the right to vote." 该法案中引入了他的公民权利讲话6月11日，1963年，他在要求立法“让所有美国人的权利，在设施向公众开放，酒店，餐厅，剧院任总统约翰肯尼迪，零售商店及类似场所，“以及”加强保护的投票权。“
Major features of the Civil Rights Act of 1964民权法案1964年的主要特点
Title II
Outlawed discrimination in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce; exempted private clubs without defining the term "private."禁止歧视，在酒店，汽车旅馆，餐厅，剧院，和所有其他从事州际商业公共场所;豁免而不界定“私人私人俱乐部。”
Title VII
Title VII also prohibits discrimination against an individual because of his or her association with another individual of a particular race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. An employer cannot discriminate against a person because of his interracial association with another, such as by an interracial marriage. 第七章还禁止对一，因为他或她与另一协会个别歧视某一种族，肤色，宗教，性别，民族血统或个人。例如一个由不同种族之间的婚姻雇主可以不反对，因为他与其他种族之间的关联人，歧视。
In very narrow defined situations an employer is permitted to discriminate on the basis of a protected trait where the trait is a bona fide occupational qualification reasonably necessary to the normal operation of that particular business or enterprise. 在非常狭窄的定义的情况下，雇主不得以歧视的其中一个受保护的性状特征，是一个真正的职业资格的合理需要的特定业务或企业正常运作的基础。
To prove the Bona Fide(出于善意) Occupational Qualifications defense, an employer must prove three elements: a direct relationship between sex and the ability to perform the duties of the job, the BFOQ relates to the "essence" or "central mission of the employer's business." 为了证明善意（出于善意）职业资格辩护，雇主必须证明三个要素：1性别之间的能力和履行职责的工作直接关系，BFOQ涉及到“本质”或“中央使命雇主的业务。“
The Bona Fide Occupational Qualification exception is an extremely narrow exception to the general prohibition of discrimination based on sex. 在真正的职业资格的例外是一个极其狭窄的例外的普遍禁止性别歧视的基础。There are partial and whole exceptions to Title VII for four types of employers:
Federal government;
Federally recognized Native American tribes
Religious groups performing work connected to the group's activities, including associated education institutions;
Bona fide nonprofit private membership organizations有局部和整体的例外相关教育机构第七章为四种类型的雇主包括：联邦政府的活动;联邦政府承认的印第安人部落的宗教工作有关的表演团体到组;善意非营利的私人组织的成员
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) as well as certain state fair employment practices agencies (FEPAs) enforce Title VII .The EEOC and state FEPAs investigate, mediate, and may file lawsuits on behalf of
employees. 平等就业机会委员会（EEOC）以及某些国家的做法公平就业机构（FEPAs井）第七章执行。公平就业机会委员会和国家FEPAs调查，调解，并可以对文件代雇员诉讼。Title VII also provides that an individual can bring a private lawsuit. An individual must file a complaint of discrimination with the EEOC within 180 days of learning of the discrimination or the individual may lose the right to file a lawsuit. Title VII only applies to employers who employ 15 or more employees for 20 or more weeks in the current or preceding calendar year. itle七还规定，个人可以提出私人诉讼。一个人必须在180文件的歧视或个人可能会失去学习的权利提起诉讼天歧视与平等就业机会委员会投诉。第七章只适用于雇主谁雇用20名以上在本日历年度或前15周或更多的雇员
In the late 1970s courts began holding that sexual harassment is also prohibited under the Act. Chrapliwy v. Uniroyal is a notable Title VII case relating to sexual harassment that was decided in favor of the plaintiffs. In 1986 the Supreme Court held in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S.57(1986), that sexual harassment is sex discrimination and is prohibited by Title VII. 法院在20世纪70年代后期开始举办，性骚扰也是根据该法禁止的。Chrapliwy诉尼罗亚尔是一个显着的标题七宗涉及性骚扰是在原告胜诉。1986年，最高法院在驰储蓄银行诉文森，美国57 477（1986），性骚扰是性别歧视，是第七章禁止。Same-sex sexual harassment has also been held in a unanimous decision written by Justice Scalia to be prohibited by Title VII. Title VII has been supplemented with legislation prohibiting pregnancy, age, and disability discrimination (See Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, Age Discrimination in Employment Act[27], Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990). 同性性骚扰也被关押在由法官Scalia写了一致决定，禁止标题七。第七章已补充了禁止怀孕，年龄的法律，和残疾歧视（见怀孕歧视法1978年，年龄在就业法[27]，1990年美国残疾人法案歧视）。Walker V. IRS
Tracy, Walker, a light-skinned black woman, worked as a clerk typist in the predominantly black Atlanta office of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). In November 1985, Walker’s supervisor was replaced by Ruby Lewis, a dark-skinned black woman. Though Walker had e njoyed a very “cordial”(热情友好的) working relationship with her former supervisor, her dealing with Lewis were “strained from the very beginning.”沃克五国税局特雷西，沃克，一辆轻型皮肤的黑人女性，曾担任美国国税局）办事员打字员的主要（黑亚特兰大办事处内部收入服务。1985年11月，沃克的主管改为红宝石刘易斯，一个黑皮肤的黑人妇女。虽然沃克曾享有非常“亲切”（热情友好的）与她的前上司的工作关系，她与刘易斯处理是“从一开始紧张。”Walker alleged (断言, 宣称, 辩解) that Lewis often reprimanded her for matters that were either “ false or insubstantial” and subjected her to a “ close scrutiny”(细看, 细查; 监视) not extended to her fellow employees. Walker met with the Equal Employment Office(EEO) program manager for the Atlanta district of the IRS in an attempt to air her grievances. Two weeks later, she was discharged on Lewis’ recommendation. 据称沃克（断言，宣称，辩解），刘易斯经常斥责事情要么“虚假或单薄”，并受到她的“密切关注”（细看，细查;监视）没有延伸到她的同胞雇员她。沃克会见了平等就业办公室（平等就业机会）计划为美国国税局亚特兰大地区经理，企图空气她的不满。两个星期后，她出院刘易斯的建议。Walker filed a pro se(代表自己) employment discrimination suit under title VII. She claimed that Lewis was “prejudiced使有偏见against light color skinned blacks” and had subjected使遭受，使蒙受；使易受(常与to 连用) her to “invidious(会招致不满的,激起怨恨) discrimination” before her termination. She further alleged that she had been discharged in retaliation报复；报仇for her complaints to the EEO program manager. 沃克提交下一个亲题第七硒（代表自己）就业歧视诉讼。她声称，刘易斯是“存有偏见，浅色皮肤的黑人使有偏见”，也曾遭受使遭受，使蒙受，使易受（常与以连用）她为“令人反感（会招致不满的，激起怨恨）歧视”在她面前终止。她还称，她已在报复报复出院;她投诉，平等就业机会的项目经理报仇。The court identified two principal issues: whether color, in addition to race, may form the basis of a discrimination action under title VII , and whether a suit based on color may be brought by one black person against another. On the first issue, the court rejected the defendant’s contention that “race” and “color” must be treated synonymously. 法院确定了两个主要问题：是否颜色，除了比赛，可能会形成一个标题下第七歧视行动的基础，无论是颜色可能会由一个黑人对另一人的基础上提出诉讼。关于第一个问题，法院驳回了被告的论点，即“种族”和“颜色”必须被视为同义词。。The court interpreted titled VII’s specific references to both “ race” and “color” as clear indications of congressional intent to establish the two terms as distinct elements in a title VII claim. To support this interpretation, the Walker court cited the Supreme Court’s decision in St.Francis College v. Al-Dhazraji, in which an Arab university professor alleged that his white employer discriminated against him on the basis of his race. 法院解释这两个名为“种族七世的具体提到”和“颜色”作为国会意图建立明确的迹象表明这两个词在标题七索赔不同元
素。为了支持这一解释，沃克法院援引最高法院在圣弗朗西斯学院诉铝Dhazraji，其中一个阿拉伯大学教授声称，他对他的歧视白人雇主基于他的种族的基础上作出决定。。Once the court determined that discrimination on the basis of color may support a title VII claim, it turned to the narrower issue of whether the statute “ allow a law suit by a light-colored black person against a dark-colored black person.”。一旦法庭认定，对色彩的歧视可能支持一个标题七索赔，转向窄的问题是否章程“允许的浅色黑人对一个深色西装黑人的法律。”The court looked again to St.Francis, noting that the Supreme Court had previously reviewed the legislative history of section 1981 and found that Congress intended the statute to “apply to all forms of discrimination,” including those acts perpetrated by whites against members of other white subgroups. 法院期待再次圣弗朗西斯，并指出，最高法院曾审查了1981年的立法历史和部分国会打算发现该规约的“适用于一切形式的歧视”，包括对成员的犯罪行为的其他白人白群。the court concluded that “ race” and “color” are by means synonymous for purposes of title VII coverage and that subgroups may exist among blacks as a race. It held that Walker had stated a cause of action for invidious discrimination under title VII. 他法院的结论是，“种族”和“色”是指所有权第七覆盖率为目的的代名词，而且分组之间可能存在的一个黑人种族。它认为，沃克曾表示下一个标题第七令人反感的歧视行动的原因。Until Walker, however, courts had not made the same observation about blacks. Observers within the black community have long acknowledged the historic tension between light-skinned and dark-skinned直到沃克，但是，法院没有作出关于黑人同样的看法。在黑人社区的观察家早就承认历史之间的张力轻皮肤和黑皮肤Walker casts doubt upon traditional of discrimination. It acknowledges that such discrimination is pernicious in all forms, whether committed by members of other races or by those within the same race. 沃克蒙上怀疑传统的歧视。它承认，这种歧视在所有形式有害的，不论其是由其他种族的成员或在同一种族的人。Walker illustrates the tension in anti-discrimination statutes between reflecting the reality of groups and their historical experiences and effecting broader protection against discrimination. By holding that blacks may be the victims of intraracial discrimination, Walker emphasizes the immediate harm caused to individuals, regardless of the perpetrator’s identity. 沃克说明了反歧视法规之间紧张局势的群体，反映现实和历史的经验和影响更广泛的保护免受歧视。通过举行，黑人可能是intraracial歧视的受害者，沃克强调立即向个人造成的损害，不论行为人的身份。
法律英语翻译技巧（二）法学语言与法学语言翻译 例1：The law holds that the individual is responsible for his acts. The law also indicates what is good and right, and what may and should be done. It also indicates what is evil and wrong, and should not and may not be done. The law further holds that what is evil and wrong is a crime and may not be done, and if done, renders the doer liable to punishment. The law also recognizes the principle that man has free will and that, with certain exceptions, he exercises free will in commission of any crime that he may commit. 译文1：法律认为公民应对自己的行为负责。法律还规定什么是美好的和正确的，规范了哪些事是允许做或应该做的。同样，法律规范了什么是邪恶的和错误的。法律还进一步明确规定哪些邪恶的错误的事是不能做的犯罪行为看，如果某人做了这样的事，那么该行为就要受到惩罚。同样，法律还承认这样一个原则，每个公民除犯罪自由外都具有自由意志，如果某人在各种违法活动中实施其自由意志，那么他就可能触犯法律。 译文2：法律规定人人应对自己的行为承担责任，分清善良和正义，规范了人们的行为准则；法律还认为，作孽枉法即是犯罪，法不可恕，
一、律师部分 案件受理费 court acceptance fee 案情重大、复杂 important and complicated case 案由 cause of action 案子 case 包揽诉讼 monopolize lawsuits 被告defendant(用于民事、行政案件) 被诉人 respondent; defendant 本地律师 local counsel 毕业证 diploma; graduation certificate 辩护词 defense; pleadings 辩护律师 defense lawyer 辩护要点 point of defense 辩护意见 submission 财产租赁 property tenancy 裁定书 order; ruling; determination（指终审裁定） 裁决书 award（用于仲裁） 裁决书 verdict（用于陪审团） 采信的证据 admitted evidence; established evidence 草拟股权转让协议 drafting agreement of assignment of equityinterests 查阅法条 source legal provisions 出差 go on errand; go on a business trip
出具律师意见书 providing legal opinion 出示的证据 exhibit 出庭 appear in court 传票 summons; subpoena 答辩状 answer; reply 代理词 representation 代理房地产买卖与转让 agency for sale and transfer of real estate 代理公证、商标、专利、版权、房地产、工商登记agency for notarization,trademark, patent, copyright, and registration of real estate andincorporations 代理仲裁 agency for arbitration 代写文书 drafting of legal instruments 待决案件pending case 当事人陈述 statement of the parties 第三人 third party 吊销执业证 revocation of lawyer license 调查笔录investigative record 调查取证 investigation and gathering for evidence 调解 mediation 调解书 mediation 二审案件 case of trial of second instance 发送电子邮件 send e-mail 法律顾问legal consultants 法律意见书 legal opinions
Lesson one 1、a cause of action案由 2、social norms 社会标准 3、substantive law实体法 4、procedural law程序法 5、resolve disputes解决纠纷 6、provide for规定 7、be entitled to 有权······ 8、law of contracts合同法 9、private law私法 10、public law公法 11、constitution law宪法 12、administration law行政法 13、criminal law刑法 14、the law of torts 侵权法 15、the civil law system大陆法体系 16、the common law普通法 17、the operation of the judicial processes司法程序的运作 18、the United States Congress美国国会 19、judge-made law判例法 20、judicial decision 司法决定 Lesson two multi-state transactions 多重性 choice of law 法律的选择 substantive rights实体权利 conflicts of law 法律冲突 choice of forum 法院的选择 courts of limited jurisdiction 有限管辖权法院 courts of general jurisdiction 一般管辖权法院 trial courts初审法院 inferior court低级法院 superior court 高级法院 supreme court最高法院 circuit court 巡回法院 district court区法院 appellate court上诉法院 intermediate appellate court中级宪法 at the discretion of 由······自由裁量 court of limited subject matter jurisdiction 有限对事管辖权法院the amount in controversy争议数额 diversity jurisdiction多元管辖 federal question联邦问题
法律文件严谨，采取各种语言手段防止误解或歧义；其内容必须字面化、外部化，说一是一，说二是二。含蓄的表达、深层的蕴涵在法律文件中无施展的余地。 在用词方面，法律文件除了专门术语外，还常用一部分古词、旧词。特别是here，there，where加介词构成的复合副词，如：hereto，herein，hereunder，hereinabove，thereon，therein，thereof，thereat，therethrough，wherein，whereby，whereof，wherefor等等。古体副词的大量使用提高法律文件的正式程度，也形成了法律文件特有的稳定性和保守性。 在句法方面，法律文件长句多，几十字、上百字的长句司空见惯。为
了把话说得天衣无缝，不惜运用各种附加语、修饰语、说明语，以致句法成分前后编插、枝权横生，句子结构膨胀，语法关系复杂，读来不畅。行文中少用代词，宁可重复名词。 在篇章结构方面，有的甚至通篇不用逗号表示停顿。但是，为了突出内容要点和逻辑程序，法律文件也采用一定的版面手段，如大小写，变换字体、序列和布局等。 根据法律文件的特征，翻译上有如下要求： Legal Document Translation From stylistic point of view, the legal document is rigorous, so it adopts every language method to prevent misunderstanding or ambiguity. Its content must be literally clear and outspoken. The
法律英语词汇大全完美 版 文档编制序号：[KKIDT-LLE0828-LLETD298-POI08]
法律渊源s o u r c e o f l a w 制定法 statute 判例法 case law; precedent 普通法 common law 特别法 special law 固有法 native law; indigenous law 继受法 adopted law 实体法 substantial law 程序法 procedural law 原则法 fundamental law 例外法 exception law 司法解释 judicial interpretation 习惯法 customary law 公序良俗 public order and moral 自然法 natural law 罗马法 Roman Law 私法 private law 公法 public law 市民法 jus civile 万民法 jus gentium 民法法系 civil law system 英美法系 system of Anglo-American law 大陆法系 civil law system 普通法 common law 大陆法 continental law 罗马法系 Roman law system 衡平法 equity; law of equity 日尔曼法 Germantic law 教会法 ecclesiastical law 寺院法 canon law 伊斯兰法 Islamic law 民法法律规范 norm of civil law 授权规范 authorization norm 禁止规范 forbidding norm 义务性规范 obligatory norm 命令性规范 commanding norm 民法基本原则 fundamental principles of civil law 平等原则 principle of equality 自愿原则 principle of free will 公平原则 principle of justice 等价有偿原则 principle of equal value exchange 诚实信用原则 principle of good faith 行为 act 作为 ac 不作为 omission 合法行为 lawful act 违法行为 unlawful act 民事权利权利能力 civil right 绝对权 absolute right 相对权 relative right 优先权 right of priority 先买权 preemption 原权 antecedent right 救济权 right of relief 支配权 right of dominion 请求权 right of claim 物上请求权 right of claim for real thing 形成权 right of formation 撤销权 right of claiming cancellation
常用的法律英语术语draft 法案，草案 Government bill 政府议案 to pass a bill, to carry a bill 通过议案 to enact a law, to promulgate a law 颁布法律 ratification, confirmation 批准 law enforcement 法律的实施 to come into force 生效 decree 法令 clause 条款 minutes 备忘录 report 判例汇编 codification 法律汇编 legislation 立法 legislator 立法者 jurist 法学家 jurisprudence 法学 legitimation 合法化 legality, lawfulness 法制，合法 legal, lawful 合法的,依法的 to contravene a law, to infringe a law, to break a law 违法 outlaw, outside the law 超出法律范围的 offender 罪犯 to abolish 废止，取消
rescission, annulment 废除，取消 repeal, revocation, annulment 废除(法律) cancellation, annulment, invalidation 废除(合同) cancellation (支票)作废 annulment 撤消(遗嘱) repeal rescission 撤消(判决) revocation 撤消 immunity 豁免，豁免权 disability, legal incapacity 无资格nonretroactive character 不溯既往性prescription 剥夺公权 attainder 公民权利的剥夺和财产的没收constitutional law 宪法 canon law 教会法规 common law 习惯法 criminal law 刑法 administrative law 行政法 civil law 民法 commercial law, mercantile law 商法 law of nations 万国公法，国际法 international law 国际法 natural law 自然法 labour laws 劳工法 fiscal law 财政法
一、 action 诉讼 to bring an action/lawsuit against sb. 向某人提起诉讼，到法院告某人 defendant 被告 appellant 上诉人 appellee 被上诉人 cause of action 案由 transaction 交易 to join sb. as plaintiff/defendant 与某人共同起诉、把某人作为第三人被告合并起诉to make a complete determination of a controversy彻底解决争端 to be liable 负有责任 to rest on 依靠，依赖 adversary 敌手，对手；敌对的 adversary system 抗辩制 advocate 用户，提倡；拥护者，辩护者 produce 拿出，出示 evidence 证据 inquisitorial 纠问的 civil law tradition 大陆法传统 presentation 介绍，陈述 intervene 干涉，介入 safeguard 预防措施，保证条款；保护 prevalence 流行，盛行 manifold 多种多样的 contest 比赛 interested 有利害关系的 resolution 解决 to bear the burden of 承担 to reduce... to 把.....降为，把......归纳为 unbiased 无偏见的 satisfy 满足，符合 critic 批评者 merit 事实真相，是非曲直 phase 阶段 reside 属于，归于 affirmative 肯定的，积极的 join 合并 to be liable to sb. for sth. 因某事对某人负有责任 to rest on 依靠 to reside in/with 属于 二、 allege 声称 allegation 声称
《当代法律英语》翻译 第四章公法 在所有的民法法系(civil law) 中所做的基础分辨便是公法(public law) 与私法(private law) 的区分。这种分类方法，对于普通法系(common law)而言 仅仅是潜在的或者默示性质的，但对于民法法系而言却是一种基础性的理解方式。一方面，正如我们所了解的一样，这种分类为民法法系国家提供了法庭组织系统的分辨模板。随着公法领域的争端于19世纪可受法院裁判(justiciable) 开始，独立的特别法庭(tribunal) 被建立起来并约束起公法行为。在今天，除了 刑事案件(criminal matters)这一主要例外，普通法院的管辖权(jurisdiction) 依旧限于私法领域的争端。除了这些司法管辖权的推论以外，公法和私法的分别还产生了一种存在于法律专业中的工作(labor)性质的差别。大量的法学教师倾向于证明他们是“公法专家”(publicist) 或者是“私法专家” (privatist)。课 程和论文(treatise) 倾向于公法或私法的其中一个领域，尽管事实上如今已经考虑到的案由(subject matter) 至少更倾向于许多公法方面。 即使在民法法系世界中公法与私法的分别被广泛承认，但这类法系的法学家(lawyer)对其法系划分的理论基础或者法理正当性仍未达成一致，各国对于这种划分方法的范围和效果也未达成一致。然而，一般来说，公法所关注的是国家机 关之间的关系或者国家与公民之间的关系。公法至少包括宪法(con stitutio nal law)，行政法(administrative law)和刑法(criminal law)。而私法是处理公民 或私人团体之间的关系，它至少包括民法(civil law)和商法(commercial law)。这种分类方法的其他几个领域是争论的主题所在。举个例子，民法程序是包含于 一些主体的私人组织的些许法系之中，并且被其他主体认为包含于公法领域。劳动法(labor law)，农业法(agricultural law) ，社会保障(social security) ， 同时也包括大量的现代规则领域，这些法律有些时候被解释为公法与私法领域的混合，有时又被说成自成一类(拉丁文：sui generis)。 即使公法与私法的划分已经扎根于罗马法系(Roman law)中，然而直到当代 与公法相关的领域仍有一种未开发的因素。这便是对于主权(sovereign)的保护， 法理学家(jurist) 总是谨慎的将其放在一边。正如我们注意到的对于民法法系传 统的历史介绍，几乎所有流传下来并被我们所掌握的罗马法律文献都是关注于私法领域，并且大陆法系(continental legal) 科学的传统也是关注于私法领域。 我们观察到的也是如此：在地方主义(localism)和法律多样化的中世纪，公法的研究余地是很小的。但是当集权化(ce ntralize) 的国家以及它的行政机构(administrative organ)开始出现于欧洲大陆的时候 (与逐步产生影响的法律训 练专业化吻合)，这对行政法的发展产生了有利的条件。在19世纪，由于行政法 开始繁荣昌盛，似乎一般的话用于私人个体或者组织的私法规则并不能简单的维持各主体之间的关系，这是因为国家已被政党所垄断。在法国它似乎也是这样的，普通法院(ordinary court) 不能被委托(entrust)从事牵扯到解决国家争端的任 务。正如我们已经了解到的一样：法国对权利分立学说(separation of powers led)的理解，导致其在行政机构中建立起了一系列独立的公法法院。 在德国就是另外一回事了，该国关心被行政权力压迫的普遍性胜过对于司法裁判的不信任。因此，为了避免当公民与行政机构发生争端时是由后者裁决(adjudicate)，德国建立了存在于司法机构中并独立于行政法院的裁判体系。
法律渊源s o u r c e o f l a w 制定法 statute 判例法 case law; precedent 普通法 common law 特别法 special law 固有法 native law; indigenous law 继受法 adopted law 实体法 substantial law 程序法 procedural law 原则法 fundamental law 例外法 exception law 司法解释 judicial interpretation 习惯法 customary law 公序良俗 public order and moral 自然法 natural law 罗马法 Roman Law 私法 private law 公法 public law 市民法 jus civile 万民法 jus gentium 民法法系 civil law system 英美法系 system of Anglo-American law 大陆法系 civil law system 普通法 common law 大陆法 continental law 罗马法系 Roman law system 衡平法 equity; law of equity 日尔曼法 Germantic law 教会法 ecclesiastical law 寺院法 canon law 伊斯兰法 Islamic law 民法法律规范 norm of civil law 授权规范 authorization norm 禁止规范 forbidding norm 义务性规范 obligatory norm 命令性规范 commanding norm 民法基本原则 fundamental principles of civil law 平等原则 principle of equality 自愿原则 principle of free will 公平原则 principle of justice 等价有偿原则 principle of equal value exchange
法律渊源source of law 制定法statute 判例法case law; precedent 普通法common law 特别法special law 固有法native law; indigenous law 继受法adopted law 实体法substantial law 程序法procedural law 原则法fundamental law 例外法exception law 司法解释judicial interpretation 习惯法customary law 公序良俗public order and moral 自然法natural law 罗马法Roman Law 私法private law 公法public law 市民法jus civile 万民法jus gentium 民法法系civil law system 英美法系system of Anglo-American law 大陆法系civil law system 普通法common law 大陆法continental law 罗马法系Roman law system 衡平法equity; law of equity 日尔曼法Germantic law 教会法ecclesiastical law 寺院法canon law 伊斯兰法Islamic law 民法法律规范norm of civil law 授权规范authorization norm 禁止规范forbidding norm 义务性规范obligatory norm 命令性规范commanding norm 民法基本原则fundamental principles of civil law 平等原则principle of equality 自愿原则principle of free will 公平原则principle of justice 等价有偿原则principle of equal value exchange 诚实信用原则principle of good faith 行为act 作为ac 不作为omission 合法行为lawful act 违法行为unlawful act 民事权利权利能力civil right 绝对权absolute right 相对权relative right 优先权right of priority 先买权preemption 原权antecedent right 救济权right of relief 支配权right of dominion 请求权right of claim 物上请求权right of claim for real thing 形成权right of formation 撤销权right of claiming cancellation
法律英语翻译：法律翻译常用词汇注释（A-Z） A Ab initio Ab initio是拉丁文，其意思是“自开始之时”或“从头开始”，可以直接翻译为“自始”。在法律英语中，ab initio 的使用频率较高，比较常见。如：ab initio mundi（有史以来），void ad initio（自始无效）等。 Accord accord在普通英语中的含义是符合，一致，在法律英语中则表示和解或和解协议，指指债务人和一个债权人达成的、以偿还部分债务免除全部债务责任的协议。如reach an accord达成和解协议，accord and satisfaction和解与清偿等。 Accused 被告Accused通常指刑事案件的被告，民事诉讼的被告称为Defendant；而申索案件中的被索偿的一方称为Respondent（答辩人）。 Acquire acquire在普通英语中的含义是获得，获取，而且通常指通过后天的努力获得。在法律英语中通常指对公司的购买，收购，我们通常所说的M&A，即是acquire的名词acquisition和merger的缩写。如The foreign investor has acquired more than 10 PRC domestic enterprises engaging in related industries within a year. 外国投资者一年内并购中国境内关联行业的企业超过10个。 Acquittal 罪名不成立。刑事案件经审讯后，被告罪名不成立被释放，称为“The accused is acquitted”。Acquittal 是名词。详见民法中和刑法中表达不同意思的“acquit”一文。 Act act在普通英语中的含义是行动，行为，在法律英语中通常理解为作为，与不作为forbear相对应。如：Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, the Minister may, on the recommendation of the Commission, direct the Commission to act or forbear from。 Action act在普通英语中的含义是行动，在法律英语中则理解为诉讼，相当于suit或lawsuit，如initiate an action提起诉讼，win an action在诉讼中获胜，defend oneself in an action在诉讼中为自己辩护等。 Adjourn
t h e i e 法律英语 法律渊源 source of law 制定法 statute 判例法 case law; precedent 普通法 common law 特别法 special law 固有法 native law; indigenous law 继受法 adopted law 实体法 substantial law 程序法 procedural law 原则法 fundamental law 例外法 exception law 司法解释 judicial interpretation 习惯法 customary law 公序良俗 public order and moral 自然法 natural law 罗马法 Roman Law 私法 private law 公法 public law 市民法 jus civile 万民法 jus gentium 民法法系 civil law system 英美法系 system of Anglo-American law 大陆法系 civil law system 普通法 common law 大陆法 continental law 罗马法系 Roman law system 衡平法 equity; law of equity 日尔曼法 Germantic law 教会法 ecclesiastical law 寺院法 canon law 伊斯兰法 Islamic law 民法法律规范 norm of civil law 授权规范 authorization norm 禁止规范 forbidding norm 义务性规范 obligatory norm 命令性规范 commanding norm 民法基本原则 fundamental principles of civil law 平等原则 principle of equality 自愿原则 principle of free will 公平原则 principle of justice 等价有偿原则 principle of equal value exchange
Drafting Legal Documents Principles of Clear Writing 1. Write in the active voice. The active voice eliminates confusion by forcing you to name the actor in a sentence. This construction makes clear to the reader who is to perform the duty.The passive voice makes sentences longer and roundabout. Who is responsible is much less obvious. Passive verbs have a form of the verb to be plus the past participle of a main verb. ?was received, ?is being considered, ?has been selected. The passive voice reverses the natural, active order of English sentences. In the following passive example the receiver of the action comes before the actor. Passive: The regulation [receiver] was written [verb] by the drafter [actor].Active: The drafter [actor] wrote [verb] the regulation [receiver].Passive constructions are confusing when used in regulations. Active sentences must have actors, but passive ones are complete without them.
法律英语翻译可没你想的那么简单，有GOOGLE就够了吗？ 法律翻译，顾名思义是翻译法律方面的内容。翻译从形式上可划分为口译和笔译，鉴于口译通常按传输方式划分，即同传、交传、陪同口译等，以口头表述为媒介，专业领域的界限就相对模糊。即便律师和客户的沟通，商事谈判中法律事项等会涉及口译，也通常不会过于专业。 口译始终以交流通畅、简单明了为主，最重要是保证沟通的及时性。而笔译多是横向划分，按领域对号入座，科技翻译、文学翻译、医学翻译、商务翻译，不一而足。而法律翻译和前述的众多队友一样，只是笔译中的一个分支，翻译任何以书面形式出现的法律内容，这就是法律翻译的全部任务。 但这一句话内涵却可以无限延伸，毕竟法律文书的种类多得列举不完，单单就契约而言，就有无数“衍生品”，contract, deed, instrument, agreement, arrangment, memo... ... 好像都是一种玩意儿，可细看又不是。再给前面加个定语，采购、股转、信托、租赁... ... 感觉心好累，已经举不了了。 法律英语为什么这么难？ >>>>
1.综合性 法律英语的难点之一，在于其具有“世界性词汇”的特点，这主要表现在它所使用的语言不仅是英语本身，还包括其它语种，如法语、拉丁语等。 尤其是拉丁语，在法律英语中处于权威性的地位。在西方法律文明中，法律格言往往是用拉丁语来表述的。这不仅是因为罗马法对整个世界法学的繁荣兴旺功不可没，而古罗马法学家尤其强调用简洁、精准的语言来陈述法律规则，更因为拉丁文在西方历史上长期被视为“有教养者的语言”，曾经是欧洲人表述法律规则和法律命题的“通用语言”。 随便举两个例子： >>>> 2.严谨性 暂不论英文，即便是中文的合同文书，我们都讲究定义的周延性、逻辑的严密性。随着我国涉外法律服务业的拓展，涉外律师的水平如果只限于“会用英文写作”，“能让人大致看懂”已经无法满足业务要求，而是要在
法律英语高频词汇 发回重审 remand a lawsuit for a new trial 发货人 consignor， shipper 发生法律效力 be legally effective 发现 discovery 发行审核委员会 the Issuance Examination Commission 发展规划 development plan 罚款 Fin 法案 bill 法定部门 statutory machinery 法定代表律师 Official Solicitor 法定代表人 legal representative 法定代理人 legal agent 法定继承 legal inheritance 法定继承人 legal heir 法定监护人 legal guardian 法定期限 time limit provided by law 法定义务 legal duty 法定语言 legal language 法定主管当局 statuory authority
法官法 judges law 法官考评委员会 committee for the examination and appraisal of judges 法规 laws and regulations 法纪 Law and Discipline 法纪监督 supervision over legal discipline 法理背景 jurisprudential background 法理背景 jurisprudential base 法理学 jurisprudence 法令 decree 法律程序文件 written process 法律冲突 conflict of laws 法律服务所 Legal Service Office 法律概念 legal concept 法律顾问处 Legal Consultant Office 法律后果 legal effect 法律解释权 power of law interpretation 法律面前人人平等 equality before the law 合法的 legitimate 法律上的财产处分 legal disposition of property
法律英语词汇 一、有关机构的词汇 司法部门，司法的 judiciary 法院 court 基层人民法院 Basic People's Court 中级人民法院 Intermediate People's Court 高级人民法院 High People's Court 最高人民法院 Supreme People's Court 专门人民法院 special people's court 军事法院 military court 海事法院maritime court 铁路运输法院 railway transport court 审委会 judicial committee 合议庭 collegial panel 侦查机关 public security inspectorate 检察机关 procuratorate 公诉机关 public prosecution organ 公安局 public security bureau 派出所 public security station 地方人民检察院 local people's procuratorate 人民调解委员会 the people's conciliation committees 居民委员会 neighborhood committee 村民委员会 village committee 民政部门 civil affairs department 二、有关身份和称谓的词汇 公民 citizen
法人 legal person 未成年人 minor 成年人 adult 外国人 alien 无国籍人stateless person 无诉讼行为能力人 person with no legal capacity 监护人 guardian 个体工商户 Individual business 农村承包经营户 leaseholding farm household 个人合伙 individual partnership 法官 judge 代理审判员 acting judge 陪审员 assessor 陪审团 jury 检察官 prosecutor 代理检察员 acting prosecutor 公诉人 public prosecutor 当事人 party, litigant 法定代表人 legal representative 代理人 agent 诉讼代理人 Agents ad Litem 法定代理人 statutory agent 原告 complainant；plaintiff；prosecutor；accuser 共同原告 co-plaintiff 被告 defendant；the accused 共同被告 co-defendant 上诉人 petitioner
美国：SEC.(b) Consideration of promotion of efficiency, competition, and capital formation.—Whenever pursuant to this title the Commission is engaged in rule making and is required to consider or determine whether an action is necessary or appropriate in the public interest, the Commission shall also consider, in addition to the protection of investors, whether the action will promote efficiency, competition, and capital formation. 为提高效率、促进竞争、及资本形成的考虑。在根据本法制定具体规则、需要考虑或决定某项行动对公共利益是否必要或适当时，证券交易委员会除了要考虑保护投资者之外，还应该考虑行动是否会将提高效率、促进竞争及资本形成。 中国：《证券法》第一条为了规范证券发行和交易行为，保护投资者的合法权益，维护社会经济秩序和社会公共利益，促进社会主义市场经济的发展，制定本法。 Article 1 This Law is enacted for the purpose of regulating the offering and trading of securities, protecting investors 'legal rights and interests , maintaining social economic order and public interests, and promoting the development of the socialist market economy. 诚实信用原则： 《合同法》 当事人行使权利、履行义务应当遵循诚实信用原则。 Article 6 The parties shall observe the principle of good faith in exercising their rights and performing obligations. 《公司法》 公司从事经营活动，必须遵守法律、行政法规，遵守社会公德、商业道德，诚实守信，接受政府和社会公众的监督，承担社会责任。 Article 5 When engaging in business and operation, the company must abide by laws and administrative regulations, stick to social morality and business ethics, honesty and fiduciary , accept the supervision by the government and the general public, and owe social responsibilities. 股份有限公司股东大会由全体股东组成，股东大会是公司的权力机构，依照本法行使职权。 Article 98 Shareholder's Meeting of joint stock companies is composed by all shareholders,which as the company's organ of authority ,shall exercise its duties and powers in accordance with this law. 董事、监事、高级管理人员应当遵守法律、行政法规和公司章程，对公司负有忠实义务和勤勉义务。董事、监事、高级管理人员不得利用职权收受贿赂或者其他非法收入，不得侵占公司的财产。 Article 148 Directors, supervisors and senior managers shall abide by laws, administrative regulations and the articles of association,and owe the duty of loyalty and care. Directors, supervisors and senior managers shall not abuse their authorities by accepting bribes or receiving other illegal income, and shall not convert company assets. 《证券法》 证券发行、交易活动的当事人具有平等的法律地位，应当遵守自愿、有偿、诚实信用的原则。 Article 4 All parties involved in the offering and trading of securities have equal legal status and shall observe voluntary，compensatory and fiduciary.