当前位置:文档之家› 语言学概论

语言学概论

语言学概论
语言学概论

Linguistics

Chapter 1 Introduction: Language and Linguistics

●What is language?

?Different definitions of language

◆Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their

synchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916)

◆[Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length

and constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957)

◆Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of

communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily

produced symbols.

?Each of the definitions above has pointed out some aspects of the essence of

language, but all of them have left out something. We must see the

multi-faceted nature of language.

?As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as a

system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

●Features of human language

?Creativity

◆Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never

been sent before and for understanding brand new messages.

◆The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences are

infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.

?Duality

◆Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of

meanings.

◆Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.

◆Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences

of speech sounds.

?Arbitrariness

◆The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.

◆There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.

?Displacement

◆There is no limit in time or space for language.

◆Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or

future.

?Cultural transmission

◆Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.

◆Language is a way of transmitting culture.

?Interchangeability

◆All members of a speech community can send and receive messages.

?Reflexivity

◆Human languages can be used to describe themselves.

◆The language used to talk about language is called meta-language.

●Functions of language – three meta-functions

?The ideational function

◆To identify things, to think, or to record information.

?The interpersonal function

◆To get along in a community.

?The textual function

◆To form a text.

●Types of language

?Genetic classification

?Typological classification

◆Analytic language –no inflections or formal changes, grammatical

relationships are shown through word order, such as Chinese and

Vietnamese

◆Synthetic language –grammatical relationships are expressed by

changing the internal structure of the words, typically by changing the

inflectional endings, such as English and German

◆Agglutinating language – words are built out of a long sequence of units,

with each unit expressing a particular grammatical meaning, such as

Japanese and Turkish

●The myth of language – language origin

?The Biblical account

◆Language was God’s gift to human beings.

?The bow-wow theory

◆Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of

animals, like quack, cuckoo.

?The pooh-pooh theory

◆Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or

joy.

?The yo-he-ho theory

◆Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in

joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.

?The evolution theory

◆Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of

social need.

●What is linguistics?

?Linguistics is the scientific study of language.

◆Observing & questioning

◆Formulating hypotheses

◆V erifying the hypotheses

◆Proposing a theory

?Branches of linguistics

◆Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions

●Phonetics

●Phonology

●Morphology

●Syntax

●Semantics

◆External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions

●Pragmatics

●Psycholinguistics

●Sociolinguistics

●Applied linguistics

●Computational linguistics

●Neurolinguistics

?Features of linguistics

◆Descriptive

◆Dealing with spoken language

◆Synchronic

Chapter 2 Phonetics

●What is phonetics?

?Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds.

?Sub-branches of phonetics

◆Articulatory phonetics – the production of speech sounds

◆Acoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech sounds

◆Auditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds

●The speech organs

?Where does the air stream come from?

◆From the lung

?What is the function of vocal cords?

◆Controlling the air stream

?What are the cavities?

◆Oral cavity

◆Pharyngeal cavity

◆Nasal cavity

●Transcription of speech sounds

?Units of representation

◆Segments (the individual sounds)

?Phonetic symbols

◆The widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds is

the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

◆The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single

symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish

phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.

◆In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be

transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark

the finer distinctions.

●Description of speech sounds

?Description of English consonants

◆General feature: obstruction

◆Criteria of consonant description

●Places of articulation

●Manners of articulation

●V oicing of articulation

◆Places of articulation

●This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified to

produce a sound.

?Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]

?Labiodental: [f] [v]

?Interdental: [ ] [?]

?Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]

?Palatal: [?] [?] [t?] [d?] [j]

?V elar: [k] [g] [?]

?Glottal: [h]

◆Manners of articulation

●This refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it is

completely blocked or partially obstructed.

?Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]

?Fricatives: [s] [z] [?] [?] [f] [v] [ ] [?] [h]

?Affricates: [t?] [d?]

?Liquids: [l] [r]

?Glides: [w] [j]

?Nasals: [m] [n] [?]

◆V oicing of articulation

●This refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are

produced.

?V oiced sounds

?V oiceless sounds

?Description of English vowels

◆General feature: without obstruction

◆Criteria of vowel description

●Part of the tongue that is raised

?Front

?Central

?Back

●Extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate

?High

?Mid

?Low

●Kind of opening made at the lips

●Position of the soft palate

◆Single vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongs

●Phonetic features and natural classes

?Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes.

?Major class features can specify segments across the consonant-vowel

boundary.

?Classification of segments by features is the basis on which variations of

sounds can be analyzed.

Chapter 3 Phonology

●What is phonology?

?Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.

?Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are

concerned with the study of speech sounds.

?Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.

◆What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in

a particular language?

◆What sounds vary in what ways in what context?

◆What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?

●Phonemes and allophones

? A phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature.

?The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones.

?We use allophones to realize phonemes.

●Discovering phonemes

?Contrastive distribution – phonemes

◆If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in

contrastive distribution.

◆Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and

minimal sets.

● A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound

in the same position.

●Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one

segment in the same position.

◆The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented

by the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.

◆Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English.

However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features.

Therefore, they are separate phonemes.

?Complementary distribution – allophones

◆Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be in

complementary distribution.

◆If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of

features, they are allophones of the same phoneme.

?Free variation

◆If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does

not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.

●Distinctive and non-distinctive features

?Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features

do not, non-distinctive features.

?Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.

●Phonological rules

?Phonemes are abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones are

the actual pronunciations in speech.

?What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context is

another major question in phonology.

?The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context are

generalized and stated in phonology as rules.

?There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following o nes as

examples.

●[+voiced +consonant] – [-voiced]/[-voiced +consonant]_

●[-voiced +bilabial +stop] – unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_

●Syllable structure

? A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.

?Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.

?The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset

and followed by one or more consonants called the coda.

●Sequence of phonemes

?Native speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be put

together.

?Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences are

called systematic gaps.

?Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps.

?When new words are coined, they may fill some accidental gaps but they

will never fill systematic gaps.

●Suprasegmental features

?Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more

segments are called suprasegmental features.

?These features are distinctive features.

?Stress

◆Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over

others in a word.

◆Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more

syllables have stress.

◆If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a

secondary stress.

◆In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In

English, word stress is unpredictable.

?Intonation

◆When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.

◆Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.

◆The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express

different attitude of the speaker.

◆In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.

?Tone

◆Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.

◆The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with

different tones.

◆Chinese is a typical tone language.

Chapter 4 Morphology

●What is morphology?

?The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.

?Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with

meaning.

?Morphology is defined as t he study of the internal structure and the

formation of words.

●Morphemes and allomorphs

?The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.

? A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.

?“zero” form of a morpheme and suppletives

◆Some countable nouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly,

some regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In these

two cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among which

there is one “zero form” of a morpheme.

◆Some verbs have irregular changes when they are in past tense. In this

case, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not related

in form to indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are called

suppletives.

●Free and bound morphemes

?Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are

called free morphemes.

?Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They

are always attached to free morphemes to form new words. These

morphemes are called bound morphemes.

?The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is

whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.

?Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the

affixes (prefixes and suffixes).

●Inflexional and derivational morphemes

?Inflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of

nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.

?Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to

construct new words.

◆English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.

◆Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into

other morphemes.

◆The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is

called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.

●Conclusion: classification of morphemes

?Morphemes

◆Free morphemes

◆Bound morphemes

●Inflexional

●Derivational: affixes

?Prefixes: -s, -’s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -s

?Suffixes

●Formation of new words

?Derivation

◆Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.

◆Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a

derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to

the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness,

unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free

morpheme is termed complex derivation.

◆Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category.

Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a different

language origin.

◆Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.

◆Some English suffixes also change the word stress.

?Compounding

◆Compounding is another common way to form words. It is the

combination of free morphemes.

◆The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from

the three classes –nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three

classes.

◆In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of

the word.

◆The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the

components.

?Conversion

◆Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into

another class.

◆Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.

?Clipping

◆Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one

or more syllables.

◆Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal

occasions.

◆Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in

formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian),

gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax (facsimile)are rarely

used in their complete form.

?Blending

◆Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together

non-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog(smoke +

frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfast

and lunch), motel(motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in

the textbook for junior middle school students –“plike” (a kind of

machine that is like both a plane and a bike).

?Back-formation

◆Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real

or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from

television. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix

tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix

–sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the

word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.

?Acronyms and abbreviations

◆Acronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initial

letters of all words in a phrase or title.

◆Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than

abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.

◆This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and

scientific terminology.

?Eponyms

◆Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or

places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating

from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices

of bread so that he could eat while gambling.

?Coinage

◆Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing

morphemes.

◆This way of word formation is especially common in cases where

industry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak and

Coca-cola.

?For more detailed explanation to the ways of word formation, see my notes

of Practical English Grammar.

Chapter 5 Syntax

●What is syntax?

?The term syntax is from the ancient Greek word syntaxis, which literally

means “arrangement” or “setting out together”.

?Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in

which words, with or without appropriate inflexions, are arranged to show

connexions of meaning within the sentence.

?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that analyzes the structure of sentences.

●What is a sentence?

?Syntax is the analysis of sentence structure. A sentence is a sequence of

words arranged in a certain order in accordance with grammatical rules.

? A sequence can be either well-formed or ill-formed. Native speakers of a

language know intuitively what strings of words are grammatical and what

are ungrammatical.

●Knowledge of sentence structure

?Structural ambiguity

◆Structural ambiguity is one or more string(s) of words has/have more

than one meaning. For example, the sentence Tom said he would come

yesterday can be interpreted in different ways.

?Word order

◆Different arrangements of the same words have different meanings. For

example, with the words Tom, love and Mary, we may say Tom loves

Mary or Mary loves Tom.

?Grammatical relations

◆Native speakers know what element relates to what other element

directly or indirectly. For example, in The boats are not big enough and

We don’t have enough boats, the word enough is related to different

words in the two sentences.

?Recursion

◆The same rule can be used repeatedly to create infinite sentences. For

example, I know that you are happy. He knows that I know that you are

happy. She knows that he knows that I know that you are happy.

?Sentence relatedness

◆Sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related.

?Syntactic categories

◆ A syntactic category is a class of words or phrases that can substitute for

one another without loss of grammaticality. For example, consider the

following sentences:

●The child found the knife.

● A policeman found the knife.

●The man who just left here found the knife.

●He found the knife.

◆All the italicized parts belong to the same syntactic category called noun

phrase (NP). The noun phrases in these sentences function as subject.

The knife, also a noun phrase, functions as object.

●Traditional grammar

?In traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words which

are classified into parts of speech.

?Sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects,

objects, verbs (predicates), predicatives, …

?Compulsory elements of a sentence: subject, verb, object, complement,

adverbial…

?Nouns: number, case, gender…

?V erbs: tense, aspect, voice…

?Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and superlative degrees

?Agreement in number/person/gender

?Parsing: trying to make detailed analysis in structure

●Structural grammar

?Structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditional

grammar. It deals with the inter-relationships of different grammatical units.

In the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independent

grammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.

?Form class

◆Form class is a wider concept than part of speech in traditional grammar.

◆Linguistic units which can appear in the same slot are said to be in the

same form class. For example, a(n), the, my, that, every,etc. can be

placed before nouns in English sentences. These words fall into one

form class.

◆These linguistic units are observed to have the same distribution.

?Immediate constituent (IC) analysis

◆Structural grammar is characterized by a top-down process of analysis.

◆ A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the components of the

sentences are its constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections. Each

section is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cut

into constituents. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituent

analysis.

◆Examples:

●Old men and women: old | men and women, old || men | and women

●The ||| little || girl | speaks || French.

◆In this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but also

vertically. In other words, IC analysis can account for the linearity and

the hierarchy of sentence structure.

●I will suggest | that this || in itself reflects ||| a particular ideology

|||| about gender ||||| that deserves to be re-examined.

◆Two advantages of IC analysis:

●It can analyze some ambiguities.

●It shows linearity and hierarchy of one sentence.

●Transformational-generative (TG) grammar

?Background and the goal of TG grammar

◆Chomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.

●Adequacy of observation

●Adequacy of description

●Adequacy of explanation

◆Writing a TG grammar means working out two sets of rules –phrase

structure rules and transformation rules –which are followed by

speakers of the language.

◆TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences.

?Syntactic categories

◆Noun Phrase (NP)

◆V erb Phrase (VP)

◆Sentence (S)

◆Determiner (Det)

◆Adjective (Adj)

◆Pronoun (Pro)

◆V erb (V)

◆Auxiliary V erb (Aux)

◆Prepositional Phrase (PP)

◆Adverb (Adv)

?Phrase structure (PS) rules

◆S → NP VP

(Det) (Adj) N

◆NP →{

Pro

◆VP → (Aux) V (NP) (PP)

◆PP → P NP

?Tree diagrams (omit)

?Recursion and the infinitude of language

◆S contains NP and VP and that S may be a constituent of NP and VP. NP

and PP can be mutually inclusive. If phrasal categories appear on both

sides of the arrow in phrase structure rules, the rules are recursive.

Recursive rules can be applied again and again, and the phrase structure

can grow endlessly.

?Sub-categorization of the lexicon.

◆The process of putting words of the same lexical category into smaller

classes according to their syntactic characteristics is called

sub-categorization.

?Transformational rules (T-rules)

◆Particle movement T-rule

●John turned the machine off. John turned off the machine.

◆Replacement T-rule

●John beat Tom. He beat Tom.

●The house needs repairing (to be repaired).

◆Insertion T-rule

● A fish is swimming in the pond. There is a fish swimming in the

pond.

◆Deletion T-rule

●They came in and (they) sat down.

◆Copying T-rule

●He is coming, isn’t he?

●He has finished his homework, hasn’t he?

◆Reflexivization T-rule

●I wash me (myself).

?TG grammar accounts for the mental process of our speaking.

●Systematic-functional grammar

?Background and the goal of systemic-functional grammar

◆M. A. K. Halliday

●Language is a system of meaning potential and a network of

meaning as choices.

●Meaning determines form, not vice versa. Meaning is realized

through forms.

●The goal of systemic-functional grammar is to see how function and

meaning are realized through forms.

●The three meta-functions of language

?Ideational function

?Interpersonal function

?Textual function

?The transitivity system of language

◆Elements

●Process

●Participants

●Circumstances

◆Categorization of reality

●Doing – material process

?Processes involving physical actions: walking, running,

throwing, kicking, wrapping, etc.

?Actor, goal and circumstance

●Being – relational process

?Processes representing a relation being set up between two

separate entities.

?Be (identifying), have (attributive)

?Carrier/possessor and attribute/possessed

●Sensing – mental process

?Processes of sensing, including feeling, thinking, perceiving,

imagining, wanting, liking, etc.

?Senser and phenomenon

●Less central types of linguistic process

?V erbal processes – saying something

◆Sayer and receiver

?Behavioural processes – active conscious processes

◆Behaver and range

?Existential processes – existence of an entity

◆Existent

?Mood and modality

◆Mood expresses the speaker’s attitude and serves for interpersonal

function. It is a syntactic constituent made up of the subject and the

finite.

◆Modality is the degree of certainty or frequency expressed by the

grammatical forms of finite. It can be categorized by modalization and

modulation.

?Theme and rheme

◆Theme is the given information, while rheme is the new information.

◆Examples:

●John | is my friend.

●He | should have replied to my letter.

Chapter 6 Semantics

●What is semantics?

?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only

linguistic discipline that studies meaning.

?Semantics a nswers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other

words, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out

of context.

●Reference and sense

?Linguistic expressions stand in a relation to the world. There are two aspects

of meaning.

?Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in

the world. But the referential theory fails to account for certain kinds of

linguistic expression.

◆Some words are meaningful, but they identify no entities in the real

world, such as the words dragon, phoenix, unicorn, and mermaid.

◆It is not possible for some words to find referent in the world, such as

the words but, and, of, however, the, etc.

◆Speakers of English understand the meaning of a round triangle

although there is no such graph.

?Sense is the relation by which words stand in human mind. It is mental

representation, the association with something in the speaker’s or hearer’s

mind. The study of meaning from the perspective of sense is called the

representational approach.

●Classification of lexical meanings

?Referential meaning (denotative meaning) – central meaning of words, stable,

universal

?Associative meaning –meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less

stable, more culture-specific

◆Connotative meaning –the communicative value an expression has by

virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent,

peripheral

◆Social meaning (stylistic meaning) – what is conveyed about the social

circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression

华南师范大学语言学概论作业答案

1.第6题 下列文字中,属于表音文字的是() A.纳西族东巴文 B.汉字 C.俄文 D.古埃及圣书字 您的答案:c 题目分数:2.0 此題得分:2.0 2.第14题 下列属于常见语义角色的是() A.施事 B.主语 C.宾语 D.介词短语 您的答案:A 题目分数:2.0 此题得分:2.0 3.第15题 开口度越大,元音的舌位就越() A.前 B.闭. C.高 D.低

您的答案:D 题目分数:2.0

4?第16题 [i]是一个() A.舌面元音 B.舌尖元音 C.卷舌兀音 D.舌根元音您的答案:A 题目分数:2.0 此题得分:2.0 5?第17题下列属于形声字的是() A?玻、家 B.济、好. C.闻、汗 D.美、机您的答案:c 题目分数:2.0 此题得分:2.0 6?第19题 [u是一个()元音。 A.前、高、圆唇元音 B.后、高、圆唇元音 C.前、高、圆唇元音 D.后、低、圆唇兀音您的答案:B 题目分数:2.0 7.第24题 不同的民族语言,语音系统是有差别的,这说明语音具有()

A.生理属性 B.社会属性 C.个人属性 D.自然属性 您的答案:B 题目分数:2.0 此題得分:2.0 &第25题 “他读书”中的"书”和"我看报”中的“报”之间的关系为() A.组合关系 B.聚合关系 C.线性关系 D.语义关系您的答案:B 题目分数:2.0 此趣得分:2.0 9 .第26题壮语属于() A.印欧语系 B.汉藏语系 C.阿尔泰语系 D.闪含语系

您的答案:B 题目分数:2.0 此题得分:2.0 10.第27题 [b]是一个() A.双唇浊音 B.双唇清音 C.双唇鼻音 D.轻唇擦音 您的答案:A 题目分数:2.0 此题得分:2.0 11.第31题 以声音的高低来区别意义的语言单位叫() A.重位 B.时位 C.调位 D.音质音位 您的答案:c 题目分数:2.0 此.题得分:2.0 12.第32题 语序是一种() A.句法畴 B.语法畴

语言学概论复习要点

合作原则—— 基本点:交际双方为使交际能够顺利下去,双方必须合作。 具体内容由美国语言学家格赖斯提出,其认为交际双方的合作,必须遵循四项准则: (1)量的准则:所说的话提供的信息要与交际的目的相适应,不超出不少于交际目的需要(2)质的准则:所说的话是真实的 (3)相关准则:所说的话同对方的话题相关联 (4)方式准则:说话简明清楚 问多答少、言语晦涩、含混啰嗦等都不利于交际的进行。 变异概说—— 任何一种语言都不是绝对划一的统一体,语言随着时间、地点和环境的改变而变化,处于一种缓变的状态中。 语言在共时层面的差异称为语言的差异。 语言的变异受到三种情况的影响: (1)说话者的地区背景和社会背景(母语、教育程度、职业等) (2)产生言语行为的实际情景,需要采取什么言语表达方式和超语言特征 (3)谈论的话题是什么 语言的变异分为三类: (1)地域变异:形成地域方言,即属于某一地域的群体使用的语言 (2社会变异:指不同社会地位、职业、行帮、种族、性别的区别在语言使用上产生的差异(3)功能变异:指说话人为了某一目的使受话人受到影响、产生反应而使用的言语方式 地域变异—— 语言的地域变异表现为地域方言,包括次方言,与之相对的有共同语和规范语言。 (方言—次方言—土语) 方言变异的表现(主要表现在语音和词汇上) 1、语音方面 闽方言、粤方言的变异较大,吴方言次之,客家方言、赣方言、湘方言又次之。 2、词汇方面 主要表现为同一意义用不同词语表现。 3、语法方面 主要表现在词序、虚词方面。粤方言中这种双音节词中修饰性词素位于被修饰性词素之后,是语法上的一个特点。例如:客人—人客、干菜—菜干 方言的形成与发展 汉语言发源地:黄河流域。秦汉以前,楚国南迁,吴方言、湘方言可能在东南部地区形成方言的形成除了由于移民、山川阻隔、政治经济的原因外,与异民族语言的接触和土著语言的混合也有一定的关系。 语言的分化和产生变异的程度,通常取决于共同语对方言的约束力。 方言发展的前途: 1、在社会封闭,甚至分裂的情况下,共同约束力减弱,语言分化的结果导致差别扩大,有可能形成独立的语言。 2、继续保持已有的地域差异状态,在地域范围内,优势扩大或者缩小自己的覆盖范围。 3、由于共同语的强大影响、社会的统一和发展,方言的使用范围逐渐缩小,或者方言本身逐渐向共同语靠拢。

英语语言学名词

现代语言学 一绪论 1 Linguisitics: 语言学Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: 语音学The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants 元音、辅音、声调、重音以及节奏、音变 3 Phonology: 音韵学The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. For example, phone, phoneme, and allophone. 4 Morphology: 形态学The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. For example, boy and “ish”---boyish, teach---teacher. 5 Syntax: 句法学The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. For example, ”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: 语义学The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example: “The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried. The seal could not be found, The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 同义词、反义词,同音词 7 Pragmatics: 语用学The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. For example, “I do” The word do means different context.在特定情景中的特定话语,研究如何通过语境来理解和使用语言。 8 Sociolinguistics: 社会语言The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. For example:regional dialects, social variation in language.

语言学概论重点总结

语言学概论重点总结 一、名词解释(4*6=24) 1、孤立语:孤立语又称词根语,其特点是缺乏形态变化,语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示,汉语就是一种比较典型的孤立语。例如,“我喜欢他”中的“我”是主语,“他”是宾语,主要取决于词序。又如,“买菜”是述宾结构,“买的菜”是偏正结构,主要取决于虚词。汉语缺乏严格意义上的形态变化,一个名词性词语无论是充当句子的主语还是宾语,词性都不曾发生变化。除了汉语外,属孤立语的还有越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等。 2、屈折语:屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。屈折可以分为内部屈折和外部屈折。内部屈折指通过词的语音交替(改变部分语音)来构成不同的语法形式,表示不同的语法意义;如阿拉伯语以固定的辅音框架表示语汇意义,以元音交替表示不同的语法意义。 外部屈折指通过附加词缀的方式表示不同的语法意义。例如英语的book(书,单数)在后面加上词缀-s,就表示复数意义books(书,复数)。 屈折语的一个构型词缀可以同时表示几种语法意义,例如英语的-s在动词后面表示第三人称、单数、现在时、主动语态,如works. 同样的语法意义,在不同的词里也可以用不同的词缀来表示,如俄语中性名词单数主格的词尾有-o(如neop钢笔),-e(noπe田地)。 屈折语的词根和构型词缀结合得很紧,如果去掉构型词缀,词根往往就不能成词,如俄语nepo去掉词尾-o,nep-就不能独立使用。 印欧语系各语言以及阿拉伯语等,一般都属于屈折语,其中俄语和德语是最典型的屈折语。 3、音位:是某种语言中能区别语素或词的语音形式的最小语音单位,是依据语音的社会属性划分出来的语音类别。 音位本身并不含有任何意义。音位只有在和别的音位组合成高一层级的单位后才能负载意义。如单个的/k/和/ae/或/t/是没有什么意义的,但是他们组合成了[caet](cat)之后就有了“猫”的意义。因此,音位只有区别音形进而区别意义的作用,而没有表达意义的作用。 音位分析的目的是要把语言里数目繁多的语言归纳为数目有限的一套音位系统,分析音位的三基本原则是:对立、互补、语音相似。 音位可以分为音质音位和非音质音位两大类。一般把音素的音质角度分析归并出来的音位叫音质音位,因为它占有一个时段,所以又叫音段音位。除了音质以外,音高、音强、音长这些非音质形式也能区别词的语音形式,由这些韵律(音律)形式构成的音位叫非音质音位。又叫超音段音位。包括调位、重位、时位。 调位:主要由音高特征构成的音位叫调位,又叫声调。调位是汉藏语系诸语言中区别词的语言形式的重要手段之一。 重位:主要由音强特征构成的音位叫重位。重音在英语、俄语中是区别词的语音形式和词义的重要手段。构成重位的非音质特征是综合的。 时位:由音长特征构成的音位叫时位。长短音的区别主要表现在元音上,如广东话和许多少数民族语言里,时位都有区别词的语音形式和意义的作用。 4、语流音变就是指在连续的语流中某些语音成分受前后语音环境的影响而发生变化的现象。有时说话人由于种种原因调整语音的快慢、高低、强弱,也会造成语音的某种变化。

语言学专业英语词汇

英语专业八级语言学总结来源:谢萌Fighting的日志 一、语言和语言学 1、语言的区别性特征:Design of features of language 任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系 二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成 创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造 移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点 2、语言的功能(不是很重要) 信息功能informative 人际功能interpersonal 施为功能performative 感情功能emotive function 寒暄功能phatic communication 娱乐功能recreational function 元语言功能metalingual function 3、语言学主要分支 语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程,考查人类语言中的声音 音位学phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列 形态学morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则 句法学syntax 研究句子结构,词、短语组合的规则 语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义,还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。如语素和句子的意义 语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义 4、宏观语言学macrolingustics 心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学anthropological li nguistics 计算机语言学computational linguistics 5语言学中的重要区别 规定式和描写式:规定式:prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的 描写式:descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的 共时研究和历时研究:共时:synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言 历时:diachronic 研究语言发展规律 语言和言语:语言:langue指语言系统的整体 言语:parole指具体实际运用的语言 语言能力和语言运用:乔姆斯基(chomsky提出) 能力:competence用语言的人的语言知识储备 运用:performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用 二、语音学 1、语音学分支 发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生 声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性 听觉语音学auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知 2 IPA(国际音标)是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的 三、音位学

语言学概论试题及答案(三)

语言学概论试题及答案(三) 一、名词解释 1、历时语言学——就各种语言的历史事实用比较的方法去研究它的“亲属”关系和历史发展的,叫历时语言学。 2、语言——语言是一种社会现象,是人类最重要的交际工具和进行思维的工具。就语言本身的结构来说,语言是由词汇和语法构成的系统。 3、符号——符号是用来代表事物的一种形式,词这样的符号是声音和意义相结合的统一体。任何符号都是由声音和意义两方面构成的。 4、语言的二层性——语言是一种分层装置,其底层是一套音位;上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列,这一层又分为若干级,第一级是语素,第二级是由语素构成的词,第三级是由词构成的句子。 5、社会现象——语言是一种社会现象和人类社会有紧密的联系。所谓“社会”,就是指生活在一个共同的地域中,说同一种语言,有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。语言对于社会全体成员来说是统一的、共同的;另一方面,语言在人们的使用中能够有不一样的变异、不一样的风格。 二、填空 1、结构主义语言学包括布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描述语言学三个学派。 2、历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的,它是语言学

走上独立发展道路的标志。 3、人的大脑分左右两半球,大脑的左半球控制语言活动,右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。 4、一个符号,如果没有意义,就失去了存在的必要,如果没有声音,我们就无法感知,符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。 5、用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义,完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员约定俗成。 6、语言符号具有任意性和线条性特点。 7、语言的底层是一套音位,上层是符号和符号的序列,能够分为若干级,第一级是语素,第二级是词,第三级是句子。 8、语言系统中的所有符号,既能够同别的符号组合,又能够被别的符号替换,符号之间的这两种关系是组合和聚合。 9、组合是指符号与符号相互之间在功能上的联系,聚合是指符号在性质上的归类。 三、确定正误(正确的打钩,错误的打叉) 1、文字是人类最重要的交际工具。(×) 2、地主阶级和农民阶级之间没有共同语言,这说明语言是有阶级性的。(×) 3、在现代社会,文字比语言更加重要。(×) 4、现代社会,沟通的方式很多,语言的重要性日渐削弱。(×) 5、语言是思维的工具,没有语言,人类就无法思维。(√) 6、语言和思维互相依存,共同发展。(√)

西南大学 语言学概论 作业答案

语言学概论 1:[单选题]1、汉语拼音方案中21个声母之间的关系是()。A:聚合关系 2:[单选题]2、按照语言间的亲属关系对语言进行分类,称之为语言的( )。D:谱系分类3:[单选题]3、英语foot的复数变为feet,所采用的语法手段是( )。D:内部曲折D 4:[单选题]4、"笔”"钢笔”在词义上的关系是()。C:上下义关系参考答案:C 5:[单选题]5、下列各组中全属于复合词的一组是()。 D:道路、材料、(英)classroom参考答案:D 6:[多选题]6、汉语"紧张”和"松弛”的词义() A:是对立关系D:既有反义又有同义的因素参考答案:AD 7:[多选题]7、元音音质的不同取决于() A:开口度的大小C:舌位的前后D:嘴唇的圆展参考答案:ACD 8:[多选题]8、下列说法错误的有() B:语法发展中的类推作用是无限的,可推而广之,无一例外。 C:古代汉语中的浊塞音声母在现代汉语中已经消失了 E:词语的替换全部取决于语言系统内部的原因参考答案:BCE 9:[判断题]9、[a]、[A]、[?]是汉语普通话中同一音位的三个自由变体。参考答案:错误10:[判断题]10、汉字与汉语的音节是对应的,一个字记录一个音节,一个音节只用一个汉字记录。参考答案:错误 1:[判断题]10、渐变性和不平衡性是语言发展的两大特点参考答案:正确 2:[判断题]9、听觉语音学是从生理属性方面去研究语音的参考答案:错误 3:[多选题]8、世界上独立形成的古老的文字体系有() B:中美洲的马雅文D:古埃及的圣书字E:汉字参考答案:BDE 4:[多选题]7、"鸡”、"几”两个字的日译汉音分别是kei和ki。从中可以看出() D:两个字原来的声母跟普通话不同E:古代借词对研究语音发展有价值参考答案:DE 5:[多选题]6、现代汉语中"老师”和"老人”中的"老”是()A:都是语素D:是不同的语素6:[单选题]5、重庆话和上海话的差异,主要体现在()A:语音 7:[单选题]4、"洋泾浜”()B:没有人把它作为母语来学习 8:[单选题]3、"拖拉机”一词是()A:意译词 9:[单选题]2、《庄子》里"匠石运斤成风”中的"匠石”,现代汉语说"名叫做石的工匠”。这个差别所反映的汉语语法发展事实属于()A:组合规则的发展 10:[单选题]1、汉语中"北平→北京”、"德律风→电话”,产生词语替换的原因是() D:前者是社会因素,后者是语言系统内部因素 1:[判断题]10、古代汉语的"龟、蝇”今天变成"乌龟、苍蝇”,这是词语替换。正确 2:[判断题]9、语言系统是由不同层级构成的,低一级的单位少,组成高一级的单位后数量翻番增加。参考答案:正确 3:[多选题]8、孤立语的主要特点是()C:词序很严格E:虚词的作用很重要 4:[多选题]7、书面语和口语() B:基本上是一致的D:是一种语言的不同风格变异E:可以互相转化参考答案:BDE 5:[多选题]6、"读书”、"写字”、"打乒乓”中的"书、字、乒乓”() A:之间的关系是聚合关系D:语法意义相同参考答案:AD 6:[单选题]5、下列语句没有歧义的一项是( )。C:四两棉花——纺(访)一纺(访)。7:[单选题]4、中古英语中的"wifeman(妇女)”由"wife(女人)”和"man(人)”构成,是个复合词。后来这个词中的"wife”由发音上的原因演变为"wo”,现代英语中的"woman(妇女)”成为一个词了。这是()。D:语音的变化引起了词的结构的变化

汉语言文学语言学概论复习要点

《语言学概论》复习要点 重点名词概念:语言学、普通语言学、专语语言学、共时语言学、历时语言学 一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务 二、语言学在科学体系中的地位 三、语言学的基本类别 根据研究的对象的不同,语言学分为共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学。 四、语言学流派 各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可,注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派(也称美国描写语言学)都属于结构主义学派,是这一学派的三个分支。关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述,不作考试要求。 第一章言语的社会功能 本章须明确两个大的要点:语言的社会功能,即交际工具和思维工具;语言是一种社会现象。 主要名词概念:语言、社会、社会现象 第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具 一、语言是人类社会的交际工具 1.语言的交际功能:语言是人类区别于其它动物的一个重要标志。语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带,是社会成员互相之间交际和交流思想的工具,也是协调社会成员行动一致的工具。 2.语言是一种社会现象:语言是一种社会现象,和人类社会有着十分紧密的联系,没有人类社会,就没有语言,人类社会以外的社会无所谓语言。所谓社会现象是指那些与人类共同体的产生、存在和发展等活动密切联系的现象。不同的民族有不同的语言,不同的地域有不同的语言,同时社会的变化也给语言以极大的影响,而离开了人类社会,就无所谓语言可言了。总之,语言就是一种社会现象,同社会的关系非常密切,其产生、发展等都要受到社会的影响。 语言不是自然现象,一方面,语言同社会有着十分紧密的联系,社会的发展变化直接影响着语言的发展变化,也就是说,语言的发展变化是受制于社会的;另一方面,从语言的音义联系看语言不是自然现象,而是社会约定俗成的,没有必然的本质的联系,如果语言是自然现象,世界上的语言应该一样的,没有区别的,而实际上世界上的语言多种多样,而且许多语言中还有方言,这说明语言决不是自然现象。 3.语言是一种特殊的社会现象:语言不但是社会现象,而且是一种特殊的社会现象。语言作为社会现象的特殊性主要表现在,社会现象可分为经济基础和上层建筑两大类,任何一种社会现象,要么属于经济基础,要么属于上层建筑,而语言既不属于经济基础,也不属于上层建筑,这两者的变化都不会从本质上影响语言。所以,从本质上看,语言是人类共同的交际工具,不分阶级、阶层,一视同仁地为全社会的成员服务,没有阶级性,具有全民性特点。4.语言没有阶级性:可从这样几个方面思考,首先是看语言工具的服务对象,是为特定的阶级服务还是为大众服务。其次是结合语言自身的结构考察,观察语言在哪一方面体现了阶级性特征没有。再次是看语言产生的社会环境,语言产生于没有阶级的社会,社会上连阶级都没有,语言作为社会的产物更谈不上有阶级性了。 二、语言是人类最重要的交际工具 人类传递信息,进行交际和交流思想,除了使用语言外,还可以使用文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号以及身势、表情等,在一定场合使用,可以弥补语言的一些不足,但是这些交际工具使用范围有限,有的仅用于特定的范围,最重要的是,这些交际工具,都离不开语言,都是在语言的基础上产生的,是辅助语言进行交际的,没有语言,这些手段的存在没有任何意义。 一般掌握:语言和说话的关系 第二节语言是思维的工具 一、语言和思维的关系 语言不但是人类的交际工具,同时也是人类思维的工具,是认识成果的贮存所。思维过程离不开语言,需要借助语言来进行比较、分析、综合等一系列活动,需要借助语言来形成思想,利用语言把它储存在头脑中,再借助语言把思想表达出来,传达给听话人,同时使听话人产生思想。而且人类思维的成果-概念,还可以通过词语固定下来。总之,思维活动的过程不可能离开语言而单独进行,思维离不开语言,必须借助语言材料才能进行。语言也离不开思维,二者是互相依存,共同发展的。 二、思维能力是全人类共同的,语言是各民族不同 思维能力没有民族性,全人类都有,但不同民族的思维方式是不同的,有差别的,这从不同民族的语言的差异方面可以看出来。不同的语言之间很少有意义、功能、色彩等都完全对应等同的词语。第二章语言是符号系统 本章要注意语言是符号、语言符号的任意性特点、语言的层级体系三大要点。 主要名词概念:符号、语言符号、任意性、线条性、二层性、组合关系、聚合关系 第一节语言符号的性质和特点 一、什么是符号 1.符号的含义:符号就是由一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记,包括形式和意义两个方面,其作用是指称现实现象。2.符号的构成:符号是由形式和意义两个部分构成的结合体。形式就是符号外在的形状、结构,它是以某种物质的方式存在的,或者是声音,或者是线条,或者是色彩,等等。意义就是符号所代表的具体内容,任何一个符号,都有一定的意义,形式和意义在一定的符号系统中是密不可分的统一体,不能割裂二者之间的关系。形式和意义互相依存,谁也离不开谁。 二、语言符号及其特点 1.语言符号:从本质上看,语言也是一种符号,也有形式和意义两个方面,具有符号的一切特点。 语言符号又不同于一般符号。可从以下几个方面认识理解,首先,语言符号是声音和意义的结合体,是说的和听的;其次,一般符号的构成比较简单,而语言符号却是非常复杂的,可分不同的层级;再次,一般符号由于构造简单,因而只能表达有限的内容,而且这种内容是简单而固定的,语言符号则可以表达丰富多彩的意义;最后,语言符号具有以少驭多的生成机制,具有生成新的结构

语言学专业词汇

A AcS (actor Subject), ReS (Receptor Subject) and DaS (dative vesubject) P85 Active deposit 活性沉积P393 adaptability制宜原则P39 adjustment 调整P135 AdjMr:Ajective Modifier 定语修饰语P19 Affixing morpheme of fixed position 定位性附加语素P342 Affixation 缀合法P29 All encompassing 无所不包P ix Aphasic 失语症患者P386 ApoP 同位短语式P188 Approximative system 近似体系P58 arbitrariness任意性; selectiveness 选择性P181 Aspect 体(tentative尝试体, inchoative开始体, successive继续体, perfect完成体, progressive 进行体)P114 Autonomy 自主权P53 B backshift后移P370/372 bilingualism 双语学P522 Blending 拼缀法P29 Bottom-up perception自下而上的感知,top-down perception自上而下的感知P493 C Cart Fames1980 对比分析P x circulativeness 周遍性P86 categorization范畴化, grouping 归为类P487 category word 范畴词P418/474/513 cleft sentence 分裂句P230 cognate equivalence同源对应P134/468,词根对应P478 cognitive schema认知图示P386 Cohesion 粘着性P62 Cohesion and coherence接应与连贯P74 Cohesive tie 联结关系接应词,additive 增补连接词,adversative 对比连接词,causal conjunction因果连接词,temporal conjunction 时间连接词P436 Combination (虚词功能)组合P452 Total combination完全结合,formal combination形式结合P464 Common value (语言)共同价值;special value 特征价值P47 Complement 补语P126Composition 合成法P29 Compactness of meaningful morpheme有义语素结合紧密度P299 Compressed predicate 紧缩式谓语P120 Compound (汉语)合成词P443 Conversion 转化法P29 Constant 常数(ie. tertium comparationis中间比较项);variable变数;tertium 中间项P50

语言学概论复习题

《语言学概论》课程练习题 一、填空题 1.索绪尔被称为现代语言学之父,其代表作《》在语言学史上具有十分重要的地位。2.语言是人类社会的,而且也是思维的工具。 3.语言系统中的所有符号,既可以同别的符号组合,又可以被别的符号替换,符号之间的这两种关系是组合关系和。 4.音位变体可分为自由变体和条件变体,例如汉语某些方言中,声母“l”可以无条件地换成“n”,这两个音位属于。 5.语法研究通常以词为界,词以上的规则叫,词以下的规则叫词法。 6.反义词可以分为绝对反义词和相对反义词两类,例如“老年”和“少年”属于。 7.在文字产生以前,人类使用实物和帮助记忆。 8.地域方言的进一步分化就会发展为。 9.词语的借用过程中存在着往返借用的现象,最典型、最大量的还是存在于和汉语之间。10.语法中有齐整划一的趋势和抗拒这种趋势的矛盾,但前者是语法演变中经常起作用的力量,叫做。 11.中国传统语文学中的小学包括、和文字。 12.美国语言学家的《语言论》,奠定了描写主义结构语言学的基础。 13.语言符号的任意性和展示了人类语言的创造性和规则性的矛盾统一。 14.语言符号中最小的音义结合体被称之为。 15.“约定俗成”这个成语出自,是语言观的一种体现。 16.提供语法形式的主要手段有选词、、虚词和词形变化。 17.人们在说话时候,常常把豆腐发音为[touf],这种语流音变现象被称为。 18.和不平衡性是语言发展的两大特点。 19.按照语言的谱系分类,汉语属于语系,德语属于印欧语系中的语族。 20.中古汉语中声母为浊塞音和浊塞擦音的平声字在普通话中声母变为了的清塞音和清塞擦音。21.辅音的音质是由和发音部位所决定的。 22.“北平”现在叫“北京”,这在词汇发展中属于词语的。 23.本世纪初的瑞士语言学家_______是现代语言学的奠基人。 24.语言学的建立,标志着语言学开始走上独立发展的道路。 25.人的大脑分左右两半球,大脑的左半球控制活动,右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。26.任何符号都是由形式和两个方面构成的。 27.构成线性系列的语言成分之间的结构关系叫。 28.从物理属性角度看,语音具有音色、音重、音长和四个要素。 29.汉语某些方言中,声母“l”可以无条件地换成“n”,这两个音位属于变体。 30.语法研究通常以词为界,词以上的规则叫,词以下的规则叫词法。 31.根据语素在词中的不同作用,happinesses中的“happy”是词根,“ness”是,“es”是词

语言学概论考试(B)评分标准与答案

天津师范大学考试 2010—2011 学年第二学期期末考试 《语言学概论》试卷(B 卷)答案及评分标准 一、填空题:(每空0.5 分,本大题共10 分) 1.表意文字表音文字 2.发音时气流是否受阻 3.历史稳定性(稳固性)全民常用性(全民性)构词的能产性(能产性) 4、增添删除(删减) 5.渐变性不平衡性 6.清浊,舌位高舌位低 7.时位调位重位 8.舌位的高低、舌位的前后、唇形的圆展(圆与不圆) 二、名词解释。(每小题 2分,本大题共10 分) 1.语音:2.历史比较语言学:3.条件变体:4.性: 5.方言词: 三、分析题:(本大题共30 分,每小题6分) 1.分析下列句法结构中歧义出现的原因并加以分化(6分) A 爱慕的是小王: 分化:别人爱慕的人是小王;小王爱慕的是别人。 歧义出现的原因是“小王”的施受关系不明。 B 王熙凤也不知道哪儿去了 分化:别人也不知道王熙凤哪儿去了,王熙凤也不知道别人哪儿去了。歧义出现的原因是“王熙凤”的施受关系不明。 C 修了一条乡村公路 分化:把一条(坏了的)乡村公路修好了;修出(成)了一条乡村公路。

歧义出现的原因是“路”到底是表示结果还是表示受事关系不明。 D 这个灯笼挂了一天了 分化:这个灯笼已经挂上去了,挂上去的时间是一天。这个灯笼挂了一天了还没有挂上去。 歧义出现的原因是动词“挂”既有“持续”的语义特征,又有“完成”的语义特征。 2.用严式国际音标给下列汉字注音(6分) 春眠不觉晓花落知多少答案略 3.分析下列各词的结构类型,并指出各语素的性质:(6分) 学员:附加式(派生词);词根+后缀。 烟头儿:附加式(派生词);词根+词根+后缀。 秋千:单纯词;双声词。 Returns:附加式;词干+词尾。 blackboard:复合词;词根+词根。 抗菌素:复合词;前缀+词根+词根。 4.下列语言属于不同的语系,试将它们进行分类(6分) 印欧语系:西班牙语、波兰语、印地语、德语、意大利语; 阿尔泰语系:哈萨克语、满语、蒙古语; 南岛语系:高山语; 南亚语系:佧瓦语; 闪——含语系:阿拉伯语 汉藏语系:苗语。 评分标准:错一项扣一分。 5.用语音术语描述下列辅音(6分) (1)[v] 唇齿浊擦音。 (2)[L] 舌尖中浊边音。 (3)[ts] 舌尖前不送气清塞擦音。 (4)[p h] 双唇送气清塞音。 (5)[x] 舌面后(舌根)清擦音。 (6)[z] 舌尖前浊擦音。 四、简答题:(每小题10 分,本大题共30 分)

语言学概论知识点2017

语言学概论知识点 名词解释: 语言:语言是以语音为物质外壳、以词汇为建筑材料、以语法为结构规律而构成的体系。言语:是对语言的具体运用,包括说话的行为和结果。 语言的任意性:构成符号的声音和意义之间没有内在的、必然的联系。 语言的离散性:语言可以进行切分,被切分成的每个单位有独立的存在,彼此不相互混淆,但又可以灵活组装。 符号:是人们有意识用来指代某种特定事物的、可为人们感官感知的标记。 狭义符号:符号的“能指”(物质外壳)和“所指”(意义) 语言符号:语言是以语音为能指,以语义为所指的符号系统。具有:任意性、线条性、系统性、层次性的特点。聚合关系和组合关系是语言中最基本的两种关系。 组合关系:组合关系就是两个以上连续的语言符号有条件、按规则组合起来的关系。简单地说,就是符号与符号相互组合起来的关系 聚合关系:聚合关系就是语言结构某一位置上能互相替换、具有相同性质和作用的语言符号之间的类聚关系。简单说就是符号与符号之间的替换关系。 语音:语音是人类发音器官发出的有一定意义的声音,是语言的物质外壳(表现形式)。它使语言成分物质化,是语言的载体。 音素:音素是人类语言在一次发音中按照音色的不同划分出来的最小语音单位。 元音:元音也叫“母音”,发音时气流自由呼出,不受任何阻碍,发音器官各部分肌肉紧张均衡,声带振动、可以自成音节。 辅音:辅音又叫“子音”。发音时气流在发音器官某一部分受到阻碍,通过某种方式冲破阻碍而发出音来,发音器官各部分呈紧张状态,声带有时颤动(浊辅音)有时不颤动(清辅音)。音标:广义的音标指一切标记语音的符号,如国际音标、音位音标、音节音标、语音结构音标,狭义的音标指标记音素的音标→最通行的是“国际音标”【专门用来记录语音的符号】国际音标:被各国语言工作者采用的,不带民族特色的记录语音的语音符号。 音位:音位是具体语言或方言在多次发音中划分出来的具有辨义功能的最小语音单位 超音质音位:根据音高、音强、音长的特征归纳出来的功能差别单位。超音质音位主要指调位、时位、量位。超音质音位不局限于一个音的音位,常附在音段音位的序列上面,所以又叫做超音段音位。 音位变体:是同一个音位的不同变异形式,属于同一音位但却没有变异的作用,是音位在特定语音环境中的具体体现或代表。 (条件变体自由变体):【1】条件变体是只能出现在某种特定语音环境中的音位变体,它是一个音位在不同环境中受不同条件影响而产生的。 【2】自由变体指自由变体指能自由地出现在某种相同的语音环境中的音位变体。它不受条件地限制,可以随意地、自由地替换,不区别意义。 语流音变:特定语流中的音由于受邻音的影响,或者由于说话时快慢、高低、强弱的不同,或者由于所处的位置特殊,都会发生不同程度的变化,这就是语流音变,也叫连读音变。大多数情况下,语流音变都发生在音位范围内条件变体的替换。 语调:是一种普遍的语言现象。声调是属于音节的,但是句子也可以有高低抑扬轻重的变化,这就是语调。狭义的语调又叫句调,指全句高低升降的变化,他表达说话人的情绪要求等

语言学专业英语术语总表(chinese-english)龚

Chinese by Jerry Norman 龚群虎 Page number, Chinese, English 1 0 2 共时synchronic 3 历时diachronic 4 linguist 语言学家 5 汉语研究Chinese studies 6 调号tone mark 7 1-1 8 甲骨文oracle bone inscription/script 9 古汉语Classical Chinese 10 中古汉语Middle Chinese 11 早期白话Early Vernacular Chinese 12 上海方言Shanghai dialect 13 书面语言written language 14 口头语言spoken language 15 文化连续性cultural continuity 16 汉语方言Chinese dialects 17 北京话Peking dialect 18 广州话Cantonese 19 文言文Literary Chinese 20 方言学家dialectologist 21 金文bronze inscription/script 22 孔子Confucius 23 孟子Mencius 24 方言描写dialect description 25 高本汉(人名)Bernhard Karlgren 26 中古汉语(高本汉)Ancient Chinese 27 赵元任(人名)Yuen Ren Chao 28 吴语Wu dialects 29 方言调查dialect survey/fieldwork 30 共通语koine 31 现代汉语Modern Chinese 32 方言dialect 33 1-2 34 (汉语)周边语言neighboring languages 35 阿尔泰语系Altaic language family 36 突厥语言Turkic languages 37 蒙古语言Mongolian languages 38 通古斯语言Tungusic languages 39 日语Japanese

语言学概论第四章

第四章语法 三、分析题 1、用层次分析法分析下列句法结构。 (1)夕阳把远山照得通红 主语谓语 状语中心语 介宾述补 (2)热爱人民的周总理 1)热爱人民的周总理 动宾 定中 2)热爱人民的周总理 定中 动宾 2、变换下列句子,使其具有句法同义关系。 (1)我打破了杯子。 1)我打破了杯子。——我把杯子打破了。——杯子被我打破了。——杯子我打破了。——杯子我把它打破了。——我打破的是杯子。——杯子是我打破的。…… 2)我打破了杯子。——我没有打破杯子。 3)我打破了杯子。——我打破了杯子了么? (2)我们找到了小王。 1)我们找到了小王。——小王我们找到了。——小王被我们找到了。——我们把小王找到了。——小王是我们找到的。——我们找到的是小王。—2)我们找到了小王。——我们没有找到小王。

3)我们找到了小王。——我们找到了小王了? 3、用变换方法区分下列句法多义的句子。 (1)关心的是他母亲。 ——被关心的人是他母亲 ——关心人的是他母亲 (2)虚构故事吓坏人 ——虚构故事把人吓坏了 ——虚构的故事用来吓唬坏人 (3)咬死猎人的狗 ——狗咬死了猎人 ——猎人的狗被咬死了 (4)鸡不吃了 ——鸡不吃食物了 ——我们不吃鸡了 5、用变换的方法辨析下列结构之间的差别。 (1)在池子里洗衣服--在池子里养金鱼 *把衣服洗在池子里——把金鱼养在池子里 *洗衣服洗到池子里——养金鱼养到池子里 这说明“池子里”仅仅是“洗衣服”这个行为的处所,但不必然是“衣服”的处所;与此相反,“池子里”既是“养金鱼”的处所,也是“鱼”的处所。 (2)在黑板上写字——在教室里写字——在火车上写字 字写在黑板上——字写在教室里——字写在火车上 (人呆)在黑板上写字——(人呆)在教室里写字——(人呆)在火车上写字 以上变换说明:(1)“黑板上”是“字”的处所,不必然是动作行为发生的处所;(2)“教室里”是“写字”的行为发生的处所,但不必然是“字”的处所;(3)“火车上”既是“写字”行为的处所,也可以是“字”的处所。 五.问答题

《语言学概论》大纲

河北师范大学《语言学概论》课程教学大纲 课程代码:0510010390 课程英文名称:A Brief Introduction to Linguistics 学分:3 学时: 54 适用对象/专业:英语专业学生 先修课程:英语语法,英美文化概况 授课语言:英语、汉语 开课单位:外国语学院 课程负责人:张玲玲 一、课程性质及教学目标 1. 课程性质和类别 “语言学概论”课程是英语专业本科高年级阶段的专业必修课程,为报考本专业硕士研究生必考课程之一。课程通过讲授语言学的基础知识、基本理论、研究成果和研究方法,使学生了解语言学领域中的一些基本概念的内涵;了解语言学传统分支领域的基础理论知识;基本了解各个语言学流派的观点和主张;旨在运用语言学的知识提高他们的语言修养,言语交际效果和具备初步的科研能力。 2. 教学目标 本课程的教学目的是向学生讲授英语语言的属性、功能、起源和内部层次,掌握

英语语言学基本特征和主要分支的基本概念,了解语言在时空中的变异及其与社会、文化、语境、思维等外部因素的关系,同时了解部分主要语言学流派,使学生通过对该课程的学习,既能借助语言学理论整理和吸收语言知识,又能运用正确的观点评价语言,并为进一步的深造打下基础。 二、理论教学内容及要求 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 主要内容: 1.1 Why Study Language? 1.2 What Is Language? 1.3 Design Features of Language; 1.4 Origin of Language; 1.5 Functions of Language; 1.6 What Is Linguistics? 1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics; 1.8 Macrolinguistics; 1.9 Important Distinctions in Linguistics 基本要求:掌握语言的区别性特征和语言学里一些重要区别性概念。了解语言学的概念和意义。 重点:语言以及语言学的定义;语言的定义特征;语言的功能;语言能力与语言运用的区别;语言与言语的区别等等。 难点:语言的定义特征,尤其是任意性与移位的定义特征;语言能力与语言运用的区别,语言与言语的区别等等。 Chapter 2 Speech Sounds 主要内容: 2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made? 2.2 Consonants and Vowels 2.3 From Phonetics to Phonology 2.4 Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features

语言学概论期末复习要点

语言学概论(本科)期末复习要点 导言部分 一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务 1.语言学是以语言作为研究对象的科学,它以人类的语言为研究对象。语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律,具体地说,语言学研究语言的性质、作用、结构,语言的发展变化,使人们懂得有关语言的理性知识,从而提高学习语言和运用语言的水平。 2.中国、印度、希腊-罗马是语言学的三大发源地。 3.我国的小学:小学是我国古代语文学的统称,由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。训诂学解释字义,文字学分析字形,音韵学研究字音。 二、语言学在科学体系中的地位 1.语言的研究和其它科学的关系十分密切,不仅与社会科学有联系,而且与自然科学也有十分密切的联系。语言学是一门古老的科学,又是一门年轻的科学。 2.语言交际的过程:语言交际过程可分“编码-发送-传递-接收-解码”五个阶段。 三、语言学的基本类别 根据研究的对象的不同,语言学可以分为以下几类:共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学、。各类语言学下面还可以进一步细分,如专语语言学下面可分汉语语言学(例如现代汉语、古代汉语、近代汉语、汉语史等)、英语语言学、俄语语言学等等,普通语言学下面可分语音学、词汇学、语义学、语法学、修辞学等等。 四、语言学流派 比较重要的语言学流派主要有:历史比较语言学、结构语言学、布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派、转换-生成学派、系统-功能学派、社会语言学。各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可,注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派(也称美国描写语言学)都属于结构主义学派,是这一学派的三个分支。关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述,请浏览《语言学网络课件》中的“望远镜”板块。 第一章语言的社会功能 本章需要明确的要点是:第一,语言的两大社会功能;第二,语言是一种社会现象。第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具1.语言的交际功能:语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带。 2.语言是一种社会现象:弄清楚语言是一种社会现象的内涵,语言不是自然现象,而是社会现象,是一定社会的产物,同社会的关系非常密切。 3.语言是一种特殊的社会现象:没有阶级性,具有全民性特点。语言是人类最重要的交际工具 第二节语言是思维的工具 1.语言和思维的关系 思维活动的过程不可能离开语言而单独进行,思维离不开语言,语言也离不开思维,二者是互相依存,共同发展的。 2.思维能力是全人类共同的,语言是各民族不同 本节其它一些问题可一般了解:一、儿童学习语言的过程,二、思维不能离开语言的实验根据,三、关于聋哑人的思维,聋哑人失去语言能力对他的思维能力的发展产生了严重的消极影响,四、人类思维在机器中的再现。 第二章语言是符号系统 本章有三大要点:语言是符号、语言的任意性特点、语言的层次性第一节语言符号的性质和特点一、什么是符号 1.符号的含义:符号是人们用来指代某种事物的标记。符号是由一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记,它包括形式和意义两个方面,指称现实现象。如: 2.符号的构成:符号是由形式和意义两个部分构成的结合体。 二、语言符号及其特点 1.语言符号:从本质上看,语言也是一种符号,也有形式和意义两个方面。注意语言符号同一般符号的区别。 2.语言符号的特点:语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点 第二节语言符号的系统性一、语言的层级体系 弄清楚语言层级,各个层级的构成及其特点,以及语言二层性的核心。 二、组合关系和聚合关系 1.组合关系:组合关系就是两个同一性质的结构单位(比如音位和音位、词与词等)按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系,也

相关主题
文本预览
相关文档 最新文档