V ol.45Supp.SCIENCE IN CHINA(Series D)December2002
Sandy desertification in the north of China
WANG Tao( Q)1,ZHU Zhenda(r )1&WU Wei(3 )2
1.Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Lan-
zhou730000,China;
2.Center of Environmental Sciences,Peking University,Beijing100871,China
Correspondence should be addressed to Wang Tao(email:wangtao@https://www.doczj.com/doc/398754805.html,)
Received September25,2002
Abstract With the economic and social development,desertification exerted increasingly pro-found influences on natural environment and social development and attracted widespread atten-tion of international communities.China,as one of the countries facing severe desertification problems,has witnessed some progress in understanding and combating the process of desertifi-cation through many years of hard work.Based on the experiences and research achievements, this paper briefly discusses the causes,developmental processes,damage assessment and con-trol mechanism of desertification in the north of China so as to provide some basic experiences for the further study of desertification.
Keywords:desertification,cause and process,damage assessment,desertification control.
Desertification problem caused by inharmony between environment and development not only results in the destruction of resource-environment system and poverty,but also affects the social stability and economic development.Therefore,it has attracted widespread attention of in-ternational communities.China is one of the countries suffering from severest desertification in the world;especially the rapid development of desertification and its tremendous influences on the environment,society and economy have received considerable attention.Desertified lands in China are mainly distributed in the arid,semiarid,and part of sub-humid regions of the north of China,including the Inner Mongolia,Ningxia,Gansu,Xinjiang,Qinghai,Tibet,Shaanxi,Shanxi, Hebei,Jilin,Liaoning and Heilongjiang.According to the actual situations in China and the stud-ies over the past20years,we defined the sandy desertification as a land degradation characterized by wind erosion mainly resulting from the excessive human activities in arid,semiarid and part of sub-humid regions.Modern desertified lands in China cover a total area of38.60D104km2and form a discontinuously distributed arcuate-belt from Northeast China to North China and to Northwest China.Of this total area,29%is distributed in the mixed farming-grazing regions and rainfed farming regions in the eastern part of semiarid zone and part of sub-humid zone(mainly in the Otindag sandy land,Horqin Sandy Land,Bashang region of Hebei Province and Houshan re-gion in Inner Mongolia)with wind erosion and sand sheet as the striking features;44%is distrib-uted in the middle and western parts of semiarid zone and desert steppe zone(mainly in the mid-dle of Inner Mongolia)with reactivated fixed dunes and shifting sand spread as the main features; and27%is distributed at the margin of oases in arid zone and lower reaches of inland rivers
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(mainly in the Alxa region of west Inner Mongolia,northern part of Hexi Corridor region in Gansu and lower reaches of the Tarim River in Xinjiang)with reactivation of fixed dunes as the main feature.In the last50years,desertified land expanded with an increasing annual rate.The annual expansion rate was1560km2from the late1950s to the mid-1970s;2100km2from the mid-1970s to the late1980s[1];and3600km2during the1990s.Rapid expansion of desertified land not only seriously endangers the eco-environment and socio-economic development but also greatly hin-ders the ecological construction of the21st century and the implement of the development of the West in China,especially hampers the development and the improvement of people’s living stan-dard in the desertified regions.
Shortly after the1977United Nations Conference on Desertification,China officially launched multidisciplinary and comprehensive research to combat“desertification”.Over the last 20years,researchers have made some encouraging progress in this study field,and much work was conducted in the regions with fragile eco-environmental conditions and frequent human activ-ity from the angle of man-land relation[2—9].Through remote sensing monitoring of desertification with field investigation in large regions[9—14],we have achieved a preliminary understanding to the desertification and also solved some problems such as the causes,distribution,types and damages of land desertification in the north of China[15—18].Through multidisciplinary research of desertification developmental processes including blown sand dynamic processes,biological processes and anthropogenic processes,the roles of human and natural impact on the desertification development processes have been established and a multi-level comprehensive indicator system of desertification with blown sand activity as the main indicator has been put forward.In this paper we will give a brief discussion on several important problems including the sandy desertification causes,processes,damage assessment and control measures etc.
1Sandy desertification cause
Sandy desertification is a land degradation process of land productivity diminution,land re-source loss,and desert-like landscape occurrence in arid,semiarid and part of sub-humid region. Its cause has always been a basic subject in the research.Only when the cause of desertification is correctly understood can we put forward effective control measures and thoroughly solve the degradation problem.In fact,we can divide the desertification cause into two categories,namely natural cause and human cause.
1.1Natural cause
Natural occurrence and development of desertification is a common phenomenon in arid and semiarid regions of China.For example,wind erosion and moving dune encroach on the oases, river terraces and natural vegetation destruction in the wind gap area.Sandy desertification mechanism of natural cause can be summed up as two points:(1)global climate change,espe-cially the climatic warming and aridification in the mid-latitude regions is a major ecological background favorable for the development of desertification;and(2)the presence of some adverse
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factors such as dry climate,erratic precipitation,sandy soil texture,erodible land surface,espe-cially the strong and frequent wind provides dynamic force for the erosion.However,there always exists a certain self-regulating capacity in the nature and earth surface system.Once the system suffers from slight damage it can be self-regulated by its internal feedback mechanism and thereby maintains the stability of the system.So far as we know,desertification resulting from natural cause often has a small scale,low severity and can be easily reversed.
1.2Human cause
According to many studies,we find that the sandy desertification mainly occurred during the human historical period and developed rapidly for the last century.The changes in natural condi-tions,mainly the climatic fluctuations over a century are generally small and therefore insufficient to cause great changes of natural environment.However,rapid increase in human population pressure and disturbance of economic activities to environment in the same period could lead to serious deterioration of eco-environment and rapid development of desertification.Many ar-chaeological data and field investigations have proved this.When the arid and semiarid regions in the north of China was occupied by nomadic people,there was almost no pressure on the eco-environment and landuse,but after the nomadism was replaced by agricultural production the eco-environment suffered from great damages.It is generally accepted that human causes includ-ing rapidly increasing population induced over cultivation,overgrazing,overcutting fuelwood, over-extracting groundwater and poor ecological management way,destroy the landcover and fi-nally lead to wind erosion and sandy desertification under.According to recent studies,man-made destruction of ground cover reduces soil water-holding capacity,suppresses airflow rise and con-vergence,enhances surface albedo,intensifies airflow descending and finally leads to climatic aridification.Owing to the influences of biological-geophysical feedback mechanism,the deserti-fication induced by anthropogenic cause can bring much more fast and severe direct damages than that induced by natural cause.
According to field investigations and remote sensing data analysis,among various types of desertified lands in the north of China,over cultivation-induced sandy desertified land area occu-pied25.4%of the total sandy desertified area,overgrazing-induced28.3%;overcutting fuel-wood-induced31.8%,desertified land caused by misuse water resources and vegetation destruc-tion due to industrial construction occupied9%and resulting from sand dune encroachment occu-pied only5.5%.From the above data,we can say that the human factors are the most important and most active factors affecting sandy desertification processes.
2Occurrence and development processes of sandy desertification
The occurrence and development processes of desertification are practically the processes of blown sand erosion,transport and deposition due to upset of ecosystem balance by human activi-ties and vegetation degradation or disappearance.The study of desertification processes requires elucidating the occurrence and development laws of surface blown sand activities;it mainly con-
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tains such research contents as dynamics of blown sand movement and the roles of biological and human activities.
2.1Dynamical processes of blown sand movement
The dynamical processes of blown sand movement mainly contain the development proc-esses of sandy surface morphology under wind force,reactivation of fixed dunes and sand dune migration at the margin between sandy desert and oases.
The development processes of sandy surface morphology under the action of wind force deal with the interaction between wind force and exposed ground surface.Under the wind force,sur-face particle creep,saltation and suspension take place and form wind-sand stream,thus initiating the aeolian geomorphological processes of erosion,transport and deposition.Wind-sand stream is formed by the interaction of two different densities of physical media,i.e.air and sand(or gravel). Once wind velocity reaches the threshold value,surface particles begin to move and form sand-bearing wind to further abrade and erode surface.
As a result,soil wind erosion exacerbated and thus leads to topsoil loss,soil quality deterio-ration and land productivity reduction.When wind-sand stream encounters obstacles,the character of underlying surface changes and sand-bearing wind becomes saturated;its velocity drops and many of the particles in airstreams will settle and result in sand accumulation land and vegetation. According to the dynamical principle of blown sand movement,accumulated sand is in fact an obstacle to blown sand movement.It causes the separation of attachment layer and eddy flow and hence reduces near-surface wind velocity and quickens sand deposition.With further accumula-tion of sand,shield dune and barchan dune occur.Reactivation of fixed dunes is attributed to the destruction of primary vegetation on sand dunes and the direct action of sand-bearing wind over sand dune surface.It generally appears as such a process:wind-eroded breaches occur on wind-ward slope of sand dunes u blowout u deflation cliff u deflation pit u windward slope of de-flation pit becomes gentle;in the meantime at the leeward side of sand dune wind deposition processes occur and appear as spotted shrub-grass sand mound u sand sheet u semifluid sand sheet u moving sand dune and moving shrub-grass sand mound u typical moving sand dune landscape;under the action of wind force sand dunes at the margin of sandy desert migrate, namely exposed sand dunes,or newly exposed fixed dune due to vegetation destruction continu-ously receive sand supply on the windward slope,or continuous wind erosion on the windward slope,thus resulting in the migration of whole dune body in the prevailing direction.Surface roughness reduction caused by human destruction of landcover and intensifying blown sand activ-ity are the basic factors affecting the blown sand dynamical processes of sandy desertification.
2.2Biological processes
Biological processes of desertification are mainly manifested in the degraded succession of vegetation i.e.evolution of landscape pattern.Studies in recent years show that the vegetation succession of sandy grassland is different from that of common grassland and it is mostly related
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to the sandy desertified land degrees.Vegetation succession stage and desertified degree often constitute each other’s precondition[19].Vegetation changes in desert regions contain both gradual and sudden changes,which are controlled by desertified degrees and also depend on their own structure and function.On the different types of desertified land vegetation changes often appear as a sudden change.On the same type of desertified land vegetation shows a gradual change under the slight desertification condition but exhibits a sudden change under the severe desertification condition[20].However,the degradation form and velocity of vegetation often show a significant difference due to different causes.For grazing-induced grassland desertification,its degradation law is:significant decrease in biodiversity,vegetation cover,grass height and grass yield;peren-nial grasses firstly go out of the grassland,followed by palatable annual grasses and finally the grassland will be dominated by unpalatable grasses or toxic grasses.When vegetation cover re-duces,a certain degree of small bare spots occur on the grassland surface;with continuous expan-sion and connection of small bare spots the grassland at last entirely turns into desertified land[21—23].Grassland desertification processes caused by wind erosion and water shortage are generally similar to those caused by grazing.However,there are also some differences,which are mainly manifested in such a fact that from shady slope to sunny slope,from wetland to dryland, and from fixed sand land to mobile sand land the vegetation worsens rapidly.Furthermore,the degradation is significantly faster than that caused by grazing and both vegetation cover and plant species decrease rapidly but vegetation height and output do not necessarily decrease[24].Under favorable environment conditions degraded vegetation on sand land may show positive succession; plant species,vegetation cover and height increase significantly,and the percentage of herbs in the communities also increase[25—28].Although vegetation degradation in desertified region mainly results from human activities,the ecosystem has self-restoration capacity.Once human distur-bances are removed,plants in inter-dune depression or coppice dune areas will invade in sur-rounding regions and gradually restore original landscape.
2.3Anthropogenic processes
As described above,sandy desertification is land degradation,and human economic activities are the main factor responsible for such a process.In arid,semiarid and sub-humid regions in China,climate is dry,precipitation is sparse and highly variable,strong wind is frequent,envi-ronment is harsh and ecological condition is fragile.In addition to this,people’s education level is low,production way is backward under poor economic conditions and land productivity is low. Hence it has lower population carrying capacity.Along with the improvement of people’s living standard and public health service,population rapidly increases and exerts increasingly greater pressure on land.To feed more and more population,people clear vegetation to extend cropland and to get fuelwood.Under local harsh natural condition,unprotected lands by vegetation are im-possible to restore their original landscape.Once overgrazing,strong cultivation and industrial construction occur in the grassland region,grasses gradually degrade and bare spots occur on sur-
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face.During drought and strong wind period such land is highly susceptible to be eroded,further form shifting sand and cause reactivation of sand dunes.As a result,soil becomes coarse and im-poverished,soil water-holding capacity and moisture content drop,original forest and grassland landscape is replaced by desert landscape,exposed ground surface cannot prevent erosion by wind but increase albedo.Therefore the climate becomes drier and desertification is further exacerbated. Hence,anthropogenic process of desertification is a vicious cyclic process.
3Sandy desertification damage and assessment
Although present assessments on desertification damages are mostly qualitative,they have important significance to understanding of desertification issues and to enhancing people’s urgent feeling to combat desertification.The assessment of desertification disastrous influence on envi-ronment and socio-economy mainly includes the following:(1)Desertification damaged ecologi-cal balance,worsened environment,lowered land productivity,threatened people’s livelihood, aggravated poverty and even resulted in the ecological refugees;(2)desertification caused the loss of usable land resources and decreased Chinese nation’s living space;(3)desertification seriously threatened the safety and normal operation of communities,traffic lines,water conservancy pro-jects and national defence bases;(4)desertification caused a direct economic loss of54billion Chinese yuan each year;(5)sand and dust storms as a mark and sudden event of desertification become more frequent and stronger.According to statistical data1),annual dust storm frequency in recent50years in China showed an increasing tendency.For example,strong dust storms occurred 5times per year in the1950s;8times in the1960s;13times in the1970s,14times in the1980s and23times in the1990s.The increase in dust storm frequency coincided with the spread of sandy desertified land in China.Only a single strong dust storm in1993resulted in a direct eco-nomic loss of540million yuan.In the spring of2000,about12strong sand-raising events and dust storms have hit the northwest of China and even to a certain extent affected large areas of east and south of China,in clouding Beijing,Tianjin,Nanjing and Shanghai etc.Their occurrence is not only related to the passage of cold air mass but also related to the expansion of desertified land and the aggravation of desertification degree.
Further research is required in the assessment of desertification damages.It is generally ac-cepted that some indicators concerning natural conditions and socioeconomic regimes should be established to reflect the influential degree of desertification.However,at present there is still no consistency in the indicator and application and a global unified indicator system has not been established.According to the actual situation in China we have put forward a general sandy desertification indicator and severity classification system to assess desertification state and trend, of which surface morphological change is a main indicator.In the meantime other changes in soil,
1)State Forestry Bureau,Northwest China Investigation Group,Investigation report on great development of west China and propagation of green homeland construction,2000.
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vegetation and ecosystem are also considered.For the monitoring and assessment of sandy desertification in vast regions in the north of China,the selected indicators should be representa-tive.That surface morphological change resulting from wind erosion in the desertification proc-esses has such a character is also an evident landscape indicator.Many other factors such as vege-tation cover,plant community structure,plant species,biomass,soil grain-size composition,or-ganic matter content and soil moisture content are also directly related to surface morphological changes.Hence they can be used as additional indicators.We classified various assessment indi-cators of desertification as follows:(1)Natural indicators include the area changes of wind-eroded land,sand land or sand dune,dust storm frequency,seasonal and annual changes of precipitation, wind velocity and direction,available soil layer thickness,groundwater level and quality and sur-face albedo etc.(2)Biological and agricultural indicators include vegetation cover,biomass, dominant plant species and distribution,landuse states(for example,farming,grazing,fuelwood, industry,mining and water resource etc.),crop yield,livestock composition and number,and various economic input etc.(3)Social and economic indicators include industrial structure,input benefit,population number and structure changes and developmental trend,public health indexes, mandatory plan and special policy etc.
4Sandy desertification control
According to natural and economic features of desertified regions and desertification developmental trend in the north of China as well as some typical experiences in desertification control,the rehabilitation of desertified land should thoroughly consider the ecological benefit, economic benefit and social benefit.It should also follow the ecological principles of moderate utilization and multi-complementation to contain landuse in the control processes[29].In order to improve the ecosystem of the whole arid and semiarid regions we should work out an overall planning and adopt comprehensive rehabilitation strategies.In the respect of economic development the principle of diversified economy dominated by forestry should be practiced;in the meanwhile population growth should be effectively controlled.The arrangement of rehabilita-tion projects can be divided into three levels,i.e.research organizations mainly undertake deserti-fication control experiments in the experimental plots;research organizations in cooperation with production departments conduct experiments in the demonstration plots;production departments and local people popularize successful techniques.In the mixed farming-grazing region where residential area,cropland and grassland are scatteredly distributed,with ecological household as a unit such measures as prohibiting grazing,readjusting rainfed farming-dominated landuse struc-ture,increasing forest and grassland area,intensive management to the land with better water and fertility conditions,establishing farmland forest net and patchy forest(shrub)in interdune depress-sions are adopted to control desertification spread.This also contributes to economic develop-ment.In the grazing grassland a rational stocking rate and rotational grazing system should be established.In addition,efforts should be made to construct artificial grassland and forage base,
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rationally arrange drinking water wells,define grazing density and build roads.In the arid zone an overall planning should be worked out with basin as an ecological unit,to formulate rational water allocation plan,construct farmland forest net inside oases and sandbreak tree-shrub belt around the oases,in combination with mechanical sand fence and sand-fixing plants inside sand fences grids to form a perfect protective system.In addition the transport lines in the dense sand dune regions should be protected by mechanical sand fences and sand-fixing plants,laying emphasis on fixation in combination with block.
Through a series of experiments on different desertification control models in several ex-periment plots the following successful examples have been found.
Example1.Sandy land transformed into plastic film-bottomed rice field in Naiman Banner of Inner Mongolia
Sandy desertified land in Naiman Banner occupies57.6%of its total area,being a typical desertified area in the north of China.Owing to dry climate and serious blown sand disaster agri-cultural and livestock production outputs are low and instable,especially the food problem has seriously hindered local economic development.Through many years of exploration and experi-ments,scientists and local people have successfully developed a rice cultivation technique in plas-tic film-bottomed sandy land and thus create a new way to control shifting sand.This technique has proved to have a bright future.The total areas of sandy desertified land had decreased from 5410km2in1987to 0km2in2000.
Example2.Sand stabilization by Pinus sylvestris in Zhangguotai Sandy Land of Zhangwu County in Liaoning Province
Zangguotai is located at southeastern part of the Horqin Sandy Land.In view of serious blown sand disaster in the region,since1952local people have launched sand stabilization,affor-estation and species introduction works.Since then Pinus sylvestris has been successfully used in moving dune stabilization.Up to now,some2130hm2of P.sylvestris forest have been planted in the demonstrative plots and popularized over3000hm2in another6pilot experiment plots. Long-term observations have proved their obvious ecological benefit,economic benefit and social benefit.Besides Liaoning and Inner Mongolia,P.sylvestris has also been introduced in the north and northwest of China.In addition,each year about1000kg seeds and30million seedlings of P. sylvestris are transported from the demonstrative and pilot plots to“Three-North Region”to be used for the construction of protective forest system.
Example3.“Four-in-one”household ecological economy in Yutiangao village,Ongniud Banner,Chifeng city,Inner Mongolia
Ongniud Banner,located at the middle of Inner Mongolia and western margin of Horqin Sandy Land,is a part of Horqin Sandy Land.Dry climate,sparse precipitation and frequent blown sand disaster pose a serious threat to local economic development and people’s livelihood.In or-der to shake off poverty,local people launched vegetable production using solar energy in winter in1992and later created a“four-in-one”household eco-economic pattern.It has proved to be an
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effective way to control blown sand damage and to help people to shake off poverty.
Example4.“Advance One-Retreat Two-Return Three”sand control strategy in Houshan re-gion,Ulanqab League,Inner Mongolia
Ulanqab League,located to the north of the Yinshan Mountain,includes Huade County Shangdu County,Qahar Youyi Middle Banner,Qahar Youyi Rear Banner and Siziwang Banner. Owing to dry climate,frequent blown sand disaster,severe desertification,impoverished soil and irrational industrial structure[30],agricultural output in these regions are low,per capita grain share has decreased from535kg/a to272kg/a,per capita income is about200yuan.After the National Conference on Sand Control was held in1991,desertification control in the Houshan region of the league was included in the list of the county’s20key projects.Local government practiced the “advance one-retreat two-return three”strategy and quickened the comprehensive control pace of land desertification,thus creating a new way to improve the eco-environmental condition of de-sertified region and to shake off poverty.
Example5.Constructing farmland through washing sand dunes away by water in Yulin re-gion of Shanxi
Yulin region is located at the southern margin of Mu Us Sandy Land and includes7counties. Natural condition in the region is harsh,with serious blown sand disaster.Local economy is backward and people live in poverty.Through10years of hard work,937.5km2of blown sand land were reclaimed by diverting water and washing sand dune away method.Of this total area, newly reclaimed farmland occupied104hm2,soil conservation land97×104hm2and artificial grassland4×104hm2.After10years of reclamation,vegetation cover increased from24.5%to 74.3%,per capita grain share increased from428kg to1861kg,livestock number increased from 137000heads to175000heads,and per capita income increased from497yuan to1045yuan.The former barren desert has now been changed into fertile land.
5Conclusion
As described above,sandy desertification is land degradation in arid,semiarid and sub-humid regions due to the destruction of man-land system balance by human irrational economic activities to such a degree that the system cannot be rapidly restored by its self-organization and feedback mechanism,as a result,various environmental elements degrade and original sparse-tree sandy grassland landscape turns into desert landscape dominated by blown sand activity.
It can be said that the development process of sandy desertification is a dynamical evolution process of various internal elements of the man-land system and the flow of mass,energy and information of external environment in arid region and finally result in the structural and functional changes of the system.In order to halt sandy desertification,mankind must actively regulate its own activity,form self-adaptability,establish an interdependent and mutual coordination man-land relation,and optimize the structure and function of man-land system to reach a new balance and realize a benign cycle[31].
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Owing to its tremendous impacts on economy,environment and politics,desertification has attracted world attention.With the economic development and the increase of social demand,the pressure on natural resources and eco-environment is increasing,coupling with the influence of global change,desertification is posing a serious threat to mankind existence.Hence,there is ur-gent need to understand the mechanism of desertification occurrence and development and to combat desertification.Although scientists have preliminarily understood the causes and processes of desertification and found out some effective measures to control desertification.,there are still many questions to be settled.This is because desertification study deals with natural,social and economic issues and belongs to a multidisciplinary research field.It may be said that desertifica-tion study is facing unprecedented challenge and opportunity and great effort should be done in this respect.
For those reasons we suggest the following several research priorities:
(1)Study on natural and human background of desertification.It includes natural environ-mental background;temporal and spatial changes and mechanism of desertified land over the past 2000years;desertified land use and coverage change,process,cause and topsoil feature in recent 50years;positive and negative influences of natural factor and human effect and their respective contributions.
(2)Study on desertification dynamical process and its control.It includes physical process and mechanical principle of desertification;soil wind erosion law and its control,mechanical mechanism of blown sand movement;mechanical model and relation of different scales of sand bodies;mechanical principle and numerical imitation of sand control engineering design;dy-namical mechanism of sand and dust storms;predication model of soil wind erosion and tolerance limit;indicator system and regionalization for quantitative assessment of soil wind erosion;dust emission simulation and test from source area;dust transport route,affecting extent and cli-mate-environment effect;frequently occurring area of dust storms,climatic cause,formation and development mechanism;dust-storm monitoring,prediction and early warning methods.
(3)Biological process of desertification and vegetation re-establishment mechanism includes water consuming law of main plant species;water cycle;stress-resistant mechanism,adaptive strategies and vegetation stability;water balance dynamics in typical regions;and suitable scale of vegetation construction.
(4)Comprehensive control strategies and models of desertification.It includes cause,state and developmental trend of desertification in northern China;water and land resource carrying capacity and safe landuse pattern in typical region;comprehensive control strategies and region-alization of desertification and dust storms in northern China;harmonious development strategies and patterns of society,economy and environment in desertified regions;comprehensive control optimization models of desertification and technical experiment and demonstration study.
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The way 的用法 Ⅰ常见用法： 1)the way+ that 2)the way + in which（最为正式的用法） 3)the way + 省略（最为自然的用法） 举例：I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. Ⅱ习惯用法： 在当代美国英语中，the way用作为副词的对格，“the way+ 从句”实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰整个句子。 1)The way =as I am talking to you just the way I’d talk to my own child. He did not do it the way his friends did. Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are—all we have to do is to clean and peel them. 2）The way= according to the way/ judging from the way The way you answer the question, you are an excellent student. The way most people look at you, you’d think trash man is a monster. 3）The way =how/ how much No one can imagine the way he missed her. 4）The way =because
The way的用法及其含义（二） 二、the way在句中的语法作用 the way在句中可以作主语、宾语或表语： 1.作主语 The way you are doing it is completely crazy.你这个干法简直发疯。 The way she puts on that accent really irritates me. 她故意操那种口音的样子实在令我恼火。The way she behaved towards him was utterly ruthless. 她对待他真是无情至极。 Words are important, but the way a person stands, folds his or her arms or moves his or her hands can also give us information about his or her feelings. 言语固然重要,但人的站姿,抱臂的方式和手势也回告诉我们他(她)的情感。 2.作宾语 I hate the way she stared at me.我讨厌她盯我看的样子。 We like the way that her hair hangs down.我们喜欢她的头发笔直地垂下来。 You could tell she was foreign by the way she was dressed. 从她的穿著就可以看出她是外国人。 She could not hide her amusement at the way he was dancing. 她见他跳舞的姿势，忍俊不禁。 3.作表语 This is the way the accident happened.这就是事故如何发生的。 Believe it or not, that's the way it is. 信不信由你, 反正事情就是这样。 That's the way I look at it, too. 我也是这么想。 That was the way minority nationalities were treated in old China. 那就是少数民族在旧中
定冠词the的用法： 定冠词the与指示代词this ,that同源,有“那(这)个”的意思,但较弱,可以和一个名词连用,来表示某个或某些特定的人或东西. (1)特指双方都明白的人或物 Take the medicine.把药吃了. (2)上文提到过的人或事 He bought a house.他买了幢房子. I've been to the house.我去过那幢房子. (3)指世界上独一无二的事物 the sun ,the sky ,the moon, the earth (4)单数名词连用表示一类事物 the dollar 美元 the fox 狐狸 或与形容词或分词连用,表示一类人 the rich 富人 the living 生者 (5)用在序数词和形容词最高级,及形容词等前面 Where do you live?你住在哪? I live on the second floor.我住在二楼. That's the very thing I've been looking for.那正是我要找的东西. (6)与复数名词连用,指整个群体 They are the teachers of this school.(指全体教师) They are teachers of this school.(指部分教师) (7)表示所有,相当于物主代词,用在表示身体部位的名词前 She caught me by the arm.她抓住了我的手臂. (8)用在某些有普通名词构成的国家名称,机关团体,阶级等专有名词前 the People's Republic of China 中华人民共和国 the United States 美国 (9)用在表示乐器的名词前 She plays the piano.她会弹钢琴. (10)用在姓氏的复数名词之前,表示一家人 the Greens 格林一家人(或格林夫妇) (11)用在惯用语中 in the day, in the morning... the day before yesterday, the next morning... in the sky... in the dark... in the end... on the whole, by the way...
“tｈｅwａｙ+从句”结构的意义及用法 首先让我们来看下面这个句子: Ｒead the foｌloｗｉnｇpassagｅａnd talkａbout ｉt wi ｔh your classmaｔes．Try tｏｔeｌl whaｔyｏu thiｎk ｏf Tom aｎd ｏｆｔhe ｗay the chiｌｄrenｔrｅated ｈim. 在这个句子中，ｔhe waｙ是先行词,后面是省略了关系副词that或in whｉch的定语从句。 下面我们将叙述“the ｗaｙ+从句”结构的用法。 1.tｈe wａy之后，引导定语从句的关系词是tｈat而不是hoｗ,因此，<<现代英语惯用法词典＞＞中所给出的下面两个句子是错误的：Ｔhｉs is ｔｈeｗayｈowｉtｈａppened. This is the way how he ａlwａｙs treats me. 2．在正式语体中,thaｔ可被in which所代替;在非正式语体中，ｔhat则往往省略。由此我们得到theｗay后接定语从句时的三种模式：1) tｈe ｗaｙ＋ｔhａt-从句２）the way +ｉn whiｃh－从句3) the ｗay +从句 例如：Ｔｈe way(in whiｃh ，thａt) ｔhｅｓｅｃomｒade ｓloｏｋａｔｐrobｌems is wrong．这些同志看问题的方法
不对。 Ｔｈｅｗａy(that ,ｉn ｗhiｃh)yoｕ’ｒe doinｇit is comple ｔeｌy crａzy.你这么个干法,简直发疯。 Wｅａdmiｒｅd him for thｅｗay ｉｎｗhｉch he fａｃeｓdiｆficultieｓ． Waｌlａｃe ａｎd Ｄarwiｎｇreed ｏn the way ｉｎwhi ｃh ｄｉfｆｅrｅnt forms ｏf life had ｂegｕn.华莱士和达尔文对不同类型的生物是如何起源的持相同的观点。 Thｉs is ｔｈe ｗaｙ（tｈａｔ) hｅdｉd it. I lｉkeｄｔhe waｙ(ｔhat) ｓｈeｏｒganized ｔhe ｍeetｉng． 3.theｗay(tｈat)有时可以与hｏw(作“如何”解）通用。例如： That’s tｈe ｗaｙ(tｈaｔ) shｅspoke. = Tｈat’s how shｅspoke.
表示“方式”、“方法”，注意以下用法： 1.表示用某种方法或按某种方式，通常用介词in(此介词有时可省略)。如： Do it (in) your own way. 按你自己的方法做吧。 Please do not talk (in) that way. 请不要那样说。 2.表示做某事的方式或方法，其后可接不定式或of doing sth。 如： It’s the best way of studying [to study] English. 这是学习英语的最好方法。 There are different ways to do [of doing] it. 做这事有不同的办法。 3.其后通常可直接跟一个定语从句(不用任何引导词)，也可跟由that 或in which 引导的定语从句，但是其后的从句不能由how 来引导。如： 我不喜欢他说话的态度。 正：I don’t like the way he spoke. 正：I don’t like the way that he spoke. 正：I don’t like the way in which he spoke. 误：I don’t like the way how he spoke. 4.注意以下各句the way 的用法： That’s the way (=how) he spoke. 那就是他说话的方式。 Nobody else loves you the way(=as) I do. 没有人像我这样爱你。 The way (=According as) you are studying now, you won’tmake much progress. 根据你现在学习情况来看，你不会有多大的进步。 2007年陕西省高考英语中有这样一道单项填空题： ——I think he is taking an active part insocial work. ——I agree with you_____. A、in a way B、on the way C、by the way D、in the way 此题答案选A。要想弄清为什么选A，而不选其他几项，则要弄清选项中含way的四个短语的不同意义和用法，下面我们就对此作一归纳和小结。 一、in a way的用法 表示：在一定程度上，从某方面说。如： In a way he was right.在某种程度上他是对的。注：in a way也可说成in one way。 二、on the way的用法 1、表示：即将来(去)，就要来(去)。如： Spring is on the way.春天快到了。 I'd better be on my way soon.我最好还是快点儿走。 Radio forecasts said a sixth-grade wind was on the way.无线电预报说将有六级大风。 2、表示：在路上，在行进中。如： He stopped for breakfast on the way.他中途停下吃早点。 We had some good laughs on the way.我们在路上好好笑了一阵子。 3、表示：(婴儿)尚未出生。如： She has two children with another one on the way.她有两个孩子，现在还怀着一个。 She's got five children，and another one is on the way.她已经有5个孩子了，另一个又快生了。 三、by the way的用法
The way的用法及其含义（一） 有这样一个句子：In 1770 the room was completed the way she wanted. 1770年，这间琥珀屋按照她的要求完成了。 the way在句中的语法作用是什么？其意义如何？在阅读时，学生经常会碰到一些含有the way 的句子，如：No one knows the way he invented the machine. He did not do the experiment the way his teacher told him.等等。他们对the way 的用法和含义比较模糊。在这几个句子中，the way之后的部分都是定语从句。第一句的意思是，“没人知道他是怎样发明这台机器的。”the way的意思相当于how；第二句的意思是，“他没有按照老师说的那样做实验。”the way 的意思相当于as。在In 1770 the room was completed the way she wanted.这句话中，the way也是as的含义。随着现代英语的发展，the way的用法已越来越普遍了。下面，我们从the way的语法作用和意义等方面做一考查和分析： 一、the way作先行词，后接定语从句 以下3种表达都是正确的。例如：“我喜欢她笑的样子。” 1. the way+ in which +从句 I like the way in which she smiles. 2. the way+ that +从句 I like the way that she smiles. 3. the way + 从句(省略了in which或that) I like the way she smiles. 又如：“火灾如何发生的，有好几种说法。” 1. There were several theories about the way in which the fire started. 2. There were several theories about the way that the fire started.
way 的用法 【语境展示】 1. Now I’ll show you how to do the experiment in a different way. 下面我来演示如何用一种不同的方法做这个实验。 2. The teacher had a strange way to make his classes lively and interesting. 这位老师有种奇怪的办法让他的课生动有趣。 3. Can you tell me the best way of working out this problem? 你能告诉我算出这道题的最好方法吗？ 4. I don’t know the way (that / in which) he helped her out. 我不知道他用什么方法帮助她摆脱困境的。 5. The way (that / which) he talked about to solve the problem was difficult to understand. 他所谈到的解决这个问题的方法难以理解。 6. I don’t like the way that / which is being widely used for saving water. 我不喜欢这种正在被广泛使用的节水方法。 7. They did not do it the way we do now. 他们以前的做法和我们现在不一样。 【归纳总结】 ●way作“方法，方式”讲时，如表示“以……方式”，前面常加介词in。如例1； ●way作“方法，方式”讲时，其后可接不定式to do sth.，也可接of doing sth. 作定语，表示做某事的方法。如例2，例3；
t h e-w a y-的用法
The way 的用法 "the way+从句"结构在英语教科书中出现的频率较高, the way 是先行词, 其后是定语从句.它有三种表达形式:1) the way+that 2)the way+ in which 3)the way + 从句(省略了that或in which),在通常情况下, 用in which 引导的定语从句最为正式,用that的次之,而省略了关系代词that 或 in which 的, 反而显得更自然,最为常用.如下面三句话所示,其意义相同. I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. 一.在当代美国英语中,the way用作为副词的对格,"the way+从句"实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰全句. the way=as 1)I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own. 我和你说话就象和自己孩子说话一样. 2)He did not do it the way his friend did. 他没有象他朋友那样去做此事. 3)Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are ----all we have to do is clean or peel them . 大部分水果天然甜润,可以直接食用,我们只需要把他们清洗一下或去皮.
way的用法总结大全 way的用法你知道多少，今天给大家带来way的用法，希望能够帮助到大家，下面就和大家分享，来欣赏一下吧。 way的用法总结大全 way的意思 n. 道路,方法,方向,某方面 adv. 远远地，大大地 way用法 way可以用作名词 way的基本意思是“路,道,街,径”,一般用来指具体的“路,道路”,也可指通向某地的“方向”“路线”或做某事所采用的手段,即“方式,方法”。way还可指“习俗,作风”“距离”“附近,周围”“某方面”等。 way作“方法,方式,手段”解时,前面常加介词in。如果way前有this, that等限定词,介词可省略,但如果放在句首,介词则不可省略。
way作“方式,方法”解时,其后可接of v -ing或to- v 作定语,也可接定语从句,引导从句的关系代词或关系副词常可省略。 way用作名词的用法例句 I am on my way to the grocery store.我正在去杂货店的路上。 We lost the way in the dark.我们在黑夜中迷路了。 He asked me the way to London.他问我去伦敦的路。 way可以用作副词 way用作副词时意思是“远远地,大大地”,通常指在程度或距离上有一定的差距。 way back表示“很久以前”。 way用作副词的用法例句 It seems like Im always way too busy with work.我工作总是太忙了。 His ideas were way ahead of his time.他的思想远远超越了他那个时代。 She finished the race way ahead of the other runners.她第一个跑到终点,远远领先于其他选手。 way用法例句
t h e_w a y的用法大全
The way 在the way+从句中, the way 是先行词, 其后是定语从句.它有三种表达形式:1) the way+that 2)the way+ in which 3)the way + 从句(省略了that或in which),在通常情况下, 用in which 引导的定语从句最为正式,用that的次之,而省略了关系代词that 或 in which 的, 反而显得更自然,最为常用.如下面三句话所示,其意义相同. I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. 如果怕弄混淆，下面的可以不看了 另外，在当代美国英语中,the way用作为副词的对格,"the way+从句"实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰全句. the way=as 1)I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own. 我和你说话就象和自己孩子说话一样. 2)He did not do it the way his friend did. 他没有象他朋友那样去做此事. 3)Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are ----all we have to do is clean or peel them . 大部分水果天然甜润,可以直接食用,我们只需要把他们清洗一下或去皮. the way=according to the way/judging from the way 4)The way you answer the qquestions, you must be an excellent student. 从你回答就知道,你是一个优秀的学生. 5)The way most people look at you, you'd think a trashman was a monster. 从大多数人看你的目光中,你就知道垃圾工在他们眼里是怪物. the way=how/how much 6)I know where you are from by the way you pronounce my name. 从你叫我名字的音调中,我知道你哪里人. 7)No one can imaine the way he misses her. 人们很想想象他是多么想念她. the way=because 8) No wonder that girls looks down upon me, the way you encourage her. 难怪那姑娘看不起我, 原来是你怂恿的
The way 的用法 "the way+从句"结构在英语教科书中出现的频率较高, the way 是先行词, 其后是定语从句.它有三种表达形式:1) the way+that 2)the way+ in which 3)the way + 从句(省略了that或in which),在通常情况下, 用in which 引导的定语从句最为正式,用that的次之,而省略了关系代词that 或in which 的, 反而显得更自然,最为常用.如下面三句话所示,其意义相同. I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. 一.在当代美国英语中,the way用作为副词的对格,"the way+从句"实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰全句. the way=as 1)I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own. 我和你说话就象和自己孩子说话一样. 2)He did not do it the way his friend did. 他没有象他朋友那样去做此事. 3)Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are ----all we have to do is clean or peel them . 大部分水果天然甜润,可以直接食用,我们只需要把他们清洗一下或去皮.
the way=according to the way/judging from the way 4)The way you answer the qquestions, you must be an excellent student. 从你回答就知道,你是一个优秀的学生. 5)The way most people look at you, you'd think a trashman was a monster. 从大多数人看你的目光中,你就知道垃圾工在他们眼里是怪物. the way=how/how much 6)I know where you are from by the way you pronounce my name. 从你叫我名字的音调中,我知道你哪里人. 7)No one can imaine the way he misses her. 人们很想想象他是多么想念她. the way=because 8) No wonder that girls looks down upon me, the way you encourage her. 难怪那姑娘看不起我, 原来是你怂恿的 the way =while/when(表示对比) 9)From that day on, they walked into the classroom carrying defeat on their shoulders the way other students carried textbooks under their arms. 从那天起,其他同学是夹着书本来上课,而他们却带着"失败"的思想负担来上课.
The way的用法及其含义（三） 三、the way的语义 1. the way=as（像） Please do it the way I’ve told you.请按照我告诉你的那样做。 I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own.我和你说话就像和自己孩子说话一样。 Plant need water the way they need sun light. 植物需要水就像它们需要阳光一样。 2. the way=how（怎样，多么） No one can imagine the way he misses her.没人能够想象出他是多么想念她！ I want to find out the way a volcano has formed.我想弄清楚火山是怎样形成的。 He was filled with anger at the way he had been treated.他因遭受如此待遇而怒火满腔。That’s the way she speaks.她就是那样讲话的。 3. the way=according as （根据） The way you answer the questions, you must be an excellent student.从你回答问题来看，你一定是名优秀的学生。 The way most people look at you, you'd think a trash man was a monster.从大多数人看你的目光中,你就知道垃圾工在他们眼里是怪物。 The way I look at it, it’s not what you do that matters so much.依我看，重要的并不是你做什么。 I might have been his son the way he talked.根据他说话的样子，好像我是他的儿子一样。One would think these men owned the earth the way they behave.他们这样行动，人家竟会以为他们是地球的主人。
一．Way：“方式”、“方法” 1.表示用某种方法或按某种方式 Do it (in) your own way. Please do not talk (in) that way. 2.表示做某事的方式或方法 It’s the best way of studying [to study] English.。 There are different ways to do [of doing] it. 3.其后通常可直接跟一个定语从句(不用任何引导词)，也可跟由that 或in which 引导的定语从句 正：I don’t like the way he spoke. I don’t like the way that he spoke. I don’t like the way in which he spoke.误：I don’t like the way how he spoke. 4. the way 的从句 That’s the way (=how) he spoke. I know where you are from by the way you pronounce my name. That was the way minority nationalities were treated in old China. Nobody else loves you the way(=as) I do. He did not do it the way his friend did. 二．固定搭配 1. In a/one way：In a way he was right. 2. In the way /get in one’s way I'm afraid your car is in the way， If you are not going to help，at least don't get in the way. You'll have to move－you're in my way. 3. in no way Theory can in no way be separated from practice. 4. On the way (to……) Let’s wait a few moments. He is on the way Spring is on the way. Radio forecasts said a sixth-grade wind was on the way. She has two children with another one on the way. 5. By the way By the way，do you know where Mary lives? 6. By way of Learn English by way of watching US TV series. 8. under way 1. Elbow one’s way He elbowed his way to the front of the queue. 2. shoulder one’s way 3. feel one‘s way 摸索着向前走；We couldn’t see anything in the cave, so we had to feel our way out 4. fight/force one’s way 突破。。。而前进The surrounded soldiers fought their way out. 5.. push/thrust one‘s way（在人群中）挤出一条路He pushed his way through the crowd. 6. wind one’s way 蜿蜒前进 7. lead the way 带路，领路；示范 8. lose one‘s way 迷失方向 9. clear the way 排除障碍，开路迷路 10. make one’s way 前进，行进The team slowly made their way through the jungle.
在the way+从句中, the way 是先行词, 其后是定语从句.它有三种表达形式:1) the way+that 2)the way+ in which 3)the way + 从句(省略了that或in which),在通常情况下, 用in which 引导的定语从句最为正式,用that的次之,而省略了关系代词that 或in which 的, 反而显得更自然,最为常用.如下面三句话所示,其意义相同. I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. 如果怕弄混淆，下面的可以不看了 另外，在当代美国英语中,the way用作为副词的对格,"the way+从句"实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰全句. the way=as 1)I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own. 我和你说话就象和自己孩子说话一样. 2)He did not do it the way his friend did. 他没有象他朋友那样去做此事. 3)Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are ----all we have to do is clean or peel them . 大部分水果天然甜润,可以直接食用,我们只需要把他们清洗一下或去皮. the way=according to the way/judging from the way 4)The way you answer the qquestions, you must be an excellent student. 从你回答就知道,你是一个优秀的学生. 5)The way most people look at you, you'd think a trashman was a monster. 从大多数人看你的目光中,你就知道垃圾工在他们眼里是怪物. the way=how/how much 6)I know where you are from by the way you pronounce my name. 从你叫我名字的音调中,我知道你哪里人. 7)No one can imaine the way he misses her. 人们很想想象他是多么想念她. the way=because 8) No wonder that girls looks down upon me, the way you encourage her. 难怪那姑娘看不起我, 原来是你怂恿的 the way =while/when(表示对比) 9)From that day on, they walked into the classroom carrying defeat on their shoulders the way other students carried textbooks under their arms.
“the way+从句”结构的意义及用法 首先让我们来看下面这个句子： Read the following passage and talk about it with your classmates. Try to tell what you think of Tom and of the way the children treated him. 在这个句子中，the way是先行词，后面是省略了关系副词that 或in which的定语从句。 下面我们将叙述“the way+从句”结构的用法。 1．the way之后，引导定语从句的关系词是that而不是how,因此，<<现代英语惯用法词典>>中所给出的下面两个句子是错误的：This is the way how it happened. This is the way how he always treats me. 2. 在正式语体中，that可被in which所代替；在非正式语体中，that则往往省略。由此我们得到the way后接定语从句时的三种模式：1) the way +that-从句2) the way +in which-从句3) the way +从句 例如：The way(in which ,that) these comrades look at problems is wrong.这些同志看问题的方法不对。
The way(that ,in which)you’re doing it is completely crazy.你这么个干法，简直发疯。 We admired him for the way in which he faces difficulties. Wallace and Darwin greed on the way in which different forms of life had begun.华莱士和达尔文对不同类型的生物是如何起源的持相同的观点。 This is the way (that) he did it. I liked the way (that) she organized the meeting. 3.the way(that)有时可以与how(作“如何”解)通用。例如： That’s the way (that) she spoke. = That’s how she spoke. I should like to know the way/how you learned to master the fundamental technique within so short a time. 4．the way的其它用法：以上我们讲的都是用作先行词的the way，下面我们将叙述它的一些用法。
定冠词the的12种用法 定冠词the 的12 种用法，全知道?快来一起学习吧。下面就和大家分享，来欣赏一下吧。 定冠词the 的12 种用法，全知道? 定冠词the用在各种名词前面，目的是对这个名词做个记号，表示它的特指属性。所以在词汇表中，定冠词the 的词义是“这个，那个，这些，那些”，可见，the 即可以放在可数名词前，也可以修饰不可数名词，the 后面的名词可以是单数，也可以是复数。 定冠词的基本用法： (1) 表示对某人、某物进行特指，所谓的特指就是“不是别的，就是那个!”如： The girl with a red cap is Susan. 戴了个红帽子的女孩是苏珊。 (2) 一旦用到the，表示谈话的俩人都知道说的谁、说的啥。如：
The dog is sick. 狗狗病了。(双方都知道是哪一只狗) (3) 前面提到过的，后文又提到。如： There is a cat in the tree.Thecat is black. 树上有一只猫，猫是黑色的。 (4) 表示世界上唯一的事物。如： The Great Wall is a wonder.万里长城是个奇迹。(5) 方位名词前。如： thenorth of the Yangtze River 长江以北地区 (6) 在序数词和形容词最高级的前面。如： Who is the first?谁第一个? Sam is the tallest.山姆最高。 但是不能认为，最高级前必须加the，如： My best friend. 我最好的朋友。 (7) 在乐器前。如： play the flute 吹笛子
Way用法 A:I think you should phone Jenny and say sorry to her. B:_______. It was her fault. A. No way B. Not possible C. No chance D. Not at all 说明：正确答案是A. No way，意思是“别想！没门！决不！” 我认为你应该打电话给珍妮并向她道歉。 没门！这是她的错。 再看两个关于no way的例句： （1）Give up our tea break? NO way! 让我们放弃喝茶的休息时间？没门儿！ （2）No way will I go on working for that boss. 我决不再给那个老板干了。 way一词含义丰富，由它构成的短语用法也很灵活。为了便于同学们掌握和用好它，现结合实例将其用法归纳如下： 一、way的含义 1. 路线
He asked me the way to London. 他问我去伦敦的路。 We had to pick our way along the muddy track. 我们不得不在泥泞的小道上择路而行。 2. （沿某）方向 Look this way, please. 请往这边看。 Kindly step this way, ladies and gentlemen. 女士们、先生们，请这边走。 Look both ways before crossing the road. 过马路前向两边看一看。 Make sure that the sign is right way up. 一定要把符号的上下弄对。 3. 道、路、街，常用以构成复合词 a highway（公路），a waterway（水路），a railway（铁路），wayside（路边）
way/time的特殊用法 1、当先行词是way意思为”方式.方法”的时候,引导定语从句的关系词有下列3种形式： Way在从句中做宾语 The way that / which he explained to us is quite simple. Way在从句中做状语 The way t hat /in which he explained the sentence to us is quite simple. 2、当先行词是time时,若time表示次数时,应用关系代词that引导定语从句,that可以省略; 若time表示”一段时间”讲时,应用关系副词when或介词at/during + which引导定语从句 1.Is this factory _______ we visited last year? 2.Is this the factory-------we visited last year? A. where B in which C the one D which 3. This is the last time _________ I shall give you a lesson. A. when B that C which D in which 4.I don’t like the way ________ you laugh at her. A . that B on which C which D as 5.He didn’t understand the wa y ________ I worked out the problem. A which B in which C where D what 6.I could hardly remember how many times----I’ve failed. A that B which C in which D when 7.This is the second time--------the president has visited the country. A which B where C that D in which 8.This was at a time------there were no televisions, no computers or radios. A what B when C which D that