2010考研作文范文大全

CONTENTS Part 1 Sentence Writing1.1 Introduction to the Sentence1.2 Sentence Types1.3 Effective SentencesPart 2 Paragraph Writing2.1 Introduction to the Paragraph2.2 Organization of a paragraph2.3 Effective ParagraphsPart 3 Essay Writing3.1 Introduction to the Essay3.2 Organization of an Essay3.3 Essay DevelopmentPart 4 Practical Writing5.1 Resume and Cover Letter5.2 Business Letter5.2.1 Letter of complaint5.2.2 Letter of inquiry5.2.3 Letter of request5.2.4 Letter of apology5.2.5 Letter of thanks5.2.6 Letter of job application5.2.7 Letter of academic application5.2.8 Letter of recommendation１Part 1 Sentence Writing1.1 Introduction to the SentenceA Sentence is a grammatical unit of one or more words, expressing a complete thought or message. A normal sentence contains at least a subject and a predicate or finite verb. If the verb is transitive, there must be an object; if the verb is a linking verb, there must be a predicative or a complement. The following are five basic sentence patterns of English:-He came. (SV)-She wrote a letter. (SVO)-Jack is a student. (SVC)-The man told his son a story. (SVOO)-The news made the workers disappointed. (SVOC)Every English sentence contains a basic statement. It may stand alone as one short sentence as in the examples above, or it may be buried inside a longer sentence. It is the kernel that you have left after you chop away everything in a sentence except its essential meaning; it is the kernel you build on when you want to make a sentence longer.Besides the basic elements, attributes and adverbials help to make the thought or message of the sentence clear or complete:-He came to the classroom very early.-She wrote a long letter to her parents.-Jack is an intelligent and promising student.-The man told his five-year-old son an interesting story.-The news made the workers so disappointed that they decided to go on strike to defend their rights.Normally, students should try to avoid making sentence fragments or incomplete sentences without a subject or a predicate:-China is no longer what used to be.- After graduated from college, I went abroad for further study.-I spent almost two hours on the phone yesterday. Trying to find someone to repair my car.-George often told lies. So that no one believed him when he told about a snake in the school yard.1.2 Sentence TypesAccording to their structure, sentences are simple, compound, or complex.A simple sentence has only one subject and one predicate verb, but it may contain more than one object, attribute or adverbial. Short simple sentences are usually emphatic; they have special clarity, and provide variety when used with longer sentences:Jack was a student. He had a personal computer. There was something wrong with it yesterday. Its memory did not work well. He asked the dealer to come and fix it. Quite unexpectedly, the dealer brought him a new one. It was rare for a buyer to enjoy such a favour.Jack, however, thought it only too reasonable to get the new one.A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses (or simple sentences) related to each other in meaning, and linked by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, etc.) or by a semicolon without a conjunction. Coordinated ideas should be compatible and roughly equal in importance, or take shape one by one in orderly sequence:２-Most of us were in the hall, the doors had been closed, and the latecomers had to wait outside.-The Board of Directors discussed the idea for two hours, but they came to no conclusion.-Either John is not willing to keep his promise or he has forgotten about it.-Some trees are useful for their timber and some for their fruit, whereas some are useful for both.-There was no reply; the old woman‟s face was white, her eyes staring, and her breath inaudible; on the husband‟s face was a look of sheer horror.A complex sentence contains one main (or principal) clause and one or more dependent (or subordinate) clauses, with a connective word denoting the relation between the two parts. The dependent clause may play the part of a subject, an object, a predicative, an attribute, or an adverbial in the main clause. As a rule, the major idea is expressed in the main clause and the idea of less importance in the dependent clause. Long complex sentences express ideas clearly and accurately, for they have room for all kinds of modifiers:- That the match will be cancelled is now uncertain. (Subject)- The official said that more workers would be laid off. (Object)- The fact was that he had good reason for his absence. (Predicative)- The government which promises to cut taxes will be popular. (Attribute)- I would be failing my duty if I didn‟t tell you about the risks involved in the project.(Adverbial)Exercise: Rewrite the following by putting the short sentences into compound or complex sentences, or sentences with participial, prepositional, or other phrases.1. The sky was cloudless. The sun was shining brightly.2. She appeared on the stage. A stormy applause broke out.3. Xu comes from a working-class family. He enrolled in college last fall.4. He returned to his hometown. He had been away for twelve years. He looked in vain for thefamiliar landmarks.5. The gypsies are really a nomadic people from India. They migrated into Europe. Once theywere thought to be Egyptians.6. It was a poor quarter. There were a lot of small huts. They had mud walls and straw roofs.They dotted a hillside.1.3 Effective Sentences1.3.1 concisenessA sentence should contain no unnecessary words. If the idea is fully expressed, the fewer words are used, the better. Wordiness only obscures, instead of clarifying, the idea. But one often uses more words than necessary, so it is a good habit to reread what has been written to see if there are words that can be deleted without affecting the meaning expressed. Compare the following: Wordy: It was small in size.３He returned in the early part of the month of August.Concise: It was small.He returned in early August.Repetition is sometimes necessary for emphasis, but unnecessary repetition, either of the same words or of different words with the same meaning, should be avoided:Wordy: He gave many reasons for the failure, but the reasons he gave were not convincing.Concise: He gave many reasons for the failure, but none of them was convincing.Wordy: This machine was jointly designed by the old engineer in collaboration with some of his younger colleagues.Concise: This machine was jointly designed by the old engineer and some of his younger colleagues.This machine was designed by the old engineer in collaboration with some of hisyounger colleagues.Conciseness can sometimes be achieved by changing the sentence structure. Compare:Wordy: Smith usually likes to drink all kinds of wines that are produced in France.Concise: Smith prefers wines produced in France.Smith prefers French wines.Wordy: Man has the power of making certain instruments. Such instruments bring stars into view.Concise: Man has the power of making certain instruments which bring stars into view.Wordy: There was a pine tree that stood like a giant on the top of the mountain. It towered over the trees around it.Concise: The pine tree on the top of the mountain stood like a giant and towered over the trees around it.The giant pine tree on the top of the mountain towered over the trees around it.On the top of the mountain was a giant pine tree which towered over the trees aroundit.These examples show that sometimes a clause can be replaced by a phrase and a phrase by a word without any change in the meaning. They also show that sometimes two sentences may be combined with the idea of the less important one expressed in a participial phrase, an attributive clause, or some other form.Try to make the following passage concise:Li Qing, who was a first-year student of the college, would go to a park near her school every day in the morning. She would bring a small recorder with her. In the park she would find a quiet corner and listen to a tape of English stories.Exercise: Revise the following sentences. Try to make them concise.1. These watermelons are large in size and sweet in taste.2. What I am trying to say is that in my opinion he has not done his work very well and itneeds improving.3. You must first work out an outline for your paper, and then after you have done that, youneed to collect all kinds of material to support your point of view.4. In that country violent death has become a commonplace thing, a thing that occurs every４day.5. This pretty actress keeps appearing in TV serials repeatedly.6. According to the speaker, it is obvious that the responsibility system has helped to increaseproduction and he has no doubt about it.7. One reason why people are well informed in this country is because of the fact that there aremany newspapers which can easily be bought or subscribed to.8. Statistics show that in the decade from 1980 to 1990 enrollments at this school doubled : in1990 there were twice as many students as in 1980.1.3.2 CoherenceCoherence means clear and reasonable connection between parts. A sentence is coherent when its words or parts are properly connected and their relationships unmistakably clear. It is not coherent if it has faulty parallel constructions, dangling or misplaced modifiers, confusing shifts in person and number, or in voice, tense, and mood.Faulty: A man is judged not only by what he says but also by his deeds.Revised: A man is judged not only by what he says but also by what he does.A man is judged not only by his words but also by his deeds.Faulty: We thought she was charming, intelligent, and a very capable young woman.Revised: We thought she was a charming, intelligent, and very capable young woman.We thought she was charming, intelligent, young, and very capable.Parallel ideas had better be expressed in parallel constructions, which give emphasis, clarity and balance to a sentence. “What he says” and “his deeds” are not parallel in form, so one of them has to be changed. The second sentence is faulty for the same reason and can be improved.Faulty: Looking out of the window, the grassland stretches as far as the eye can reach.Revised: Looking out of the window, he can see the grassland stretching as far as the eye can reach.Outside the window, the grassland stretches as far as the eye can reach.Faulty: I read an interesting story in a magazine about sportsmen.Revised: In a magazine I read an interesting story about sportsmen.I read in a magazine an interesting story about sportsmen.In the first example, the dangling modifier “Looking …”is not grammatically related to the noun or pronoun it is intended to modify. The noun or pronoun does not even appear in the sentence. The second one is considered as “faulty” because of the unclear connection between certain parts. The modifier “about sportsmen” seems to modify “magazine”, but it should modify “story”. This fault is caused by misplaced modifier. Such faulty sentences are not coherent and may be hard to understand.Faulty: An important thing for the student to remember is that when writing a paper, you should not plagiarize.Revised: An important thing for the student to remember is that when writing a paper, he should not plagiarize.Faulty: Those who wish to take linguistics are expected to sign his name on this sheet of paper.Revised: Those who wish to take linguistics are expected to sign their names on this sheet of paper.５Faulty: Students should learn to analyze and solve problems independently. Don’t rely on your teacher‟s help.Revised: Students should learn to analyze and solve problems independently. They should not rely on their teacher‟s help.Faulty: She reviewed the lesson taught last week and all the exercises assigned by the teacher were done.Revised: She reviewed the lesson taught last week and did all the exercises assigned by the teacher.The above faulty sentences are not coherent because of a confusing change in person, in number, in mood, and in voice respectively. A sentence should be consistent in these respects. Unnecessary shifts should be avoided.Exercise: Please make the following sentences coherent:1. I read the novel on the train, which did not interest me at all.2. A well-dressed man admitted us to the house, and we later learned that he was a thief.3.The children promised to be careful and that they would return home early.4. After years of effort, Gao said that soil erosion has been brought under control in that region.5. Using either military or peaceful means, most of the remaining enemy forces were put outof action.6. In recent years, China has introduced much technology and equipment from abroad, playingan important role in improving its petrochemical technology.7. One-sideness means thinking in terms of absolutes, that is, a metaphysical approach toproblems.8. Efforts will be made to introduce pensions, medical insurance, and housing systems, and thebest way to get laid-off workers out of poverty is to help them find jobs, Li stressed.1.3.4 EmphasisWhen there is an important idea, it should be expressed with emphasis. In speech people use various ways for this purpose, such as speaking loudly or using a gesture. In writing there are also ways for placing emphasis on sentences or words that should be emphasized.In a passage there may be sentences which convey more important ideas than others do. They can be emphasized in the following way:·Inverted sentences. They are emphatic because their unusual word order draws the reader‟s attention.- In rushed the noisy children.- The poet was born poor, and poor he remained all his life.- Faith in the Chinese economic reforms the majority of people will never lose.- In no other place in the world can one find such enthusiasm for applying for hosting the６2008 Olympic Games.·Negative-positive statements. They first point out what is not the truth, and then what is. The contrast makes them emphatic.- The delegates shouted and quarreled. It was not a meeting; it was a farce.- There are so many errors in the performance that the result was not a tragedy, but a comedy.Very often a part of a sentence, whether it is a word or a phrase, should be given more emphasis because it is where the main point of the sentence is. Various ways can be used to achieve this.·Placing. The beginning and the end, especially the end, of a sentence are the two places that attract the reader‟s attention. If possible, important words should be put there. Compare: - There is a big tree, which is said to be 300 years old, in the temple.In the temple there is a big tree, which is said to be 300 years old.- There have been many great discoveries made by scientists in the 20th century.Many great discoveries have been made by scientists in the 20th century.- Wang Bing is modest and hardworking and is a good student.Modest and hardworking, Wang Bing is a good student.Wang Bing is a good student, modest and hardworking.·Repetition. Unnecessary repetition adds nothing new to the meaning of a sentence; therefore it should be avoided. But sometimes, in a proper context repeating a word or an idea in different words may be a means of emphasis.- Bright, very bright, were the stars over the wild, dark Yenan hills.- We long for success and we are working hard for success.- Now is the time to forget everything in the past. Now is the time to get down to the business.Now is the time to work hard for the future.·Subordination. This means putting a minor idea in a dependent element of the sentence so as to give the main idea a prominent position. Compare:- The professor walked into the classroom and he carried a bag of books with him.The professor walked into the classroom, carrying a bag of books with him.The professor walked into the classroom, with a bag of books under his arm.·A series of short sentences, if related in meaning, may be combined with the main idea properly emphasized.- They were waiting for the meeting to begin. They talked with each other. They talkedabout the women‟s football team. The team had won victories in Guangzhou.- While waiting for the meeting to begin, they talked about the victories won by thewomen‟s football team in Guangzhou.- Li is a new student. He comes from a southern province. He speaks a dialect. We find ithard to understand his dialect.- Li, a new student from a southern province, speaks a dialect which is difficult for us to understand.- General Grant was an outstanding commander, but he was not a wise president. This iswhat our history teacher said.- Our history teacher said that General Grant was not a wise president, though he was anoutstanding commander.- According to our history teacher, General Grant, who was an outstanding commander, wasnot a wise president.７·Emphatic words and phrases. There are words and phrases that may be used to emphasize other words. The following are a few examples:- This is the very dictionary I have been looking for.- His latest novel is by far the best he has ever written.- You can buy everything under the sun in this department store.Exercise: Rewrite the following sentences, emphasizing the main idea in each.1. She did not spend a day without having some unpleasantness with waiters in the hotel.2. Huang, who is over two metres tall, is the tallest man of the team.3. He decided to take the job, and it was something unexpected.4. China has changed a great deal as a result of reform and the open policy during the past 14years.5. An attempt was made by Robert to do all the things that the sailor members of the crewusually did while serving as a cabin boy on the ship.6. Mrs. Jones, the famous writer, was among his neighbors.Part 2 Paragraph Writing2.1 Introduction to the ParagraphParagraph is the basic unit of organization in writing in which a group of related sentences develops one main idea. A paragraph can be as short as one sentence or as long as ten or more sentences; anyhow, it should be long enough to express the main idea clearly. In general, a paragraph comprises three major structural parts: a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It not only names the topic of the paragraph, but also limits the topic to one or two areas that can be discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph. All the other sentences must be written in accordance with it.Sample:(1)Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. (2)First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. (3)Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes. (4)Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. (5)For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. (6)Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science.(7)For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. (8)The most recent use of gold is in astronauts‟ suits. (9)Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection outside the spaceship. (10)In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty, but also for its utility.Sentence 1 is the topic sentence which states the main idea of the paragraph. Sentences 2-9 are supporting sentences which develop the topic sentence by giving reasons, examples, facts, statistics, and quotations. Sentence 10 is the concluding sentence which indicates the end of the paragraph and leaves the reader with important points to remember.８2.2 Effective ParagraphsA good paragraph is characterized by its unity, coherence, transition, and completeness.2.2.1 UnityEvery good paragraph has unity, which means that each paragraph is centered on one main idea. If you start to discuss a new idea, start a new paragraph. Furthermore, every supporting sentence in the paragraph must be directly related to the main idea. Avoid including any information that has no relation with the topic sentence.A unified paragraph is internally consistent and has a simple focus. That means the paragraph has only one fundamental purpose: to be focused. In a unified paragraph, every sentence contributes to this focus by exemplifying it, explaining it, or expanding on it in some way. The following paragraph is an example of a unified one:Sample 1(1)The punishment of criminals has always been a problem for society. (2)Citizens have had to decide whether offenders such as first-degree murderers should be killed by being hanged, imprisoned for life, or rehabilitated and given a second chance in society. (3)Many citizens argue that serious criminals should be executed. (4)They believe that killing criminals will set an example for others and rid society of a cumbersome burden. (5)Other citizens say that no one has the right to take a life and that capital punishment is not a deterrent to crime. (6)They believe that society as well as the criminal is responsible for crime and that killing criminals does not solve the problems of either society or the criminal.Here the writer states the main idea (the focus) in the first sentence (the topic sentence). Sentence 2 then specifies the exact nature of the problem by listing the choices the society has. Sentence 3 breaks the topic down still further by stating the viewpoint of one group of citizens, and sentence 4 gives the reasons for this viewpoint. Sentence 5 states the opposing viewpoint. Sentence 6 lists the reasons for the opposing viewpoint. The paragraph as a whole has a unified and logical structure that follows a clear pattern of development.Sample 2Most serious coin collectors carry special insurance on their collections. I became interested in coin-collecting when my aunt gave me sixteen old silver dollars on my sixteenth birthday. Insurance for coins can usually be added as a special rider on a homeowner‟s or apartment-dweller‟s policy. Although it is somewhat expensive, many coins in a good collection are irreplaceable, so insurance is well worth the cost.One of the greatest enemies of paragraph unity is the human thought process. We tend to think associatively rather than logically. One fact reminds us of another, even if the latter is not logically related to the former. In sample 2, mentioning coin collectors reminded the writer of how she began collecting coins. This may be an interesting fact, but it does not deal with insurance in the paragraph. So it should be excluded.Unity in a paragraph requires the consistent development of a central idea. Any sentence that has no clear relation to the topic of the paragraph will obscure the point you are trying to make. Thus, each sentence must show a clear connection to the central idea to achieve a single focus, that is, unity in the paragraph.2.2.2 Coherence９Coherence is the orderly presentation of ideas. In a coherent paragraph, all the ideas flow smoothly from one sentence to the next sentence. Therefore, the paragraph reads as an integrated whole rather than as a series of separated sentences. Coherence in a paragraph depends chiefly on developing the sentences according to a logical order that is easy to follow.Sample 1Whether you do or do not open a gift in the presence of the giver; whether you should or should not turn the plate over to look at the maker‟s symbol on the back; whether you put your coat on before or after you leave the host‟s house; whether you eat as quietly or as noisily as p ossible; whether you carry on a conversation during a meal; whether you walk in front of or behind a seated person; whether it is a friendly or an offensive gesture to put your hand on the arm of the person with whom you are talking – these and a thousand other questions are matters of cultural definition. None of them is inherently right or wrong, and none is good or bad manners except as a society defines it.Sample 1 presents one possible way to arrange details or examples in a paragraph –from the specific to the general. The details are mentioned first, and the general statement, which may serve as the topic sentence, comes at the end of the paragraph, summarizing the main idea of the paragraph. What‟s more, the parallel structure of the sentences adds to the coherence of the paragraph.Sample 2It is commonly recognized that dogs have an extreme antagonism toward cats. This enmity between these two species can be traced back to the time of the early Egyptian dynasties. Archaeologists in recent years have discovered Egyptian texts in which there are detailed accounts of canines brutally mauling felines. Today this type of cruelty between these two domestic pets can be witnessed in regions as close as your own neighborhood. For example, when dogs are walked by their masters, and they happen to catch sight of a stray cat, they will pull with all their strength on their leash until the master is forced to yield; the typical result is that a feline is chased up a tree. The hatred between dogs and cats has lasted for so many centuries; it is unlikely that this conflict will ever end.Sample 2 is coherent. All the sentences effectively relate back to the topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. All of the sentences have something to do with dogs not liking cats. There is a flow of thoughts and ideas among the sentences in this paragraph. There are also good transitions employed in the paragraph.In short, to gain coherence in a paragraph, you must plan and arrange the content deliberately so that the paragraph will develop naturally and logically. As to the order you should choose when writing a paragraph, that depends on your purpose and the content of the paragraph.2.2.3 TransitionWe have discussed two of the qualities that make for a good paragraph, unity and coherence, but we might note here a special problem in paragraph development that relates to continuity – transition. Continuity may not be perfect even if the writer arranges his sentences in a clear, logical order. He has to use good transitions so that one sentence leads smoothly to another.The following ways may help the writer to produce a fluent paragraph:1) Using transitional expressions;2) Repeating key words and phrases;3) Using pronoun reference;4) Using parallel constructions.Sample 11) The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead people's bodies by making mummies１０of them. Mummies several thousand years old have been discovered nearly intact. The skin, hair, teeth, fingernails and toenails, and facial features of the mummies were evident. It is possible to diagnose the disease they suffered in life, such as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies. The process was remarkably effective. Sometimes apparent were the fatal afflictions of the dead people: a middle-aged king died from a blow on the head, and polio killed a child king. Mummification consisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural preservatives inside and out, and then wrapping the body in layers of bandages.2) The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead people's bodies by making mummies of them. In short, mummification consisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural preservatives inside and out, and then wrapping the body in layers of bandages. And the process was remarkably effective. Indeed, mummies several thousand years old have been discovered nearly intact. Their skin, hair, teeth, fingernails and toenails, and facial features are still evident. Their diseases in life, such as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies, are still diagnosable. Even their fatal afflictions are still apparent: a middle-aged king died from a blow on the head; a child king died from polio.Paragraph1) starts with a topic sentence, and the sentences that follow are clearly related to the topic sentence. In the language of writing, the paragraph is unified (i.e., it contains no irrelevant details). However, the paragraph is not coherent. The sentences are disconnected from each other, making it difficult for the reader to follow the writer's train of thought.Paragraph 2) is the same paragraph revised for coherence. The paragraph is much more coherent. The organization of the information and the links between sentences help readers move easily from one sentence to the next. Notice how this writer uses a variety of coherence devices, sometimes in combination, to achieve overall paragraph coherence.Useful Transitional ExpressionsIt is important to choose appropriate transitional devices for the kind of relationship you want to indicate. Be sure that you know exactly what the relationship is before you pick a transitional word.Time: immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then …Addition:and, again, and then, furthermore, in addition, besides, next, first, second, moreover …Example: for example, for instance, as an example, like, specifically, consider as an illustration, that is, such as, in this case, on this occasion, in this situation, takethe case of, as an illustration …Emphasis: chiefly, equally, indeed, even more than important, in particular, most important, definitely, extremely, obviously, in any case, absolutely, emphatically,unquestionably, without a doubt, on no account, under no circumstances …Comparison:similarly, likewise, and, also, in the same way …Contrast:however, yet, nevertheless, on the other hand, but, on the contrary, by contrast with, conversely, whereas, compared to, although, in contrast, despite that, evenso, in spite of, …Concession:although, of course, admittedly, true, doubtless, granted that, no doubt …Consequence: thus, so, then, it follows, as a result, therefore, hence, consequently, accordingly, otherwise, thereupon …Conclusion:in brief, briefly, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently,。