XXXX大学本科毕业论文（设计）任务书
编号：
论文（设计）题目：由《宠儿》分析美国黑人女性的悲惨命运及原因
学院： XXX学院专业：英语教育班级： XXX英语教育X班
学生姓名： XXX 学号： XXXX 指导教师： XX 职称：XX
1、论文（设计）研究目标及主要任务
本论文的研究目标是探讨美国黑人女性的悲惨命运。其主要任务是通过分析美国飞人女性的悲惨命运来正视美国黑奴制给黑人女性带来的身心上的伤害，分析各方面原因，避免历史重演。
2、论文（设计）的主要内容
本论文分为二章，第一章介绍美国黑人女性的悲惨命运，第二章介绍黑人悲惨命运的内部及外部原因。
3、论文（设计）的基础条件及研究路线
本论文的基础条件是不同的外国语言文学研究者对《宠儿》中的女性的研究结果。
研究路线是对美国黑人女性的悲惨命运，她们的抗争以及造成她们悲惨命运的原因几方面进行分析，以期达到正视历史，警醒世人的作用。
4、主要参考文献
1.Morrison Toni, Beloved (Penguin Putnam Inc.,375 Hudson Street,
New York, 1987 )
2.陈洁奴隶制下扭曲的母爱——解读《宠儿》中的黑人母亲“塞
丝”辽宁：辽宁工业大学学报2009
3.黄锦莉奴隶制的血泪控诉——评介托尼.莫里森的《宠儿》中
国图书评论
4.潘岳，雷格《宠儿》中国文学出版社1996
教师：年月日
教研室主任：年月
注：一式三份，学院（系）、指导教师、学生各一份
XXXX大学本科生毕业论文（设计）开题报告书
XXXX大学本科生毕业论文（设计）评议书
XXXX大学本科生毕业论文（设计）文献综述
Literature Review
In the nine novels of African-American writer Toni Morrison, Beloved became the favorite of readers because of its thrilling plot and unparalleled narration. Toni Morrison was the first African American woman who was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. The strong sense of tragic filled her novels from her beginning work The bluest eyes to her latest work A Mercy. In the book Conversations with Toni Morrison,1 Toni Morrison was asked why her books always were so gloomy and so sad. Why didn’t she try to write some positive and healthy relationships? She answered that there was a writing style with happy marriage which was called comedy, but she would never write with it. She was writing something which can be called tragedy which can purify and enlighten. There was a huge difference between these two writing styles, but she tended to tragedy, may be because she was a minor classicalist.”In her eyes, the real life had the nature of tragedy. The present Americans, especially the black people, were and are fighting against their dilemma for a long time. This made her the first African American women to be cited for the prestigious award. She was a predominant writer of the 20th century in studying the black literature. As a female African American writer, Toni Morrison concerned seriously about the life and spiritual world of American blacks, especially the black women. In her fictional world, Toni Morrison reflected miseries, abnormalities and distortions of the black women’s feeling and mind under the oppressions of racism and sexism. Her remarkable achievements represented the recognition of a new kind of literature----the black women literature throughout the world. Toni’s education gave her the access to achieve the previous statement. She attended Howard University where she majored English with a minor in classics. Toni got her bachelor’s degree in English and then attended Cornell University and received a master’s degree in 1955. Toni’s early year s’experience and her knowledge of the history of her family and race made her feel more of the painful effects of racial discrimination. She was exposed to a lot of materials and writers that write about anti-slavery movements during her working time as an editor, which helped her produce an inspiration to figure out the terrible picture of slavery. Thus Beloved was born. And this inspiration was clearly expressed in the preface of Beloved. It was published in 1987 and made a literary sensation. It was considered as a milestone in the history of American literature. Morrison’s other works such as The Bluest Eye(1967), Sula(1973), Song of Solomon(1977), Tar Baby(1981), Paradise(1998), Love(2003), also received high praise in the American Literary World.
African American literature, as an up-rising star of American literature, possessed a very important position in American literature. The vulnerable groups especially the African American females got a lot of attention from every aspect of the society. There emerged a large number of writers who studies the African American literature. As an African American female writer, Toni Morrison paid much attention to the description of the psychological world of the African American people. Beloved was the fifth novel of Toni Morrison which was thought highly of. It was regarded as a
milestone of American literature. Although it had become a controversial source since its publication, Beloved proved to be an extraordinary success and gained Morrison great reputation. Besides being awarded the Pulitzer Prize and the Nobel Prize, Beloved also won her the Robert F. Kennedy Award, the Melcher book Award and the Before Columbus American Book Award. The Elizabeth Cady Stanton Award from the National Organization for women also recognized the contribution the novel made to the history of black women. The American literary world had a high praise for this novel. Nation magazine valued it as Toni Morrison’s finest work and stated it belonged to the highest shelf of our literature. Chicago Sun-Time once valued Beloved as Morr ison’s finest work and stated that nothing she had written so sets her apart, so displays her prodigious, almost shocking talents. Many critics were attracted to its controversial theme study. Elizabeth B. House says that, “Throughout Beloved, Morrison’s theme is that remembering yesterday, while not being consumed by them, gives people the tomorrows with which to make real lives.” "Beloved" was balance and thorough in structure. It had the system of modern mythology. The harsh emphasis on literary skills and the use of the stream of consciousness dominated the novel. After Morrison won the Nobel Prize for Literature, a lot of people, intentionally or unintentionally, dismissed her because of her identity. I thought that black women's identity is precisely the guarantee of her to get into the ranks of the masters of modern Western literature. It was her unique contribution to make the voice of the vulnerable groups (blacks and female) strongly imported into the Western literary tradition. Infanticide might be the most catching plot of the novel which stirred up thousands of studies on the analysis of Sethe’s psychology when she killed her daughter. Thousands of critics criticized this plot from different views. Li Xueqin and Lin Xiaoyong thought that Sethe’s behavior challenged the tradition conception of motherhood. Jane volt thought that Morrison praised Sethe’s determination and courage in sending her children to her mother-in-law, but at the same time, her making choice for her children led to her infanticide. Hu Ying and Li Mengru thought that the infanticide was the inevitable product of the history. Yang Xiaohui thought that Sethe’s behavior was her negative struggle against the slavery. And other scholars thought that Sethe’s behavior is the inevitable product of males’domination of the world. Different people have different opinions about this plot. In my paper, I tend to regard Sethe’ infanticide as her helpless accuse of the bloody and brutal slavery. And I tended to unearth the internal reasons of African American people which caused their miserable sufferings. Things happened under the effects of external and internal reasons. Their fragility in character was the main reason why they were oppressed for so long a time. Meanwhile, their childish, innocent, kindness and obedience were also their reasons for being persecuted. In a word, the miserable history of African American people gave us a lesson. We must learn from their sufferings and treat it correctly. It reminded us to cherish the happy life we have today.
本科生毕业论文设计
题目：由《宠儿》分析美国黑人女性的悲惨命运
作者姓名： XXX
指导教师： XX
所在学院： XXX学院
专业（系）：英语教育
班级（届）： XXXX届
完成日期 2013 年 5 月 14 日
Analysis of the tragic fate of African American women and
cause of it in Beloved
BY
XXXX
Pro.XXX , Tutor
A Thesis Submitted to Department of English
Language and Literature in Partial
Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of B.A. in English
At XXXXUniversity
May 14th, 2013
内容摘要：非裔美国女作家托尼.莫里森的小说深刻的揭示了美国黑人女性
在当时社会环境下的悲惨命运，其代表作《宠儿》是以黑人家庭三代女性的不同命运为题材来揭示黑人女性在当时的社会里所受到的各种压迫和悲惨的命运。身为奴隶，他们被剥夺了最基本的为人父母和子女的权力，不能拥有正常的家庭，女性黑奴必须不断的生育，却被剥夺照顾、保护子女的权利，因为她们的子女也是奴隶主的财产；男性被不断转卖或随意杀戮，在家庭角色中一直缺失。但是人的天性让他们不懈地维护作为人所需要的最基本权利。如小说中的塞丝为了人身自由和家庭完整而不惜亲手杀死女儿；贝比·萨格斯用带有非洲文化特色的布道号召获得自由的人们热爱自己的身体，直面自己的灵魂，对抗着白人对他们肉体和灵魂的摧残；丹芙对还魂宠儿的悉心照料以及害怕失去宠儿所表现出来的她对亲情的渴求。她们的悲惨命运揭示了非裔美国人民在蓄奴制时期艰辛而漫长的受压迫之路，揭示了当时的社会制度给作为黑人，作为女性的她们带来的不幸。
关键字：《宠儿》美国黑人女性悲惨命运
Abstract：African-American writer Toni Morrison's novel profound reveals the
tragic fate of African-American women under that social environment. Her masterpiece "Beloved" which based on the fate of women of three generations of a black family to reveal the tragic fate of black women at that time and the oppressions they suffered. As slaves, they were deprived of the most basic powers of being parents and children. They can not have a normal family. Female slaves must constantly give birth to babies, but they were deprived of the right to take care and protect their children, because their children are the property of their owners. Male slaves are constantly resell or randomly killed. They are totally absent in family. But human nature drives them to maintain the most fundamental rights as human beings tirelessly. For example, in the novel, Sethe killed her daughter without hesitation in order to get her children liberty and keep the family entire. Baby Suggs sermons with characteristics of African cultural in calling upon the free men to love their bodies, to confront their own soul and to fight against the destruction of body and soul that the whites exert on them. Denver’s taking care of the resurrected Beloved and the fear of losing Beloved demonstrated her desire for affection. Their tragic fate reveals the tragic of thousands of African-American people in the hard and tough period when the slavery system dominates the society, and reveals the misfortune that the social system brings to black females.
Key words: Beloved , African American, female slaves, tragic fate
Table of Contents
Introduction (1)
A. Introduction to Morrison (1)
B.Introduction to Beloved (2)
Chapter I Tragic Fate of Black Women in America (6)
A. Tragic fate of the females as slaves (6)
B. Tragic fate as mothers (9)
C. Tragic fate as slaves; daughters (13)
Chapter II The causes of female slaves’ tragic fate......。 (16)
A. American slavery and racial discrimination (16)
B. American civil war (18)
C. Internal reason (19)
Conclusion (21)
Notes (23)
Bibliography (24)
Introduction
Introduction to Toni Morrison
In the nine novels of African-American writer Toni Morrison, Beloved became the favorite of readers because of its thrilling plot and unparalleled narration. Toni Morrison was the first African American woman who was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. The strong sense of tragic filled her novels from her beginning work The bluest eyes to her latest work A Mercy. In the book Conversations with Toni Morrison,1 Toni Morrison was asked why her books always were so gloomy and so sad. Why didn’t she try to write some positive and healthy relationships? She answered that there was a writing style with happy marriage which was called comedy, but she would never write with it. She was writing something which can be called tragedy which can purify and enlighten. There was a huge difference between these two writing styles, but she tended to tragedy, may be because she was a minor classicalist.” In her eyes, the real life had the nature of tragedy. The present Americans, especially the black people, were and are fighting against their dilemma for a long time. This made her the first African American women to be cited for the prestigious award. She was a predominant writer of the 20th century in studying the black literature. As a female African American writer, Toni Morrison concerned seriously about the life and spiritual world of American blacks, especially the black women. In her fictional world, Toni Morrison reflected miseries, abnormalities and distortions of the black women’s feeling and mind under the oppressions of racism and sexism. Her remarkable achievements represented the recognition of a new kind of literature----the black women literature throughout the world. Toni’s education g ave her the access to achieve the previous statement. She attended Howard University where she majored English with a minor in classics. Toni got her bachelor’s degree in English and then attended Cornell University and received a master’s degree in 1955. Toni’s early year s’ experience and her knowledge of the history of her family and race made her feel more of the painful effects of racial discrimination. She was exposed to a lot of materials and writers that write about anti-slavery movements during her working
time as an editor, which helped her produce an inspiration to figure out the terrible picture of slavery. Thus Beloved was born. And this inspiration was clearly expressed in the preface of Beloved. It was published in 1987 and made a literary sensation. It was considered as a milestone in the history of American literature. It received Pulitzer Prize in 1988. In 1993, the novel was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. Morrison’s other works such as The Bluest Eye(1967), Sula(1973), Song of Solomon(1977), Tar Baby(1981), Paradise(1998), Love(2003), also received high praise in the American Literary World.
Introduction to Beloved
Beloved was composed on the basis of a true story which happened in the year 1873 after the slavery had been abolished for ten years and after the Emancipation Proclamation and the Civil War. Morrison adopted the materials from a newspaper which told that a black woman named Margaret Garner who has escaped from Kentucky to Cincinnati. When she was being chased by her old master, she attempted to kill all of her children, rather than gave them to her old master. But she could only succeed in sawing one baby girl in throat. Based on the story, through Morrison’s imagination and much research, the historical Margaret changed into Sethe, and the dead baby became Beloved. The story began in 1873, after the slavery has been abolished for 124 years, in a house named 124, the house they inhabit, was apparently haunted, strange and troublesome events happened there with an alarming regularity. Because of this, Sethe’s youngest daughter, Denver, had no friends and was extremely lonely. Howard and Buglar, Sethe’s sons, ran away from home by the time they were thirteen. Their primary reason was the fear of being killed by their own mother. They did not understand why Sethe murdered Beloved and believed that whatever caused the murder might happen again. Shortly after, Baby Suggs, the mother of Sethe’s husband Halle, died in her bed.
Paul D, one of the slaves from the Sweet Home, the plantation where Sethe, Halle and Baby Suggs had worked in, arrived at 124. He tried to bring a sense of
reality into the house. He also tried to make the family move forward in time and leave the past behind. In doing so, he forced the ghost of Beloved out with table legs and his roar. At first, he seemed to be successful, because he successfully led the family to a carnival and they had a good time there. However, on their way back, they met a young woman who had distinct features of a baby and called herself Beloved sitting in front of their house. Denver recognized that she must be the resurrection of her sister Beloved. Paul D, suspicious of the young woman, warned Sethe, but charmed by the young woman. Sethe ignored him. Then Paul D found himself being gradually forced out of Sethe’s home by unknown power. When he was finally made to sleep in the shed outside, he was cornered by Beloved, who had put a spell on him for this purpose. She penetrated into his mind and his heart, forcing him to have sex with her, while flooding his consciousness with horrific memories from his past. Paul D, overwhelmed with guilt after the incident, attempted to tell Sethe, but could not and instead told her he wanted her pregnant. Sethe was humored and inspired by his wishes, and Paul D. found the power to resist Beloved and her influence over him. However, when he told his friends at work about his plans to start a new family, they reacted negatively and fearfully. Stamp Paid then revealed to Paul D. the reason for the community’s rejection of Sethe. When Paul D. asked Sethe about it, she told him what happened all those years ago. After escaping from Sweet Home and successfully making it to her mother-in-law’s home where her children were waiting, Sethe was found by her master, Schoolteacher, who attempted to catch Sethe and her children back. In a heightened panic, Sethe grabed her children, ran into the tool shed and tried to kill them all, but only succeeded with her youngest daughter. Sethe explained to Paul D her reasons for doing it, stating that she was “trying to put my babies where they would be safe.”(166）2 However, the revelation was too much to Paul D, who later left the house for good. Without Paul D, the sense of reality and moving time disappeared.
Seethe came to believe that the girl was the daughter whom Sethe murdered by slitting her throat with a handsaw when the child was only two years old, and whose tombstone read only “Beloved”. Upon this realization, Sethe began to spend
carelessly and spoiled Beloved out of guilt. Beloved recognized her mother’s guilt and became angry and more demanding, throwing hellish anger when she did not get her way. Beloved’s presence consumed Sethe’s life to the point where she became exhausted and even sacrificed her own need for food, while Beloved grew bigger and bigger. In the climax of the novel Denver, the youngest daughter, reached out and searched for help from the black community. People arrived at 124 to drive Beloved. However, while Sethe was confused and had a recall of the Schoolteacher coming again, Beloved disappeared.
Although it had become a controversial source since its publication, Beloved proved to be an extraordinary success and gained Morrison great reputation. Besides being awarded the Pulitzer Prize and the Nobel Prize, Beloved also won her the Robert F. Kennedy Award, the Melcher book Award and the Before Columbus American Book Award. The Elizabeth Cady Stanton Award from the National Organization for women also recognized the contribution the novel made to the history of black women. The American literary world had a high praise for this novel. Nation magazine valued it as Toni Morrison’s finest work and stated it belonged to the highest shelf of our literature. Chicago Sun-Time once valued Beloved as Morrison’s finest work and stated that nothing she had written so sets her apart, so displays her prodigious, almost shocking talents. Many critics were attracted to its controversial theme study. Elizabeth B. House says that, “Throughout Beloved, Morrison’s theme is that remembering yesterday, while not being consumed by them, gives people the tomorrows with which to make real lives.”"Beloved" was balance and thorough in structure. It had the system of modern mythology. The harsh emphasis on literary skills and the use of the stream of consciousness dominated the novel. After Morrison won the Nobel Prize for Literature, a lot of people, intentionally or unintentionally, dismissed her because of her identity. I thought that black women's identity is precisely the guarantee of her to get into the ranks of the masters of modern Western literature. It was her unique contribution to make the voice of the vulnerable groups (blacks and female) strongly imported into the Western literary tradition.
Chapter I Tragic fate of black women in America
Slavery and racial oppression dominated the literature and the society of America in that time. Almost all the blacks in Beloved had experienced the slavery and influenced by it. The bloody memory glutted their mind. They wanted to forget the past, and avoid mentioning the terrible memory. But they had to live with the painful memory that the slavery brought to them because they had once experienced it and it was hard to avoid the reappearance of the past. What the slavery and racial oppression brought to the black women were tragedies and miseries. Under that social context, the black women were deprived of the right to have happy marriage and happy family. As black women, they were born to be slaves and lived with tragic fate.
A.Tragic fate of the females as slaves
In Beloved, almost all the main characters were blacks. As blacks, they did not have the right that the whites have. They could not get a specious job. They were resold and killed randomly. Paul D was the best example of this fact. He was sold to the owners who kill them for no reason. Even Paul D, a man of indomitable spirit, was afraid of recalling the bloody memory not to mentioning it. They can not had normal and entire families as normal people. In the novel, Sethe got married with Halle, son of Baby Suggs, and gave birth to four babies. It seemed that Sethe was lucky because she could marry the man she loves and had baby with him. But their marriage was not legally accepted because they were the property of Mr. Garner. They were under the control of the owner. Although they were married, they can not see each other clearly the whole week except on Sunday morning because Halle had to do extra work to pay for his mother’s freedom. But as a husband and father, he was totally absent in supporting the family after Sethe’s success in escaping from the controlling of the Schoolteacher and arriving at her mother-in-law’s house. Sethe waited for him and took care of his family but only to be told that he was there when the nephew of Schoolteacher robbed the milk of her. It was too much for her to know
that Halle watched them doing that to her and did nothing to prevent it but instead scrawled butter on his face. He was afraid of revolting against the whites. Sethe then accepted Paul D, the man who loves her so much when they were in Sweet Home, and planed to start new life with him after 18 years. But after Beloved came back, he could not resist the temptation from the young woman and betrayed Sethe. He had sex with Beloved. When he knew that Sethe murdered her child, he could not understand Sethe’s behavior and he could not forgive Sethe for what she had done. Paul D gave up his plan to start new life with Sethe and left her. Just because Sethe was a black woman, she could not choose the life she wanted for her children and she thought its safe to be with God than being the properties of the whites and she chose to kill her children rather than give them back to the Schoolteacher. It was the slavery that pushed her to do this. She was a mother who loves her children very much. But being a black woman at that time, she did not have the right to love and raise her children and she did not have the right to have happy marriage. Halle chose to collapse himself and disappear and Paul D left Sethe. These two men dared not to be faced with the bloody truth and escaped. Sethe had to support the family all by herself and lived with their misunderstandings.
As for Beloved, she was killed by her own mother to save her two brothers. In the time when the male dominated the world, she was the sacrifice of the society. Her mother sacrificed her to protect her brothers. Under that social circumstance she could not enjoy her mother’s love for her but killed by her mother. What she could do is to haunt in the house where Sethe lived in and felt her mother’s love for her by doing strange and troublesome things. But after Paul D drove her away with table legs and roar she resurrected to her mother’s house in the shape of a young woman to seek for her mother’s love for her.
As for Baby Suggs, she was accustomed to the fact that she could not have her children beside her, so she was even not willing to see them after she gave birth to them. She cannot remember clearly how many whites had raped her and they destroyed her legs, her back, her head, her eyes, her hands, her kidneys, her womb and her tongue. She named herself Suggs after the man she loves and helped him run
away, but she had never had the chance to see him again. She had never expected the master to be different. She just submitted to her fate and her masters. Halle was the only child that she can keep with her and the one who got her freedom. But she had never have the chance to see her son again after her daughter-in-law got to her house. After she saw Sethe murdered the girl, she could not understand what Sethe has done and died of gloom. She preached to the blacks who has got freedom with characteristics of African literature and resists the influence of American culture. She asked them to love their bodies which the whites hated. Her sermons indicated her tremendous hate of the whites in a childish way.
As for Denver, she was shy, lonely, sensitive and clever. She lived in a circumstance without communication with the outside world and without anyone’s care for her. She was always lonely and empty inner her heart because she had no father in her life, and there were only her mother and she sticks together and helps each other in difficulties. The lonely life style led her loneliness and helplessness in spirit. She was afraid of the world outside of 124 and she was extremely fragile. She was also the sacrifice of slavery and racial discrimination. She should have had a happy family and beautiful childhood. But as a black female, she did not have the right to live normal life together with her family. The slavery brought so many miseries to black people, especially to the black females.
B.Tragic fate of the females as mothers
The novel Beloved was constructed on the basis of a real story. Toni Morrison got to know this story through a newspaper when she was an editor. The black woman named Margaret, together with her four children, her husband and her parents fled to Ohio from Kentucky. But soon after they settle down in their relatives’house, her masters Gains and Marshall followed them there with a group of people who were trying to catch them back. At a great panic, Margaret severed her little daughter’s throat and killed her, for she was sure that they cannot manage to run away. She
planned to kill all her children and then commit suicide, but she failed to finish it before others stopped her. Toni Morrison created Sethe on the foundation of Margaret through her bold imagination. She also reproduced the incident that a black mother killed her little daughter in her novel. In her novel, Sethe killed Beloved and also wanted to kill her two sons, Howard and Buglar, because she did not want them to lead the life that she had led before. To be slaves was worse than to be dead. So she would rather send her children to heaven than hand them to her master. The Schoolteacher thought that she is insane, so he gave up his plan to catch Sethe and her children back. The other people who lived around 124 in Cincinnati can not understand Sethe’s behavior and they got separated from her. Her sons were afraid of being killed by their mother, so they ran away from their home. As the daughter of a female slave, Sethe had never enjoyed her mother’s love that she should have enjoyed. She was even deprived of the right to feed on her mother’s milk. Her only memory about her mother was some fragments. She could only recognize her mother’s circle and cross and the truth that her mother was hanged. Her mother’s image brought great harm to Sethe. Being a slave mother, what Sethe could give to her children was so few, but she still tried her best to love her children. The dialogue between Sethe and Paul D could show her view about love for children. She thinks that there are only two points of love, i.e. love or not. It’s not appropriate to say that her love for Denver is too much. It was her lacking of her mother’s love and her love for her children that made Sethe so different from other mothers. She could do something extreme that other slave mothers would not do. In order to get her children the rights to be loved and looked after by her instead of being taken away by Schoolteacher, she insisted on choose her own way of loving her children. In order to avoid her children being slaves again she would rather kill them because it was the best way and the only way she could choose to protect her children from being humiliated by the slave masters. She would like to send her children to God, a safer place than let them be the sacrifice of slavery. Sethe’s behavior of killing her daughter by herself was the inevitable product of the abnormal social system. Sethe was just a slave. She was helpless in protecting her children from being humiliated before the rooted and strong slavery. What she
黑人英语 全屏 发表时间：2013-5-10 11:30:25 浏览：6 评论：0 引言上世纪70年代社会语言学的研究成果中,把黑人英语描绘成贫穷和愚昧的象征,否定了它的文化意义。黑人英语一般指的是那些居住在美国南部和其他地区大城市里,处于社会底层的黑人所讲的英语。并不是所有黑人都讲黑人英语,而讲黑人英语的绝大多数是黑人。美国黑人英语(Black American English)是和美国标准英语( Standard American English)相对而言的。很多语言学家也把这种语言变体称作Black English, Black Vernacular English, 或者Afro-American Vernacular English。 黑人英语的产生和发展与黑人的历史,政治,经济和文化有很紧密的联系。一般来说,它的发展经历了四个阶段:洋泾滨语阶段,克里奥语阶段,克里奥语解体化阶段和独立语言阶段。早期的黑奴贸易,美国社会的种族歧视政策以及母语迁移等都促进了黑人英语在美国的特殊社会环境中产生和发展。黑人英语是一种特殊的英语变体, 也是黑人文化的重要组成部分,它在语音、词汇、语法上有明显不同于标准英语的特征,了解黑人英语的主要特征将促进我们对黑人英语语言及文化的了解。 二.黑人英语主要特点 1.语音 1). “th”的发音。在标准英语中“th”有两个音,而在黑人英语中,依据它在词中出现的位置以及清浊辅音,它一共有五个音。a. 词头清辅音th发成t音。例如, “thin”发成“tin”, “thanks”发成“tanks”。 b. 词头浊辅音th发成d音。例如, “the”, “that”, “those”分别发成“duh”, “:dat”, “dere”。c. 词中清辅音和浊辅音th分别发成f
美国黑人女性主义文学批评综述 摘要：美国黑人女性主义批评在20世纪70年代崛起并迅速发展，成为当代西方文学与批评领域的新思潮。它引入了性别、种族、阶级等共时性话语，并借鉴其它当代文学批评理论，建构了自己独特的文学特色，丰富了女性主义的内涵，不仅推动了当代女性主义文学批评、美国黑人文学批评的发展, 也是美国文学批评中不可或缺的一部分。 关键词：黑人女性主义；文学批评；性别；种族；阶级 （一） 女性主义运动在历史上经历了很长一段发展、成熟的过程。早在文艺复兴时期，薄迦丘、乔叟等人文主义者已开始呼吁家庭婚姻中的“男女平等”。1729年，英国的克雷弗特(Mary Wollstone Craft)发表了题为《女性权利》的论著。19世纪出现妇女解放运动的萌芽。20世纪初开始了更积极争取男女平等和选举权的运动，被称为西方女性主义运动的“第一次浪潮”。在这期间也出现了女性主义批评的声音。以弗吉尼亚·沃尔夫的《一间自己的屋子》(1929)为先声，西蒙．德．波伏娃（Simone de Beauvoir）1949年出版了《第二性》，大大深化了女性主义思想，这对以后的西方女性主义思潮产生了重要的引导作用。 20世纪60、70年代，西方的女性主义运动进入“第二次浪潮”，主要以反对男性在家庭的统治为核心，强调男女平等，鼓励妇女走出家庭，参加工作，实现经济独立。这个时期的女性运动主要是争取白人妇女的权利，白人女性主义者成为所有女性的代言人，她们把自己的生活经历和观点普适化，而忽略了黑人女性和其它第三世界女性的差异性。莫汉蒂在《在西方注视下：女性主义学术研究与殖民话语》一书中指出，西方女性主义者在提到“妇女”这个范畴时，不约而同的把它看作一个先验的、统一的、有一致利益和欲望的整体，而有意忽略它内部包含阶级、种族、文化等差异。美国的白人妇女很难将黑人妇女视为平等的姐妹，甚至很难视她们为女人，这就导致了白人女权主义者不可能真正站在黑人妇女的立场上为她们谋求福利。 20世纪60、70年代正值美国黑人民权运动的高潮，它强调黑人的团结，旨在唤起黑人大众的民族意识和自豪感，最终解放黑人种族，但事实上它所关注的对象主要是黑人男性，忽略了存在于种族内部的性别歧视和性别压迫，忽视了黑人妇女的存在和要求。在这两次运动中，“黑人”成了黑人男性的代名词，而“妇女”一词则成为白人妇女的专利，“所有的女性都是白人，所有的黑人都是男性” 黑人女性地位一直处于双重边缘状态。 早在19世纪30、40年代，美国黑人女性就开始了争取女性权利的斗争。主要代表有；
美国英语词汇特征探析 第二组:马宁. 胡飞. 李鑫. 黄思斯. 潘雯漪. 陶嫣红. Ⅰ.摘要 几百年来,美国经历了一系列重大历史事件,形成了独特的政治社会,文化环境和生活方式,从而演变出具有美国特色的英语. 尤其在词汇方面,美国英语通过引用外来语,创造新词以及赋予旧词以新义等手段,大大丰富了自己的词汇,形成了自己特有的词语风格. 关键词: 美国英语. 词汇. 特征 Ⅱ.国内外研究综述 美国英语不是一种独立的语言，它来源于英国英语，只是在北美特殊的历史文化及社会环境里形成了若干独特的形式和含义。用现代语言学的术语来说，美国英语是英语的一种变体，是近四百年来英语使用于北美这个特殊的地理环境，受美国社会文化影响而形成的一种变体. 语言与一国的兴衰成败有着密切的联系. “美国英语”是随着美国这个国家的兴盛而富有影响力的,它使英语的使用产生区域性的变异,最终形成了“美国英语”。随着美国政治，经济，科技的迅速发展，社会文化习俗的不同。美国英与不断的发展，变化，逐渐形成独自的特点。 Ⅲ.美国英语的发展简况 1.17世纪初到北美独立战争结束 英语是随着1607年的英国移民正式登陆美洲的,他们在北美洲大西洋沿岸建立了第一个永久性定居点詹姆斯敦,两年后建立第一个殖民地弗吉尼亚.自此更多的英国移民在大西洋沿岸定居下来.1620年一群不满意英国教会的束缚的新教徒乘“五月花号”到了美洲，他们在普利茅斯建立了第二个永久定居点。到1732年，英国人在大西洋沿岸共建立了13个殖民地，而英语成为他们共同的语言。1756年，塞缪尔.约翰逊第一次提出了“美国方言”一词。1783年，诺亚.韦伯斯特对美国人使用的语言—美国英语进行规范，正式宣布了美国在语言上的独立。 2.美国独立战争之后到内战 美国英语的发展向来是受到移民和内外交流的影响。这一阶段见证了美国的南充和西进。原先西班牙人，墨西哥人，印第安人的属地通过战争或买卖纷纷加
O.G. - 即Original Gangster，用来指有案底的帮派份子。red rum - 就是谋杀(murder) 的意思，只是这里把它反过来写。Rolling 60's - 一黑帮的支派。set - 帮派分支。Set tripping - 帮派内斗。smoke - 杀人。Soldier - 没有案底的帮派份子。toa - 帮派间的义气。thug - 身无长物的人，也可以称为“恶棍”。TTP - 指Tree Top Piru，一黑帮的支派。up north trip - 被送往监狱。madhatter - 贩毒的人。slang - 贩毒。trap - 贩毒。rock star - 吸毒上瘾的人。primo, turbo, zootie - 此三名词皆为掺了可卡因的大麻。slab, snow - 皆指可卡因。smacked - 药效发作。through - 嗑药的兴奋状态。triple beam - 原来是拿来秤金子，但后来被拿来当作秤毒品的秤子。skins, zig zags - 皆为卷大麻烟的纸。sherm stick - 浸泡过精油的大麻烟。roll - 卷一管大麻。zooted - 抽大麻。spliff - 牙买加产的大麻烟。Vegas - 一家卖大麻烟的厂商。另外，还有许多大麻的同义字。像是：bammer, bonic, brown, bud, buddha, cannabis, cheeba, chronic, dank, doubage, ganja, grass, green, groove weed, hash, herb, home-grown, ill, Indo, iszm, Lebanon, Mary Jane, maui, method, pot, sess, shake, shit, skunk, stress, tabacci, Thai, tical, wacky, and weed. 都是大麻。phat - 当指女生时有两个意思：一为大屁股，二为外在的吸引力。shorty - 指女性时，意思就像baby 或honey。sister - 女性友人。skank - 有丑闻上身的女人。skirt - 就是指女生。trick - 贱女人，相当不雅的字眼。Accessory –男朋友/女朋友Ace –最好的朋友Bag –一瓶啤酒Beastie –形容一个人看起来很粗暴或具威胁性Blow up –变得有名气Bone – 1.香烟2.一首歌Booya –我赞成Break –在第一时刻现身Break night –熬夜Bump –音乐放得很大声Burn –香烟Bust on the scene –到达Cabbage –脑袋Check – 1.批评2.停手做…事Chop –丑人Deep –严肃的、认真的Dig –了解Dog –朋友Down with –狂热的Funky –1.原始的2. 难闻的、恶心的Hard, hardcore –猛烈的Heavy –严肃的Heffa –丑女Hood rat –邻居Keep it real–坦白说Loc –疯狂的Locin’–发疯了Main squeeze –某人最好的女朋友Nasty –性的吸引力Old school –老朋友Seeds –小孩子Sleep on –忽略Vibes –直觉的感应Whoomp! –超兴奋Wisdom –女朋友Word; word up –我同意形容一个人在rap - to break, bust, bust out, bust rhymes, fli, Freak the beats, freestyle, kick, kick the ballistics 打招呼- Ayo, Eh G, Hayo, S'up, Wassup, Yo 枪- bis, calico, flamer, four pounder, gak, gat(最常用), heat, heater, Joint, strill, toast 开枪-to blast, buck, bust a cap, dent, fade, gat,ice, lead up, smoke 杀了一个人-
西江月 2014年3月上旬刊作者简介：董筠（1981—），女，湖北武汉人， 湖北大学知行学院外国语系教师，硕士研究生，研究方向：英语应用语言学及外国语言学。【摘要】关于美式黑人英语的本质的研究，其意义是多方面的。本文认 为，美式黑人英语本质上是一种独立的体系。它与标准英语之间的关系远比一种方言与其标准语之间的关系复杂得多，应该将它作为二种独立的语言进行研究。【关键词】美式；黑人英语；语言；特征 一、引言 随着时代的发展，英语从日耳曼语族的一个小语种逐渐发展成为当 今世界的通用语言。英语在世界各地落地生根， 并产生了多种英语变体：英国英语、美国英语、澳大利亚英语、南非英语等都是英语的不同变体形式。随着美国经济的发展，美国文化的输出，以及美国巨大的国际影响力，美国英语更是为大众所接受。由于历史的特殊性，美国是一个以欧裔 白种人为主，亚、非、 拉裔等民族所组成的国家。在这个世界上以英语为母语人口最多的国家中， 白人的标准英语占主流地位。而在少数民族中，黑人的数量居首位，人口总数达到两千多万，约占全国人口的12％。他们所用的英语对美国社会的影响正逐渐增大。美式黑人英语的发展，经历 了洋泾浜语阶段、克里奥语阶段、 克里奥语崩溃化阶段和独立言语阶段这四个阶段。 洋泾浜语阶段。洋泾浜语就是指操不同言语的群体为完成某种无限的交际需求而开展起来的一种混合性言语。洋泾浜语就是黑人英语的初 始方式，构成于17世纪，是非洲母语与便准英语的混合体。 克里奥语阶段。美国内战前，黑人英语已成为一种克里奥语。 克里奥语和任何一种母语一样能表达人类全部的生活经历，有使用者常用的词 汇、句法和标准的发音形式， 可以施行母语言语的任何功用。克里奥语崩溃化阶段。黑人的克里奥语在美国内战后进入崩溃化阶段。1863年1月1日，由联邦总统亚伯拉罕·林肯公布的《解放黑奴宣言》正式施行。延续了二百多年的美国黑奴制度就此终结。黑人英语与美国白人的标准英语逐步接近。黑人的克里奥语英语进入崩溃化阶段。 独立言语阶段。近几十年来，一些学者从语言学的角度出发， 认为美式黑人英语已经发展为一种独立的言语，并有着内在规则变化的言语体系。 二、美式黑人英语的语言特征 2.1语音 2.1.1辅音的弱化。美式黑人英语由于受西非语言的影响，有些浊辅音的读音与其对应的清辅音的读音完全不一样，例如：他们将[b]、[d]、 [g]，发成[p]、[t]、[k]，并且有时还不发音。有时为了体现相互之间的差别， 只是把浊辅音前的元音读得稍重一些，例如：在heat 与heed 中。在辅音与元 音组合而成的音节中，其鼻音也可弱化，如在sum 、sun 、sung 等，只是词中元音的读音[a]受到了鼻音的影响，有些滑音。 2.1.2辅音的简化。辅音简化是美式黑人英语的一个明显特点。英语中的爆破辅音有[p]、[b]、[t]、[d]、[k]、[g]。美式黑人英语经常省略词末的爆破音，将side[said]发成sigh[sai]，passed[past]发成[pa:s]. 2.1.3单词重音前移。 英语在其漫长的发展演变过程中，单词的重音逐渐趋向开头音节。这一趋势在美式黑人英语中表现得更为明显。如police ，motel 等词的重音就移至词首。 2.1.4“th ”的读音。在标准英语中“th ”的发音为[θ]或[e]。美式黑人 英语将[θ]读作[f]，[e]读作[v]。 2.2语法 句法是最能体现黑人特色的领域。在动词体系上， 美式黑人英语和标准英语差异最大， 与其祖先使用的洋泾浜语和克里奥语最接近。最初的美式黑人英语语法系统的研究是基于对北方城镇青少年的口语数据的搜集得出的。这些分析表明美式黑人英语和标准英语最基本的差别在 于时态标记和“be ”的现在时用法上。 2.2.1时态。美式黑人英语中句子中动词只需表明一个或数个动词的时间概念就足够，其他动词可用动词原形表示。有时可以完全省略时态，只要上下文给出必要的时间提示。例如：在下面的一段黑人布道词中，布道者已清楚地表明他是在谈过去，因为他所讲的耶稣的生平及其献身都是过去，但是，句中所有动词都以动词原型形式出现，没有变形为动词过去时 “The man Jesus ，he come here.He die to save you from your sins!He walk the earth.He go among the thieves and try to Save the unrighteous.The master say whoever win let him come!” 另外，在美式黑人英语中，一般现在时的第三人称单数动词词尾不加-s 。例如：She work in the hospital. 美式黑人英语有两种完成体形式：由been 构成的“遥远完成体”(remote perfect aspect)和由done 构成的“最近完成体”(immediate perfect aspect)。在这点上， 美式黑人英语和西非语言极其相似。（Ⅰ）遥远完成体中的been 表示一个明确的过去动作。这类完成体又分为两种形式：I been know him ．(瞬间动作)I been knowin ’him ．(进行动作) （Ⅱ）最近完成体使用助动词done 。在现代美式黑人英语中， 经常出现下列句子： 1.I done go ． 2.I done went ． 3.I done gone ． 这三者用于不同的场合。1.用于最近现在时的句子里，2.用于过去时间，3.则出现于半形容词形的结构中。 2.2.2be 的用法。 系动词be 在美式黑人英语中的用法是非常独特的。如果一个动作、事件或状态不是经常发生，那么句子中的be 就会被省略。如：He in the house watchin ’TV 。系动词的形式is 和are 的缩写形式也可以省略。另外，在行为者不表示出来的被动语态中，be 也常被省略。例如：The factory burn in 1958．但是如果一个动作经常发生，那么谓语动词可以直接用“be ”,例如：They be out in the open air every night. 2.2.3句子结构。美式黑人英语另一个重要的特点体现在它的从句结构中。在美式黑人英语中常说：Can she go?和Where she can go?当把它们作为从句放入一个复合句中，得到的句子就是:I wonder can she go.,和I wonder where can she go.这时，从句的动词都置于主语之前。美式黑人英语中通过使用双重主语来达到强调的目的。比如：Betty ，she sad ．美式黑人英语不仅可以省略从句中作宾语的关系代词，作主语的关系代词也可以省略。比如：He got a sister was here yesterday morning ． 2.2.4否定。美式黑人英语有三种不同的否定形式：ain ’，don ’，dit ’n ． 前两种也可写作ain ’t ，don ’t 。否定词ain ’t 的某些用法是美式黑人英语特有的。例如：ain ’t 用作单一过去否定形式，I ain ’t see (I did not see)。美式 黑人英语的一个特点就是使用多重否定。 在一个句子中，否定表达多次重复出现：I ain ’t see nothin ’like that no place ．其意义相当于：I did not see anything 1ike that anywhere ．(我从没在任何地方看到过这种东西)。仅就美国美式黑人英语中的语音和语法所进行的讨论中，不难发现美式黑人 英语中还有很多方面， 如它与美国标准英语之间的关系，值得研究。三、意义与启示 关于美式黑人英语的本质的研究， 其意义是多方面的。笔者认为，美式黑人英语本质上是一种独立的体系。它与标准英语之间的关系远比一种方言与其标准语之间的关系复杂得多，应该将它作为二种独立的语言进行研究。 研究美国美式黑人英语的本质， 也具有社会学、教育学的意义。将它作为一种独立的语言体系来研究，可以唤起广大公众对黑人处境及其黑人孩子受教育情况的关注，以便将更多的注意力用在改善黑人学生的学习上，提高黑人学生的自尊与自信，促进白人教师与黑人学生之间的相互 沟通，增进彼此的了解， 这在黑人学生成绩低下，辍学率居高不下，问题成堆的情况下，探索新的解决方法具有特别的意义。 【参考文献】 [1]Dillard J ．L ．Black English[M]．New York ：Random House ．Inc ．．1978．[2]Ferguson c ．，Heath ．s ．B ．Language in the usa [M]．cambridge ：Cambridge University Press ，1981． [3]Mufwene S ．S ．What is African American English[A].In sonja L ．Lanehart ．ed ．Sociocutural and historical context of African American EngIish [c].Amsterdam,PhiIadelphia ：John Benjamins ，2001． [4]陈蓓.浅谈美国黑人文化对黑人英语的影响[J].湘潭大学学报,1994(1)．[5]韩有毅.美式黑人英语的语言特征[J].徐州师范大学学报,1998(4)．[6]刘锦明.黑人英语对标准英语的影响[J].现代外语,1996(1)． 美式黑人英语语言特征探析 ■ 董筠 （湖北大学知行学院， 湖北武汉430000）文化语言·285·
?一些美国黑人常用俚语 - American Slangs 美国黑人常用俚语 - American Slangs 2010-08-18 20:03:56 来自: Afra O.G. - 即Original Gangster，用来指有案底的帮派份子。 red rum - 就是谋杀 (murder) 的意思，只是这里把它反过来写。Rolling 60's - 一黑帮的支派。 set - 帮派分支。 Set tripping - 帮派内斗。 smoke - 杀人。 Soldier - 没有案底的帮派份子。 toa - 帮派间的义气。 thug - 身无长物的人，也可以称为“恶棍”。 TTP - 指 Tree Top Piru，一黑帮的支派。 up north trip - 被送往监狱。 madhatter - 贩毒的人。 slang - 贩毒。 trap - 贩毒。 rock star - 吸毒上瘾的人。 primo, turbo, zootie - 此三名词皆为掺了可卡因的大麻。 slab, snow - 皆指可卡因。 smacked - 药效发作。 through - 嗑药的兴奋状态。 triple beam - 原来是拿来秤金子，但后来被拿来当作秤毒品的秤子。skins, zig zags - 皆为卷大麻烟的纸。 sherm stick - 浸泡过精油的大麻烟。 roll - 卷一管大麻。 zooted - 抽大麻。 spliff - 牙买加产的大麻烟。 Vegas - 一家卖大麻烟的厂商。 另外，还有许多大麻的同义字。像是：bammer, bonic, brown, bud, buddha, cannabis, cheeba, chronic, dank, doubage, ganja, grass, green, groove weed, hash, herb, home-grown, ill, Indo, iszm, Lebanon, Mary Jane, maui, method, pot, sess, shake, shit, skunk, stress, tabacci, Thai, tical, wacky, and weed. 都是大麻。 phat - 当指女生时有两个意思：一为大屁股，二为外在的吸引力。shorty - 指女性时，意思就像 baby 或 honey。
黑人英语(Black English)是英语的一种变体，使用者多为身处社会下层的美国黑人。现在的好来坞大片黑人英语可谓是大行其道。将黑人英语视为劣等英语是一种基于种族歧视的社会观，与语言学观相悖。黑人英语的语音、形态、句法和词汇系统有明显不同于标准英语的特征，但它符合“语言是规则系统”的原则，是语言规则操作的产物，有着明显的自律性和系统性。 黑人英语 由于历史的原因,有很多的黑人生活在美国,成为了美国社会的一个令人注目的社会阶层,他们所使用的语言也由于带有鲜明的民族特色而享有 了一个独特的名字———黑人英语。然而,近几十年来对黑人英语的进一步研究表明,黑人英语这个名字实际是不甚确切的,因为它不是单纯由民族差异而形成的语言变体,它的使用是与经济地位、教育水准等社会因素密切有关的,由此可见,近年来美国的黑人英语已逐步成为了一种重要的社会方言,而不是单纯的民族方言。一方面并不是所有的美国黑人都使用黑人英语,黑人英语作为一种英语变体使用于美国社会中那些经济地位低下的黑人中, 或者是那些虽然已上升到中等收入水平,但与原来的阶层仍保持联系的黑 人中。另一方面也有许多讲黑人英语的人并不是黑人。 认为黑人语言是一种所谓的“天生劣等”、“欠缺性”、“非完整” 的语言的观点是不正确的。黑人英语的区别性特征继续存在不是由种族因素造成的，而是由社会、教育和经济因素造成的。种族歧视和隔离政策加剧了黑人英语与美国标准英语之间的差异，也使黑人英语使用者难以融入美国主流社会。 首先，由从语音、拼写、句法三个方面来阐述黑人英语与普通英语之间的联系与区别。 一．语音区别 就语音而言，最为显著的语音特征是对词尾的辅音连缀进行简化，如下表。 Words Black English Standard English Passed /pæs/ /pæsd/ Past /pæs/ /pæst/ Desk /des/ /desk/ 二．拼写区别 1．最常见的，就是把er结尾的字母改成单一的"a"，如最为黑人垢病的字眼nigger（黑鬼）被简化成nigga，另一字motherfucker也被简化成muthafucka，此外如player一字，也改成了playa，只要字尾是er的，
浅析《紫色》中的女性主义 摘要：二十世纪美国黑人作家对美国文学的发展做出了不可磨灭的贡献，他们的作品极大地丰富了美国文学，同时也对世界文学的创作产生了巨大的影响。进入七十年代以后，黑人女作家领导文学潮流，掀起了第三次美国黑人文学高潮。艾丽丝?沃克是当代美国最杰出和最具影响力的黑人女性作家之一。她对黑人命运问题的研究探讨，引起文坛瞩目，被认为是美国黑人作家中的后起之秀，有“女才子”之誉。小说《紫色》是她文学创作的最高成就。本文主旨意在分析《紫色》中的女性主义。第一章简要地介绍了爱丽丝?沃克的个人经历及作品《紫色》。第二章论文的理论基础—女性主义的含义和它的发展阶段。第三章是本文的主体，以小说的主旨及其写作技巧—书信体形式两方面为切入点来分析《紫色》中所体现的女性主义。最后本文得出女性如果要独立、自尊、自强，需通过自己不懈的努力，战胜重重困难，最终才能取得与男性平等的社会地位与权力的结论。这也正是爱丽丝·沃克想要表达的女性主义的真正内涵。 关键词：《紫色》美国黑人女性女权主义双重压迫寻求独立 An Analysis of Feminism in The Color Purple Li Yixuan Abstract: Afro—American writers have made great contribution to American literature in the 20th century. Their works have enormously enriched American literature and exerted great influence on literary creation in the world. Black women writers have set off a new upsurge of literature since the 1970s. This is called the third Renaissance of Afro—American literature. Alice Walker is one of the most remarkable and influential Afro—American 1
┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊装┊┊┊┊┊订┊┊┊┊┊线┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊ 摘要 美式英语是在美国使用的一种英语形式。在全球一体化的今天，英语作为世界通用语言，扮演着及其重要的角色。由于美式英语便捷实用，所以美式英语逐渐流行起来。美国是个移民国家，所以词汇来源复杂，且美国因自由开放，固发音比英国英语夸张，美式英语在语法上也有区别与英式英语的地方。本文阐述了美式英语的历史和社会背景，侧重讲美式英语的词汇来源、语音特点及语法特点,为学习美式英语的人提供帮助。 关键词：美国英语；词汇；语音；语法
┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊装┊┊┊┊┊订┊┊┊┊┊线┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊ Abstract American English is as a kind of English which is used in America. Today, with the development of globalization, English is widely used and plays a very important role in the world. Since American English is convenient and practical, American English is getting more and more popular. This article illustrates the characteristics of American English from three aspects of the resources of its vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar to help American English learners. keywords: American English; vocabulary; pronunciation; grammar
[摘要]美国英语与英国英语无论在书写上还是发音上都存在一定的差别,作为后起之秀的美国英语已越来越被现代人们所接受。本文试图从美国英语发展演变的历史来研究其发展过程中所形成的特点,以进一步了解美国英语。 [关键词]美国英语;一致性;古体特色 纵观美国英语,它是由早期移民从英国带到美国新大陆的。它的发展大体上经历了五个阶段:第一阶段是殖民地时期(1607 - 1789) ,这期间伊丽莎白英语移植到这块新的土地上。由于这种新的环境,许多地方是以印第安语、法语和荷兰语命名的;第二阶段是大陆扩张时期(1790 - 1860) ,在语言的发展上表现为词法的灵活性,词汇里充满了西班牙语、德语和爱尔兰语词汇;第三阶段是语言发展史上的独立时期(1860 -1890) ,这三十年间建立了民族文学;第四阶段是民族主义时期(1890 - 1920) ,这一时期,交通和通讯的高速发展以及科学技术的进步;曼肯的《美国的语言》(American Language) 的发表为第五阶段——现代阶段铺平了道路。本文就下述几个方面来简略谈谈美国英语在发展过程中所形成的特点。 (一) 美国英语的一致性(Uniformity of American English) 美国英语的这一特点是由于美国早期开发时移民的流动性所造成的。一个新的殖民地的开拓吸引了大量的来自其他地区的移民,于是在语言学上则体现了高度的一致性。熟悉英国各地方言特点的人则发现美国英语在各地的区别并不象英国英语那样明显。1781年普林斯顿大学校长约翰·魏则斯普恩博士做了如下的评述:“普通美国人,由于迁移不定,所以不论在音调上或是在用词上都不易表现出地方特色。”据说很难找出一个成年人在他的出生地生活了一辈子的情况。尽管美国英语在各地差别不大,但就语音而论,新英格兰、南部各州、中部和西部的差别在一定程度上还是存在的。 (二) 美国英语的古体特色(Archaic Features) 美国英语的另一特点就是保存了英国英语已经停止使用的一些古体特点。与伦敦的语音相比,美式语音显得有些古旧。在许多方面,美国英语都使人联想到较早时期的英语。例如美国人把either 和neither 读作[ I ]和[ ni] 。在美洲殖民地建立之后,英国已把这两个词改读为[ ·–?]和[ n·–?]了。美国保存了一些在美国已不常见的古体词及古用法。mad 这个词在美国英语里含有愤怒的意思,这是莎士比亚时代人的用法。美国人仍然使用古色古香的fall 来表示秋天。有人把这种现象比作移植一颗树,由于需要一定时间来扎根,所以树木的成长暂时受到阻碍。有人认为语言上的这种慢速发展是一种保守主义。 (三) 词汇上的早期变化( Early Changes in the Vocabulary) 早期移民在这个新国家定居下来之后,发现他们没有足够的词汇用以表达新的东西和那些接连不断的新的经历。所以一旦定居下来,词汇上的变化马上出现了。他们看来是受高山和森林的影响最大,其结果是出现了新词, 如bluff , foothill , notch , gap ,watershed ,clearing ,underbrush 及一些动物类词汇moose ,skunk ,rac2coon 等等。还有些编造出来的词, 如mud hen , garter snake ,bullfrog ,Potato bug ,reed bird 等。与印地安人的接触使英语里出现了一些表现印地安人生活方式的新词,如wigwam ,tomahawk ,canoe ,toboggan ,mackinaw ,mocca2sin ,wampum ,及papoose 等。另外也形成了一些与印地安人有关新的英语词汇,如war path ,paleface ,medicine man ,pipe of peace ,big chief ,war paint 及动词scalp 。正体上独具的特点也使得一些词汇得以产生,如congression2al , presidential , congressman , caucus , mass meeting , select2man ,state house 等。另一些词汇和这种新的生活方式有关,如back country ,backwoodsman ,squatter ,prairie ,log cab2in , clapboard , corncrib , popcorn , hoe cake , cold snap , snowplow ,bobsled 及sleigh 等。 除了使用印地安人的一些词汇外,他们也从其他语言里借用一些词汇, 法文词汇如portage , chowder ,cache ,caribou ,bureau ,bayou 等,荷兰词汇如cruller ,coles2law ,cookie ,stoop , boss , scow 等,德文词汇如noodle ,pret2zel ,smearcase ,sauerkraut 等。 (四) 民族意识(National Consciousness)
美国黑人女性主义述评 李秀清 （青岛大学公共外语教学部，山东青岛266071） “女性主义”一词源于英语feminism，泛指欧美国家中主张男女平等的各种思潮。在当代美国，女性主义有不少学派，比如自由主义女性主义、马克思主义女性主义、社会主义女性主义、激进女性主义、精神分析女性主义、后现代派女性主义等，这些女性主义研究的视角不同，但多局限于表达美国白人中产阶级妇女反对性别歧视的主张和策略，没有把黑人女性所遭受的种族与性别的双重压迫纳入研究范畴，导致了黑人女性主义者的不满和批评。 一、美国黑人女性主义与主流女性主义的分野 美国的民权运动、妇女运动及女性主义思潮改变了人们对于性别的传统认识。根据女性主义理论，性别（gender）是社会建构的，而不是生理的性（sex）。社会性别思想的鼻祖当推美国人类学家、心理学家，文化心理学派代表人物之一玛格丽特·米德（Margaret Mead）。她研究并发现虽然不同的社会群体为不同性别分配不同的任务、责任与权利，但是在不同文化中同一性别承担的任务有很大差异，绝非男主外、女主内之简单区别，但相同点是在不同的文化中，男性所从事的事务被赋予更高的社会地位及认可。肇始于19世纪，西方妇女权利先驱者们以追求妇女的社会权利为目标推行妇女运动，及至20世纪初期，这场运动以西方社会关于妇女财产权、选举权等法案的通过而取得了标志性胜利。然而，这些方案的通过并没有能够保障妇女的物质与精神生活的独立，因而没有彻底解决妇女问题。美国女性主义批评坚持以社会性别为中心角度，将历史上被压抑的妇女的声音、被埋藏的妇女的历史、被忽视的妇女所关心的问题，由边缘推向中心。然而，在此过程中，女性主义者并没有把种族问题对妇女的影响提上批评日程，如伊莱恩·肖瓦尔特（Elaine Showalter）只关注到了女性主义的世界性和普遍性，忽略了种族主义等因素对妇女的影响。“这些女性主义的重要代表站在女性主义权威的角度探索具有普遍意义的批评理论。”［1］少数族裔女性主义者认识到性别并不是对人类行为和认知产生影响的唯一因素，不同种族的妇女之间的种族、经济地位的不同导致了妇女问题的多样性。黑人女性因为面临种族、性别、阶级等多方面的问题而与白人中产阶级妇女面临的问题有很大的差异。这些是主流的女性主义理论与实践所没有能够处理的。20世纪70年代之后女性主义的观念得到了快速的发展与传播，但同时也遭遇到来自少数族裔女性主义者，尤其是黑人女性主义者的挑战。黑人女性主义者虽然对 白人女性主义者所代表的主流女性主义的观念有总体的认同，但当时“女性”一词通常暗指白人女性，而男性通常指黑人、土著美国人和拉美裔人，黑人女性及其他少数族群中的女性比白人女性遭到更加边缘化的命运。在这种背景下，黑人女性主义以挖掘被埋没的黑人女性的作品、建立有别于白人女性主义的批评等方式探寻黑人妇女的问题，争取黑人妇女的权利。 二、黑人女性主义的萌芽 除了积极投身于妇女运动等政治斗争，黑人女性主义的重要策略之一，如同主流女性主义批评一样，是着力挖掘被埋没的黑人女性主义作品，将黑人女性主义的思潮追溯到19世纪。19世纪对于黑人来说，是一个充满波折又孕育着希望的时代。当时奴隶制尚未废除，1790年美国国会针对新教徒和宾夕法尼亚社团敦促国会废除奴隶制的请愿组织了辩论，这场辩论虽以国会在1808年以前对奴隶制不采取行动而告终，但点燃了争取自由、平等、正义的激情。同黑人男性一样，黑人女性对于物质生活、社会和政治权利的不满、抗议与抵制帮助她们取得了很大成绩。意识觉醒的诗人、小说家如玛利亚·斯图亚特（Maria Stewart）、索杰纳·特鲁斯（Sojourner Truth）、弗兰西斯·哈珀（Frances Harper），教育家如安娜·朱丽娅·库伯（Anna Julia Cooper）等表明立场，强调种族、性别、阶级的互联性。玛利亚·斯图亚特的政治小品文触及教育权、经济权、法律平等、政治参与、社会正义、非裔美国人所遭受的成见、女性所遭受的社会制约等广泛的内容。有着超凡演讲口才的索杰纳·特鲁斯以其激动人心的演讲如“难道我不是女人吗？”（1851）和“当女人得到她的权利，男人才正确”（1867）提出了至今仍具震撼力的黑人女性主义思想的核心观点：谁应该作为进入“女性”的类别？种族与阶级如何影响性别？这些勇敢的黑人女性在妇女地位式微、大环境不利的19世纪在边缘下抗争，发出超越时代的强音，标志着黑人女性主义的萌芽。 三、黑人女性主义的发展 进入20世纪，自由、平等的呼声更加高涨，一批黑人男作家运用黑人独特的经历和视角进行创作，兰斯顿·休斯（Langston Hughes）和理查德·赖德（Richard Wright）等描写了黑人的苦难经历、社会觉悟和民族自尊，成为“哈莱姆文艺复兴”的代表。同时代的黑人女性作家佐拉·尼尔·赫斯顿（Zora Neale Hurston）创作丰厚，她以一位女性的笔触和独特 收稿日期：2011-04-09 基金项目：山东省人文社科研究项目（J10WD19） 作者简介：李秀清（1965—），女，山东潍坊人，青岛大学公共外语教学部副教授，主要从事美国文学及跨文化交际研究。 · ·154
美国黑人英语特点分析 美国黑人英语是英语的诸多种类之一。作为一种美国的社会方言，它是最令人熟知且值得去学习的少数民族语言。本文探讨了黑人英语形成的历史渊源，分析美国黑人英语的特点，对美式标准英语的影响，以及它没有被标准英语所同化，且仍作为一种美国社会方言存在的原因。 黑人英语起源特点影响一、引言 黑人英语是美国黑人的一种方言。它的发音在一些方面与在美国许多非洲裔美国人及非非洲裔美国人所使用的南美英语相似。黑人英语的许多特点都与美国南部的英语方言是一致的，同时它也有一些与标准的美式英语区分的特点，包括：发音变化、独特的词汇和不一样的动词时态。早期黑人英语也为标准的美式英语提供了大量的原始词汇。 二、黑人英语的起源 关于黑人英语的起源问题一直争议颇多。有一个理论表述，在十五到十六世纪，奴隶主为了避免黑人奴隶聚在一起密谋叛乱，让他们分散开来。当黑人奴隶发现了这一情况后，他们不得不建立一种辅助语言，这种辅助语言叫做洋泾浜语言，它使用于不用的奴隶群体之间，也在奴隶和水手之间普遍使用。随着时间的推移，英语的影响逐渐加深，洋泾浜语言越来越具有英语的特征，逐渐演化成了克里奥尔语言，即出生非洲的黑人后裔语言。在接下来几百年的发展变化后，克里奥尔语言变成了今天的黑人英语。 三、黑人英语的特点 （一）语音 1.省略辅音/r/ 黑人英语的一个语音特点是在发音时省略辅音/r/，这样就出现了许多同音词，如sore和saw，court和caught，fort和fough。 2.用/in/代替/iη/ 在标准英语中，动词的进行时态以及动名词的词尾“ing”发音为/iη/，而在黑人英语中常用/in/代替/iη/的发音。因此，我们常会看到黑人英语中出现goin表示going，fishin表示fishing等等。 3.“th”的发音 经常会听到黑人对this的发音为/dis/，thin的发音为/tin/，很多人会以为这是
新时期，女性主义在中国的传播与接受可谓轰轰烈烈，文学领域对女界人生的反思与表现，走在了哲学等其他社会科学的前面。在“方法热”、“文化热”的催生下，在“妇女文学”兴盛及关于“女性文学”究竟是什么的论争方兴未艾之际，西方女性主义文学与批评悄然而至。女性主义在中国的传播主要是从翻译、介绍西方女性主义文学与批评开始的。 一、女性意识及女性主义的历史渊源 事实上，戊戌维新以来，女性主义思潮就开始在中国萌动，它在内受到明、清之际不少男性思想家、文学家，如李贽、袁枚、曹雪芹、李汝珍等的哺育，在外，受到西方文化及19世纪下半叶西方女权运动的影响。 明朝的思想家李贽在《答女人学道为短见书》《夫妇论》《司马相如传》中大力宣传两性平等思想、抨击妇女低人一等的道学观，可谓中国“女权”运动的前驱。自1878年起，《万国公报》便刊出《裹足论》《全球五大洲女俗通考》《女教》等文，介绍英美俄德等国妇女受教育的情况，倡导西方文明。1902年，中国近代第一本关于妇女问题的译著赫伯特·斯宾赛的《女权篇》(马君武译，少年中国学会发行)出版，该书以“自然权利”论与进化论为基础，论证了男女平权的观点。1903年，J.s.密尔的《女人压制论》也被介绍进中国，该书鼓吹妇女应拥有自由的政治权利和经济独立的能力，对“五四”时期的女性主义思潮产生了一定的影响。当时这些介绍西方女性主义和两性学方面的材料的译介，其目的是和强国壮民联系起来的。其后陈独秀、周作人、鲁迅、胡适纷纷译文或撰文疾呼两性平等，“五四”一代学人更多地将性别问题与社会政治改革及两性生活的实际情形联系起来，即使谈到文学，也主要将其作为反映“人”的生活的镜子来看，并未深入探讨文学中的性别问题。 美国斯坦福大学的波琳·G.李(Pauline G.Lee)，出版于2000年的《李贽与J.s.密尔》(Li Zhi and John Stuart Mill：A Confucian Feminist Critique 0f Liberal Feminism)将李贽与英国男性女性主义者约翰·司都本文世纪论文网(https://www.doczj.com/doc/2e19151831.html,)提供华·密尔做了比较。指出他们为两性平等辩护的许多相似之处，但其差异性表明：密尔强调的是实际的社会参与，而李贽强调的是自我的内在修养。由此阐述了中西方由于文化的差异所带来的关于女性解放问题的不同思考，即西方女性主义者比较强调实际的社会改革运动，而中国的女性主义者则注重意识形态领域的自我反思与自我更新。强调通过内在的道德选择来改变人们的思考与生活方式。这种差异至今仍然存在，了解这种差异有助于我们理解新时期女性主义在文学创作和批评领域的接受、影响和发展。 在中国，从20世纪40年代到70年代，人们的性别意识，呈现出从“性别”(gender)到“中性”(neutral)再到“无性”(sexless)这样的发展轨迹。当时的人们普遍认为：民族解放是解决一切问题的前提，广大民众从封建主义资本主义制度中解放出来走上社会主义道路，妇女也就跟着解放了。这一思维模式对中国近半个世纪的社会实践和意识形态都产生了深刻的影响，当然也在文学领域得到充分的表现。新中国成立以后，妇女的社会地位得到了空前的改善，这甚至是发达国家的妇女也难以企及的。但在“男女都一样”、“妇女能顶半边天”的语域里，以妇女的名义解构了“妇女”，一种忽视女性生理、心理特殊性的“拟男”主义在种种口号下滋长起来。这一时期的文学或女性文学。“人的自觉”消解于政治的大目标中，更遑论“女人的自觉”了。“性”乃至“性别”属性成了洪水猛兽，像瘟疫一样招人嫌弃，《百合花》《林家铺子》《红豆》等表现了一点点人，性人情的作品往往受到批判。 70年代末，性别问题随着社会政治问题或新启蒙思潮，重新进入人们的视野。在新时期之初，“人”的发现必然伴随着“女人”的发现，“女人”的发现绽露出人们对女性主体意识的朦胧追求。由“五四”开启的有关性和情的欲望叙事场景开始了新的转换。张洁的《爱，是不能忘记的》《方舟》，谌容的《人到中年》，铁凝的《没有纽扣的红衬衫》，舒婷的《致橡树》