一Linguistics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language
Phonetics语音学: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants
Phonology音系: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. For example, phone, phoneme, and allophone. Morphology形态学:The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. For example, boy and “ish”---boyish, teach---teacher.
Syntax句法学: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. For example, ”John like linguistics.”
Semantics语义学: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example :The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found, The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.
Pragmatics语用学: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. For example, “I do” The word do means dif ferent context. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics .For example, regional dialects, social variation in language. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.
Applied linguistics: The application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.
S Langue语言: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community
Parole言语: refers to the realization of language in actual use
What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?
Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.
Competence能力：the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language
Performance运用: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication .
Same :Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and actually use of language. Their purpose is to single out the language system serious study.
Differences : Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
Prescriptive规定性:aims to lay down rules for "correct" behaviour.
Descriptive描述性:describe and analyzes the language people actually use.
How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "written language . Modern linguistics is descriptive; Its investigation authentic, and mainly spoken language data.
Synchronic共时性:the description of a language at some point in time.
Diachronic历时性:the description of a language as it changes through time .
How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?
A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.
Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:
1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution
2) a larger amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing
3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
1) Arbitrariness任意性: Difference sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.
2) Productivity创造性：It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.
3) Duality二重性：language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower or the basic level is a structure of meaningless sounds. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words.
4) Displacement移位性：Languages can be used to refer to context removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
5) Cultural transmission文化传递性：Language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.
二Phonetics语音学: Phonetics is defined as study of the phonic medium of language; It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language. Articulatory phonetics 发声: It studies the human speech organs and the way in which thee speech sounds are produced.
Auditory phonetics听觉：it is the study of the perception of sounds by the human ear.
Acoustic phonetics声学: It studies the physical properties of the speech sounds.
Articulatory apparatus: the Pharyngeal cavity, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity.
Voicing is the result of the vibration of the vocal cords.
The oral cavity: The tongue : the tip, the front, the blade, the back. The uvula : the soft palate, the hard palate .
The teeth ridge: the upper and lower teeth. The lips.
The broad transcription is the transcription of sounds by using one letter to represent one sound.
The narrow transcription is the transcription with diacritics to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.
Leaf: clear / /. feel, build : dark / /. health : dental / / .
pit : aspiration / /. Spit : unaspiration / /
Button : syllabic nasal / /
by manner of articulation
Stops 爆破音：[p] ,[b] ,[t], [d] ,[k],[g] Fricatives 摩擦音: [f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[ T ], [∫ ], [ V], [h]
Afficates 塞擦音: [ ], [ ] Liquids 流音: [ ],[ ],[ ]
Nasals 鼻音: [n],[m],[ ] Glides 滑音（半元音）[w], [j]
by place of articulation
bilabial 双唇音：[p],[b],[m],[w] labiodental 唇齿音：[f],[v]
dental 齿音：[θ],[] alveolar 齿龈音：[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]
palatal 腭音：[ ], [ ],[ ], [ ], [ ] velar 软腭音：[k], [g], [ ] glottal 喉音：[h]
the position of the tongue in the mouth：front vowels [i:] [i] [e] [ ] [a]. central vowels [ ], [ ],[ ]
back vowels [u:] [ ] [ :] [ ] [ ]
According to how wide our mouth is opened: close vowels [i:],[ i],[u:],[ ], semi-close vowels [e], [з: ] ,
open vowels [ ], [a], [ ] [ɑ:] [ ]. semi-open vowels [ ], [ ] .
According to the shape of the lips: with exception of [ ] all the back vowels are rounded vowels .
All the front and central vowels are unrounded vowels.
According to the length of the sound : The long vowels include [i:] [ ] [ ] [u:] [ɑ:]，the rest are short vowels.
The distinction of tense and lax: the long vowels are all tense vowels , the short vowels are lax vowels.
Diphthongs :Produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.
[ ], [ ],[ ], [ ], [ ],[ ] [ ], [ ].
The difference between phonology and phonetics: phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human language. phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language.
Phone音素: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t.
Phoneme音位: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.
allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. Phonemic contrast音位对立: two phonemes can occur in the same enviorments and they distinguish meaning.
Complementary distribution互补分布: two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
Minimal pair最小对立: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
Sequential rules序列规则: the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.
The first phoneme must be / s /. The second phoneme must be / p /or / t /or / k /.
The third phoneme must be / l /or / r /or / w /.
Assimilation rules同化规则：The assimilation rule assimilates one sound similar to the following one by
copying one of its phonetic features.
Deletion rule省略规则: the rule governing the deletion of a sound in the certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.
Deletion: g+ nasal :sign design paradigm
Suprasegmental features超切分特征: . the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is pronounced with great force than the other or others.
Word stress: The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.
Sentence stress: To give special emphasis to a certain nation.
Tone: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. First : level. Second: rise. Third: fall-rise. Fourth: fall.
Intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonati on. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English.
The falling tone: indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement,
the rising tone: makes a question of what is said.
The fall-rise tone: indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.
三Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
Inflectional morphology屈折: studies the inflections of word-formation.
Derivational morphology词汇: is the study of word-formation.
Morpheme词素: is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.
Bound morphemes黏着are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
Affix词缀: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational .
Inflectional affixes屈折词缀：Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories. Derivational affixes派生词缀: are added to an existing form to create a word. such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem.
Prefixes : Prefix occur at the beginning of a word. It modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, except the prefixes "be-",and "en-".
Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. Compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.
Features of compounds
Orthographically书写特征：a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.
Syntactically句法特征：the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.
Semantically句义特征：the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.
phonetically语音特征：the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.
四Syntax句法学is a subfield of linguistics that studied the sentence structure of language.
Sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command. Subject: The referring expression is grammatically called subject.
Predicate: The part of a sentence which comprise a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.
A simple sentence (Finite Clause定式句)consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. The two clauses in a
coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence; neither is subordinate to the other
A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence have unequal status, one subordinating the other.
Embedded clause子句：The incorporated, or, clause is normally called an embedded clause.
Matrix sentence主句: the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix sentence.
1）An embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause.
2）Most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a subordinator从属连词..
3）An embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes. The linear structure of a sentence: The sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a sentence is linear.
The hierarchical structure of a sentence: Sentences are organized with words of the same syntacitc catigory, such as noun phrase(NP) or verb phrase(VP), grouped together.
Syntactic categories
Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to.
Lexical category and phrasal category. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category
Lexical categories: Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added: noun, verb, adjective, adverb . Minor lexical categories are closed categories because the number of the lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for: determiner[限定词], auxiliary[助动词]，preposition, pronoun, conjunction, and interjection[感叹词]
Phrasal categories :noun phrase(NP), verb phrase(VP), prepositional phrase(PP), and adjective phrase(AP).
Grammatical relations: Awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents. We usually refer to the grammatical relations as subject of and direct object of. structural subject and structural object. Only in terms of structural concepts ,the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb. logical subject means the doer of the action. logical object means the recipient of the action. Combinational rules : Phrase structure rules and the recursiveness of phrase structure rules.
A phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule : The combinational pattern in a linear formula .
1) S -> NP VP .The arrow is read as "consist of ", or "is rewritten as".
The rule in 1) is read as "A sentence consist of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase."
2) NP -> (Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S) "A noun phrase consist of, or is rewritten as an optional determiner, an optional adjective, an obligatory[必用的] noun, an optional prepositional phrase, and /or optional sentence.
3) VP -> V(NP)(PP)(S) 4) AP -> A(PP)(S) 5) PP -> P NP
X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec) 指示语X (Compl)补语. In this format, Spec stands for specfier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world.
X" -> Spec X' X' -> X Compl
Syntactic movement and movement rules[句法位移和移位规则]
Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules[转换规则].
transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.
NP-movement occur when a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice.
WH-movement is obligatory[强制性的] in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.
D-structure and S-structure
A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement takes place, named D-structure (or the deep structure[深层结构])，the other occurs after movement takes place named S-structure (roughly meaning the surface structure[表层结构])
Transformational-generative line of analysis: it is believed that phrase structure rules with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure, while the application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence from the level of D-structure to that of S-structure.
phrase structure rules + the lexicon ----> D-structure ----> movement rules ----> S-structure
Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules, i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а
Toward a theory of universal grammar[普遍语法参数]
Since early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar(UG)[普遍语法] known as the Principles-and-parameters theory.[原则及参数理论]
General principles of Universal Grammar。One such principle, or condition, is the case condition[格条件]. As is required by the case condition prin ciple, a noun phrase must have case and case is assigned by V(verb) or P(preposition) to the object position, or by AUX(auxiliary) to the subject position.
Another condition is what is known as the Adjacency condition[毗邻条件] on case assignment, which states that a case assignor and a case recip ient should stay adjacent to each other.
The parameters of Universal Grammar。Adjacency parameter[毗邻参数]: UG is believed to contain a parameter with the values [+strict adjacency] an d [- strict adjacency] set on the Adjacency Condition.
Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, known as the Directionality parameter.[方位参数] Two directionality values [rightward directionality]左向位and [leftward directionality] 右向位。
五Semantics语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.
Major: 1) The naming theory2) The conceptualist view3) Contextualism: 4) Behaviorism
Sense and reference are two terms in the study of meaning.
Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.
Dialectal synonyms方言are used in different regional dialects.
Stylistic synonyms文体differing in style.
Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning表情意义或评价意义相异
Collocational synonyms搭配go together with different words.
Semantically different synonyms语义相异differ slightly in what they mean.
Polysemy多义A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.
Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.
Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.
Predication analysis（述谓结构分析）: It is an approach proposed by British linguist G. Leech for sentential meaning analysis. In semantic analysis of a sentence, predication is the basic unit which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative forms. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a prediction, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.
The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.
predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
六Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.
Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology. illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.
perlocutionary act: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by
the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
七Historical linguistics 历史语言学is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.
apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segement, a phenomenon called apocope.
epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.
metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.
Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.
Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.
blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.
back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.
semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..
Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.
Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.
protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.
sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes.
diachronic linguistics: a term used instead of historical linguistics to refer to the study of language change at various points in time and at various historical stages
Old English: a major period in the history of English development that began in 449 and ended in 1100.
Middle English: a major period in the history of English development that began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England in 1100 and ended in 1500.
Modern English: a period in the history of English development that began roughly from 1500 to the present.
the Great Vowel Shift: a series of systematic sound change in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major
discrepancies（差异）between English pronunciation and its spelling system
An acronym is a word created by combining the initials of a number of words. For example: UNESCO(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization国际教科文组织)，CD-ROM （compact disk of read-only-memory）
abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form. For example: TV (television), Dr (doctor), hr (hour), Jan (January) clipping is a kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases. For example: gym (gymnasium), zoo (zoological garden), fridge (refrigerator), e-mail (electronic mail), hi-fi (high fidelity).
Back-formation: It is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the supposed suffix of an existing word. For example: typewrite (typewriter), edit (editor) langrage family: a group of historically (or genetically) related languages that have developed from a common ancestral language.
Haplology: It refers to the phenomenon of the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence. Semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related, meaning.
Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds are made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology.
cognate: a word in one language which is similar in form and meaning to a word in another language because both languages have descended from a common source.
internal borrowing: the application of a rule from one part of the grammar to another part of the grammar by analogy（类推，类似）to its earlier operation.八社会语言学
Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.
A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.
Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.
language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.
idiolect: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.
The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media.
nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.
A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.
pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.
Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication.
Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.
Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.
ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.
sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.
Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.
Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.
linguistic taboo refer s to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.
Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offen sive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.
九心理语言学
Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.
cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.
brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization. linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralizat ion, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.
dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks
right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is knowas the right ear advantage.
critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.
linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.
linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion
subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”.
of linguistic relativism.
Broca’s area : It refers to the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere, which is vital to language. This area is discovered by Paul Broca, a French surgeon and anatomist.
angular gyrus: The angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke’ s area. The angular gyrus is the language center responsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versa. This area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, for the naming of objects, and for the comprehension of written language , all of which require connections between visual and speech regions.
cerebral plasticity: According to Lenneberg, prior to the end of the critical period, both hemispheres are involved to some extent in language and one can take over if the other is damaged. This neurological flexibility is called cerebral plasticity .
the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf (and also a belief held by some scholars) which states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language.
overt thought: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard speech as “overt thought.”
interpersonal communication: It means language users use language to convey information, thoughts and feelings from one person to another, or to control each other’ s behavior.
intrapersonal communication: the process of using language within the individual to facilitate one’s own thought and aid the formulation and manipulation of concepts.
十语言习得
language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.
telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.
holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also called holophrastic sentences.
acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings. language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.
positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.
negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.
contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.
interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as inter language.
formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.
instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the l earner’s goal is functional.
integrative motivation: Int egrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.
acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.
input: the language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.
caretaker speech: simple, modified speech used by parents, baby-sitter, etc. when they talk to young children who are acquiring their native language. behaviorist learning theory: a theory of psychology which, when applied to first language acquisition, suggests that the learner’s verbal behavior is conditioned or reinforced through association between stimulus and response.
holophrase: a single word that appears in children’s early speech and functions as a complex idea or sentence.
telegraphic speech: the early speech of children, so called because it lacks the same sorts of words which adults typically leave out of telegrams (such as non-substantive words 虚词and inflectional morphemes.)
Second language acquisition: Second language acquisition (SLA) is a general term which refers to the acquisition of a second language(L2) ,in contrast with first language acquisition (FLA). SLA is also used as a general term to refer to the acquisition of a foreign or subsequent language (such as a third or fourth language). Thus, SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquire or learn an additional language after they have acquired their first language (LI). interference: the use of one’s first language rule which leads to an error or inappropriate form in the target language.
contrastive analysis: a comparative procedure used to establish linguistic differences between two languages so as to predict learning difficulties caused by interference from the learner’s first language and prepare the type of teaching materials that will reduce the affects of interference.
error analysis: an approach to the study and analysis of the errors made by second language learners which suggests that many leaner errors are not due to the learner’s mother tongue interference but reflect universal learning strategies such as overgeneralization and simplification of rules.
fossilization: a process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features (such as the accent or a grammatical pattern) become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.
instrumental motivation: the learner’s desire to learn a second language because it is useful for some functional, “instrumental” goals, such as getting a job, passing an examination, or reading for information.
integrative motivation（介入性学习动机）: the learner’s desire to learn a second language in order to communicate with native speakers of the target language.
名词解释 伤痕文学 在七八十年代，“文革”是中国人无法回避的事件，也是作家思考表达的焦点。由此产生了伤痕文学，无情地揭露了文革造成的社会问题，极力伸张人道精神，努力恢复人在文学创作中的主体地位。伤痕文学是新时期最先出现的文学创作潮流。 反思文学 反思文学是略晚于伤痕文学出现的一种文学思潮。它是伤痕文学在社会内容上的扩展和深化。它把个人命运与社会历史道路的曲折过程联系起来，深刻揭示建国以后社会发展的经验和教训。 改革文学 改革文学是以社会政治经济的改革为题材的作品。因为长期存在的弊端和不能忍受的落后状况，使人们在反思的同时迫切要求实行改革。所以改革文学是新时期改革开放的必然产物，是与“伤痕文学”和“反思文学”相继出现的文学现象。 元小说“元小说”就是有意暴露叙事行为或者虚构性的小说。由于马原的小说 而引起注意。 全景式报告文学是在中长篇报告文学或系列报告文学的基础上发展而成的。 犹如某一专题的小型百科全书，以其视野开阔、信息量大、现象剖析渗透等特点引起读者重视。以钱刚、李延国的作品为代表 文化散文源于贾平凹在1992年首次提出的大散文。这类散文多以对历史文化 的反思和对人类生命意义的求索为主要内容。以文化氛围的宏大和思想意蕴的恣肆为特征。呈现出深邃、阳刚、博大、沉雄的气概。以余秋雨、马丽华为代表。 新写实小说新写实小说产生于20世纪80年代中期，产生与作者作家自发的写 作，明确提出来自1989年《钟山》杂志的卷首语。其创作特点是：特别注重现实生活原生形态的还原，真诚直面现实、直面人生。代表作家有方方、池莉、苏童、刘恒等。 新历史小说最早可追溯到80年代中后期，以新历史主义为其主要历史观的 文学形式。是先锋小说或新写实小说中诸多现代主义或后现代主义观念在关于历史的文学叙述中的投射。代表作家苏童、刘震云、叶兆言 朦胧诗派又称“新诗潮”诗歌。因其在艺术形式上采用总体象征的手法，具有 不透明性和多义性。以舒婷、北岛、顾城、梁小斌、杨炼、江河、食指、芒克、多多等为代表。朦胧诗孕育于文革中的地下文学，1980年前后，朦胧诗迅速成为一股诗歌潮流，产生巨大影响 新潮小说又称先锋小说，出现于80年代前期。其创作的核心观念是表现自我，
第一章语文课程与教学的发展沿革 一、古代语文教育教学的内容 原始社会没有严格意义的课程，但语文教育教学的内容已经存在。 奴隶社会有专门的学校和课程：六艺 封建社会以儒家经典为主，基本特点是：先教蒙学读物，集中识字；再学“五经”“四书”，传道明理； 以文选为补充读物和写作范本。 蒙学教材： 1、综合类：《史籀篇》、《仓颉篇》、《急就篇》、《三字经》、《百家姓》、《千字文》等 2、伦理类： 程端蒙的《性理字训》“天理流行，赋予万物，是之为命。人所禀受，莫非至善，是之谓性。” 清代李毓秀《弟子规》“弟子入则孝，出则弟，谨而信，泛爱信，而亲仁。行有余力，则以学文。” 文学教材： 《昭明文选》，宋代谢仿得《文章规范》，清代吴楚材、吴调侯《古文观止》，孙洙《唐诗三百首》等。 3、历史类： 宋代王令《十七史蒙求》；胡寅《续千字文》；朱熹《小学》 4、诗歌类：《千家诗》 5、名物常识类：《幼学琼林》，《龙文鞭影》 6、工具类：《字学举隅》，《文字蒙求》 二、古代语文教育的主要经验 （一）识字教学（二）阅读教学（三）写作教学 1、集中识字，为读写打基础1、熟读、精思、博览1、注重基本功的培养 2、韵文化，便于朗读和记诵2、注重方法习惯的培养：评点法、出入法2、多读、多写、多改 3、注重思想伦理道德的教育3、从模仿入手 4、联系日常生活4、先放后收 5、激发儿童的兴趣 科举制度： 起于隋朝的人才选拔和官吏任用制度。 唐朝科举分两类： 常科：秀才、明经、进士、明书、明法、明算。每年定期举行。 制科：皇帝主持，根据需要临时下令举行。 唐朝进士极盛时每年不超过50人，平常10到20人。进士及第还要经过吏部考试才能授官。 宋代极盛时每年有四五百人，平时也有上百人，进士及第就可授官。 考试内容和方式： 唐朝到宋朝初年：口试、贴经、墨义、策问、诗赋。宋以后主要考经义。 经义：以五经中的文句为题，作文阐明义理。到了元代，则从四书中出题，答案需从朱熹的《四书章句集注》，不得任意发挥。明代中期以后要求文章必须采用八股文的形式。字数和格式有严格的规定。分为“破题、承题、起讲、入手、起股、中股、后股、束股”550字、650字后改为700字。 第二节近现代语文教育 一、中国现代语文教育的兴起时期——语文单独设科（1901——1910） 1904年癸卯学制，标志语文学科的诞生。标志着中国的语文教育由传统向现代的演进，也标志着现代语文教学的兴起。 二、中国现代语文教育体系的形成时期——国语、国文课程标准纲要的制定（1911——1926） 辛亥革命后，中华民国临时政府颁布《普通教育暂行课程标准》，废止小学读经科，将各类学校的“中国文字”、“中国文学”课程更名为“国文”。并且明确了国文课的教学目标：“国文的要旨在于通解普通的语言文字，能自由发表思想；并使略解高深文字，涵养文学之兴趣，兼以启发德志。”为促进了语文教育的发展奠定了基础。三、1920年，北洋政府教育部通令全国，将小学、初中的“国文”改为“国语”，废止旧的国文教科书，采用语体文教科书，自此，文言文一统天下的局面被打破，现代白话文取得了合法的地位，开始占领语文教科书的阵地。第三节当代语文教育 一、语文学科名称的确立 1949年叶圣陶主持华北人民政府教科书编审工作，将新中国实施听说读写教育的学科正式定名为“语文”。这不
12春专升本《大学语文》模拟题（开卷） 一. 名词解释 1．《战国策》：国别体史书；西汉刘向；战国史料；纵横家思想 2．《谏逐客书》：秦国李斯；人才制度；养士之风；吕不韦；郑国渠事件 3．唐宋八大家：唐代古文运动，韩愈、柳宗元；宋代诗文革新运动，欧阳修、三苏、王安石、曾巩，中国古代第二个写作散文的高潮 4．契诃夫：十九世纪，俄罗斯作家，批判现实主义，尤其以短篇小说知名，代表作举例 5．李斯：法家代表人物；秦相；谏逐客 6．莫泊桑：法国，十九世纪著名小说家，拜福楼拜为师，成名作《羊脂球》，批判现实主义作家的杰出代表，“短篇小说之王” 二. 古文翻译。将下面这段文字译成通顺、流畅的现代汉语 既而大叔命西鄙北鄙贰于己。公子吕曰：“国不堪贰，君将如之何？欲与大叔，臣请事之；若弗与，则请除之，无生民心。”公曰：“无庸，将自及。”大叔又收贰以为己邑，至于廪延。子封曰：“可矣！厚将得众。” 公曰：“不义不暱，厚将崩。”大叔完聚，缮甲兵，具卒乘，将袭郑。夫人将启之。公闻其期，曰：“可矣。” 命子封帅车二百乘以伐京。（《左传·郑伯克段于鄢》） 略 三. 简答题 1. 阅读分析茅盾先生的《香市》，请简析“香市”的含义是什么？作者写这篇文章想表达什么样的主题思想？写作上有什么主要特色？ “香市”是庙会式的临时市场，主题思想：大革命后农村经济的凋敝及其对市镇的影响；中国经济向半殖民地半封建转变，农民的贫困。写作特色：即小见大；对比反衬；场面描写 2. 莫泊桑在著名的短篇小说《米隆老爹》中，在短篇小说写作的艺术上，有哪些重要特色？举小说中实例进行分析 一、倒叙手法；二、叙述人称富于变化（一三人称转换）；三、肖像描写；四、细节描写；五、个性化的语言 3. 谈谈韩愈的生平经历和文学主张（略） 四. 阅读分析题 （一）阅读下面这段文字，回答问题 居久之，孝景崩，武帝立，左右以为广名将也，于是广以上郡太守为未央卫尉，而程不识亦为长乐卫尉。程不识故与李广俱以边太守将军屯。及出击胡，而广行无部伍行陈，就善水草屯，舍止，人人自便，不击刁斗以自卫，莫府省约文书籍事。然亦远斥侯，未尝遇害。程不识正部曲行伍营陈，击刁斗，士吏治军簿至明，军不得休息，然亦未尝遇害。不识曰：“李广军极简易，然虏卒犯之，无以禁也；而其士卒亦佚乐，咸乐为之死。我军虽烦扰，然虏亦不得犯我。”是时，汉边郡李广、程不识皆为名将，然匈奴畏李广之略，士卒亦多乐从李广，而苦程不识。程不识孝景时以数直谏，为太中大夫，为人廉，谨于文法。 1. 这段文字出自哪篇课文？主要在谈论什么问题？ 2. 在这段文字中，作者运用哪两种手法塑造人物形象？各自起到什么作用？ 3. 把“不识曰”至“而苦程不识”一段译成现代汉语。 （一）1．这段文字出自汉代历史学家、文学家司马迁的《史记·李将军列传》，作为一代名将，李广和程不识的对比 2．对比手法，性格、治军方法、各方面对他们俩的评价 3．把“不识曰”至“而苦程不识”一段译成现代汉语。（略） （二）阅读下面这段文字，回答问题 【正宫】【端正好】碧云天，黄花地，西风紧。北雁南飞。晓来谁染霜林醉？总是离人泪。 【滚绣球】恨相见得迟，怨归去得疾。柳丝长玉骢难系，恨不倩疏林挂住斜晖。马儿迍迍的行，车儿快快的随，却告了相思回避，破题儿又早别离。听得道一声去也，松了金钏；遥望见十里长亭，减了玉肌：此恨谁知？ (红云)姐姐今日怎么不打扮？(旦云)你那知我的心里呵？（旦唱）
中国现当代文学三十年名词解释精华 《新青年》:中国现代文学史、文化思想上最重要的刊物。1915年创刊于上海，原名《青年杂志》，陈独秀主编。"五四"前后以《新青年》为主要阵地，同时进行了新文化运动和文学改革运动。创刊号发表的《敬告青年》提出了民主、科学的反封建思想的革命主张，1917年初发表了胡适的《文学改良刍议》、陈独秀的《文学革命论》，正式掀起文学革命。1918年5月，现代文学史上第一篇白话小说《狂人日记》发表于其上。该刊还广泛译介外国文学。1920年9月，它成为上海共产主义小组机关刊物，1926年终刊。 文学改良刍议:1917年发表于《新青年》，是倡导文学革命的第一篇理论文章，对文学革命在理论上作出了重要贡献。提出文学改良应从"八事"入手:须言之有物、不摹仿古人、须讲求文法、不作无病呻吟、务去滥调套语、不用典、不讲对仗、不避俗字俗语。文章宣扬的是一种反拟古主义的现实主义文学思想，从不同角度针贬了旧文坛的复古主义和形式主义流弊，粗浅的触及了文学内容与形式的关系、文学的时代性与社会性以及语言变革等问题，初步阐明了新文学的要求和推行白话文的立场。 文学革命论:1917年2月发表于《新青年》，表明了更坚定的文学革命的立场，明确提出"三大主义"作为新文学的征战目标。推倒雕琢的、阿谀的贵族文学，建设平易的、抒情的平民文学；推倒陈腐的、铺张的古典文学，建设新鲜的、立诚的写实文学；推倒迂晦的、艰涩的山林文学，建设明了的、通俗的社会文学。从内容到形式对封建旧文学持批判否定态度，主张以革新文学作为革新政治、改造社会之途。 "人的文学":1918年12月，《新青年》刊登了周作人的《人的文学》，对当时的文学革命影响很大。周作人从个性解放的要求出发，充分肯定人道主义，强调一种"利己而利他，利他即是利己"的"理想生活"，提出以"人道主义为本，对于人生诸问题，加以记录研究的文字，便谓之人的文学"，认为新文学即人的文学，应充分表现"灵肉一致"的人性。这深深影响了五四时期表现个性解放主题的创作，"人的文学"成为五四时期文学的一个中心概念。在《平民文学》中，周作人进一步阐述"人的文学"的主张，强调文学须应用于人生上，提出"普遍"与"真挚"的原则，并申明"以真为主，以美即在其中"的文学观念，这对五四时期尤其是为人生派的创作影响很大。
一、名词解释 1.第一次文代会：1949年7月2日，在北京召开了第一次中华全国文学艺术工作者代表大会，来自解放区和国统区的文学艺术工作者出席会议。开幕式上，毛泽东、周恩来、朱德等先后讲话。最后，大会通过了《中华全国文学艺术界联合会章程》，确定了文艺为人民服务并首先是为工农兵服务的总方向，成立了中华全国文艺学术界的联合会，选举郭沫若为主席，茅盾、周扬为副主席，会后又成立了全国文联下属的各个协会，完成了文艺工作者、作家的组织化。这个大会揭开了中国文学艺术发展史新的一页，是中国当代文学历史的伟大开端。 2.1958年“两结合”创作方法：1958年3月，毛泽东提出“两结合”（革命现实主义与革命浪漫主义相结合）的创作方法，“内容应是现实主义和浪漫主义的对立统一”；第三次文代会认为“两结合”的创作方法应是我国社会主义文学“最好的创作方法”，“不只适用于文艺创作，也适用于文艺批评。” 3.社会主义现实主义：社会主义现实主义是文学创作的方法之一，作为苏联文学与苏联文学批评的基本方法，要求艺术家从现实的革命发展中真实地、历史地和具体地去描写现实。同时，艺术描写的真实性和历史具体性必须与用社会主义精神从思想上改造和教育劳动人民的任务结合起来。社会主义现实主义保证艺术创作有特殊的可能性去发挥创造的主动性，去选择各式各样的形式、风格和体裁。 4.第二次文代会：1953年9月23日至10月6日，中国文学艺术工作者第二次代表大会召开，将中华全国文学艺术界联合会更名为中国文学艺术界联合会，主席郭沫若。会议期间，毛泽东、刘少奇、周恩来、朱德、陈云等党和国家领导人接见会议代表。第二次文代会对建国四年来的文艺工作做出了总结；确立社会主义现实主义为未来中国文艺创作和文艺批评的最高准则。 5.百花文学：1956年和1957年上半年，文学思想和创作出现了一些重要的变革。这在当时的"社会主义阵营"中，是带有普遍性的现象。在中国，毛泽东在1956年5月提出的"百花齐放、百家争鸣"的口号，给潜在于各个领域的强大的变革要求以推动和支持。文学界遂出现了突破僵化教条的、类似于当时苏联文学的那种"解冻"，在1956年和1957年上半年，各地文学刊物纷纷发表在思想、艺术上得探索性作品，它们或者在题材、主题上有新意，或者提供了新的观点和表达方式。文学界将这些文学作品称之为“百花文学”。王蒙《组织部新来的青年人》、宗璞《红豆》、郭小川《一个和八个》、《在桥梁工地上》等 6.《红豆》：《红豆》通过写1949年某教会大学的大学生江玫与齐虹由于生活态度和政治立场的分歧而导致的爱情悲剧。讲述了一个在时代巨变面前的知识分子选择自己的人生道路的故事，表现了知识分子在人生十字路口进行选择的艰难和选择成功的欢乐。思想和艺术贡献：知识分子的主题；人物塑造没有观念化的痕迹；诗意化的意境和散文化的笔法；倒叙的手法。 7.历史剧：以历史人物或事件为题材的戏剧。不论何种戏剧形式或剧种，都可以运用历史人物和事件来展示情节，创作故事。在历史剧的创作中，有两种不同的倾向：一种强调历史的真实性，要求言必有据，事皆可证，这样就容易妨碍作者的创造性，戏剧效果不强；一种是只取一点历史因由，随意创造，这样又缺乏历史真实感。五六十年代历史剧的创作，涉及话剧、京剧、昆曲等多种戏剧样式。以话剧而言，数量约在20部之间。它们的作者主要是老一代的剧作家，如郭沫若、田汉、曹禺等。这些作家在处理他们所不熟悉的现实生活题材时，往往生硬而捉襟见肘；比较而言，“历史”使他们获得更多的想象空间。
语文中的名词解释:什么是实词和虚词 一、实词 实词是有实在意义的词，可以独立充当句子成分，一般可以单独回答问题。每一个实词都可以详细解说其词义。现代汉语实词一般名词、动词、形容词、数词、量词、代词六类。也有人认为代词属于虚词，但多数学者认可代词为实词，因为代词虽然很难解释独立语义，但毕竟其指代内容是明确的。无论在现代汉语中还是在文言文中，实词都占有绝对多的数量，因为语言的基本作用是表意，离开有实际意义的实词，这一作用将很难达到。 （一）名词：是表示人、事物或抽象概念名称的词。如：书本、桌子、儿童、雷锋、思维、政治等。 （二）动词：是表示人或事物的动作、存现及发展趋势的词。如：走、跑、思考、学习、有、存在、能、可以等。 （三）形容词：表示人或事物的性质、状态的词，汉语中的形容词可以修饰名词，也可以修饰动词，与英语不同。如：老、好、漂亮、干净、纯洁、飞快。 （四）数词：表示数目的词。如：一、十、第八、每等。 （五）量词：表示人或事物及动作的计量单位的词。量词一般与数词连用构成数量短语。如：个、件、幢、下、次、趟等。 （六）代词：用来指代人、事物、状态、过程的词。如：你、他们、这、彼等。 二、虚词
虚词是没有实在意义的词，一般不能单独充当句子成分（副词例外），不能单独回答问题（少数副词除外）。其存在的价值在于帮助构成句子的语法结构，表示某种语法关系。汉语的虚词主要有六种：副词、助词、连词、介词、叹词、拟声词。无论在现代汉语中，还是在文言文中，虚词的数量都相对较少，但作用却很大。 （一）副词：在句中表示动作、行为、性质、状态的程度、范围、时间、趋向等的词。如：很、非常、一律、也、将来等。在虚词中，副词是唯一能独立作句子成分的词，并且有少数副词（比如“不、没有、也许、大概”等）也可以单独回答问题，具有一定的实词特点。（注：汉语的副词与英语不同，在英语中，修饰动词或形容词的词都是副词，但在汉语中副词可以修饰动词和形容词，形容词同样也可以修饰动词和形容词。） （二）助词：在句中起辅助作用的词。现代汉语中的助词主要有：“的”、“地”、“得”、“着”、“了”、“过”。文言文中助词比较复杂，常见的有“之”、“者”等。 （三）连词：在句中起连接作用的词，连词往往标示词、短语、句子、句群、语段之间的逻辑关系。如：虽然、但是、因此、无论等。连词常常成对搭配使用或与副词搭配使用，如：“因为……所以……”、“即使……也……”、“只有……才……”等。 （四）介词：表示动作对象、时间等的引介关系的词。介词在汉语中比较复杂。如：在、从、对于、关于等。 （五）叹词：表示感叹或惊奇、惊喜、疑虑等语气的词。如：啊、唉、
1当代文学：指1949年新中国成立以来至今尚在延续的半个多世纪的文学，属于我国的断代文学史之一。中国当代文学既是中国古代文学和现代文学的发展延续，同时，它又是一个只有起点而没有终点的开放性的体系，是一个在新的时代条件下不断变革发展的全新的文学历程。 2十七年的文学：（1949-1966）实用主义和狂热政治激情的结合，英雄主义情绪高度发扬，二元对立的思维模式的普遍存在，以及民族主义热情占支配的情绪。 3文革“十年”文学：（1966-1976）：万马齐喑，百花凋零。沦为政治斗争工具的主流文学；传递弥足珍贵文学声音的非主流文学（地下文学）。 4新时期文学：（1976- ） 1976年10月粉碎四人帮。1977年8月十一大宣布“文革”以粉碎四人帮结束，并把文革之后的中国社会主义革命和建设成为“新时期”。文学界虽将文革之后的文学成为“新时期文学”。事实上，直到1978年5月1日《实践是检验真理的唯一标准》发表，才是新时期的真正到来。当代文学中最富有探索性的阶段。“五四”文学精神回归。文学充满了生机勃勃的创新精神，但文学的浮躁也不可忽视。 5复调：巴赫金在分析陀思妥耶夫斯基的小说时，提出“复调小说”的理论。他认为，陀氏创作的是一种“多声部性”的小说，是“有着众多的各自独立而不融合的声音和意识，由具有充分价值的不同声音组成的真正的复调”。“恰恰是在不同声音、不同意识相互交往的联接点上，思想才得以产生并开始生活”，所以“思想就其本质上来讲是对话的”。 6显性文学：即公开发表，进入了“印刷传媒”，处在流通地位，可以“正当”地、“合法”地拥有读者的作品。 7潜在写作：潜在写作：指17年和文革期间，许多被剥夺了正常写作权利的作家们的创作，包括他们当时不能发表的作品和本无发表预期的日记、书信等。如丰子恺的《缘缘堂续笔》，食指的诗，沈从文的家书等。“潜在写作”的相对概念是公开发表的文学作品，两者一起构成了时代文学的整体。 8反讽：是个中外现代小说中常见的—种叙述方式和美学效果。反讽简单讲就是说反话或反语，目的是造成幽默、讽刺或嘲弄效果。 9元小说：小说家在小说中提示和交代他是怎样在叙事、怎样在虚构，这被称为叙事的自我指涉，有自指性。在此，作者强制将读者带离想象，强制读者意识到叙事的虚构性和想像性。许多现代小说中都有这种叙事的自我指涉，或者也被称为元叙述，如博尔赫斯、卡尔维诺等人的小说。大量存在这种自我指涉的小说，理论家们就称它为元小说，或超小说、自反式小说等等 五六十年代 1第一次文代会： 1949年7月2日至19日，在北京召开了中华全国文学艺术第一次代表大会，出席代表824人，开幕式上，毛泽东、周恩来、朱德等先后讲话；最后，大会通过了《宣言》，确定了文艺为人民服务并首先是为工农兵服务的总方向，成立了中华全国文学艺术界联合会，选举郭沫若为主席，茅盾、周扬为副主席，会后又成立了全国文联下属的各个协会；这个大会揭开了中国文学艺术发展史新的一页，是中国当代文学的伟大开端。 2、百花文学： 1956年和1957年上半年，文学思想和创作出现了一些重要的变革。这在当时的“社会主义阵营”中，是带有普遍性的现象。在中国，毛泽东在1956年5月提出的“百花齐放，百家争鸣”的口号，给潜在于各个领域的强大的变革要求以推动和支持。 3、纪要：1966年2月，江青得到林彪的支持，并以林彪的名义在上海召开了“部队文艺工作座谈会”。会后形成了由江青、张春桥、陈伯达定稿，并由毛泽东审阅修改的《林彪同志委托江青同志召开的部队文艺工作座谈会纪要》。《纪要》共分十条内容，包括文艺黑线专政论、破除对中外古典文学的迷信、文艺上反对外国修正主义并点名批判了一批文艺作品。纪要以中央文件的形式下发全党，给以后的文艺界造成极大的祸害。1979年5月，中共中央批转中国人民解放军总政治部《关于建议撤销1966年2月部队文艺工作
名解 1，朦胧诗 朦胧诗是一个独特的诗学概念，它指的是以舒婷，顾城，江河，杨朔，芒克，食指，多多，梁小斌等为代表的一批“文革”中成长的青年诗人具有探索性的新诗潮。它孕育于“文革”时期的“地下文学”，当时食指，芒克，多多等在“文革”中就已经开始新的探索，他们的诗以手抄形式流传。朦胧诗的思想核心是对人的自我价值的确认，对人道主义和人性复归的呼唤，对人的心灵奥秘的探险。朦胧诗的审美艺术特征是：①打破现实主义审美模式，由写实转向写意，由具体转向抽象，由物象转向意象，由明晰转向模糊，不再侧重一个场景，一个过程的具体描摹和对一种政治情绪的表现或“升华”，而是重于表现多变，曲折和复杂的主体世界②主体的多义性和情感的多向性代替了过去的平面的状态，在结构上实现了真正的“自由”，即外在的形式完全决定于内在情绪的节奏，特征与状态③采用近似于早期象征主义的艺术手法，运用象征，通感，抽象词与具象词的巧妙搭配和超现实想象等多种艺术手法，使意象叠合，寓于暗示性。北岛《回答》，《宣告》，《迷途》《一切》，舒婷《致橡树》《双栀船》《会唱歌的鸢尾花》，顾城《一代人》《远和近》《我是个任性的孩子》，江河《纪念碑》，梁小斌《中国，我的钥匙丢了》，杨朔《大雁塔》 2，政治抒情诗（特点，局限性，作家，代表作） 特点：①“诗人”会以“阶级”的代言者的身份出现，来表达对当代重要政治事件，社会思潮的评说和情感反应，这种评述和反应一般说来不可能出现多种视角和声音，因为其精神上的“资深”，来自当时对现实历史所作的统一叙述②在诗体形态上，表现为强烈的情感宣泄和政论式的观念叙说的结合，即“实际上是抽象的思想，抽象的概念，但用了形象化的语言来表达”③政治抒情诗一般都是长诗，通常采用大量的排比句式是所要表现的观念和情绪进行渲染，铺陈，讲求节奏鲜明，声韵铿锵。 郭小川《望星空》，诗集《投入火热的斗争》，叙事诗集《将军三部曲》，《致大海》《白雪的赞歌》《深深地山谷》，贺敬之《东风万里》《十年颂歌》，诗集《放歌集》 局限性： 3.第一次文代会（时间，地点，意义，内容） 1949，4,2在北平，由郭沫若提议召开， 意义：①第一次文代会实现了党对文学的全面领导，确立了新生政权与文学艺术家之间领导和被领导的关系②确立了以毛泽东“讲话”为新中国文艺的总方针③确立了今后文学的总方向，为工农兵服务④成立了一个组织：文联（中华全国文学艺术联合会），会后成立下属协会（作家协会，戏剧家协会） 内容：周扬总结解放区文艺运动，作题为《新的人民的文艺》的报告，矛盾总结国统区文艺运动，作题为《在反动派压迫下斗争和发展的革命文艺》的报告。会议成立了以郭沫若为主席，矛盾，周扬为副主席的全国文艺界组织——中华全国文学艺术界联合会（文联）。 4.新写实小说的特点 原生态：注重现实生活原生形态的还原 ●理性批判精神的缺席：表现现实生活的荒诞、丑恶、灰暗或无奈，创作主体往往对现实 采取一种无奈的认同态度，缺少强烈的理性批判精神。 ●“零度”叙述：大多采用客观化的叙述态度，是一种缺乏价值判断的冷漠叙述。
四始六义：《诗经》有四始，关于此“四始”各家说法不一：一、一般指“风”﹑“小雅”﹑“大雅”﹑“颂”的首篇。《史记．孔子世家》：“《关雎》之乱以为…风?始，《鹿鸣》为…小雅?始，《文王》为…大雅?始，《清庙》为…颂?始。”二、指“风”﹑“小雅”﹑“大雅”﹑“颂”。《<诗>大序》：“一国之事系一人之本谓之…风?；言天下之事，形四方之风谓之…雅?；雅者正也言王政之所由废兴也政有大小故有…小雅?焉，有…大雅?焉；…颂?者美盛德之形容以其成功告于神明者也。是谓四始，《诗》之至也。”孔颖达疏引郑玄《答张逸》云：“四始…风?也，…小雅?也，…大雅?也，…颂?也。此四者人君行之则为兴，废之则为衰。”三、指“大雅”的《大明》，“小雅”的《四牡》﹑《南有嘉鱼》﹑《鸿雁》。《<诗>大序》：“是谓四始。”孔颖达疏：“《诗纬泛历枢》云：…《大明》在亥水始也；《四牡》在寅木始也；《嘉鱼》在巳火始也；《鸿雁》在申金始也。?……《纬》文因金﹑木﹑水﹑火﹑有四始之义以《诗》文托之。” 《诗经》的“六义”。最早记载于《周礼·春官》，汉代《毛诗序》中明确提出：“故诗有六义焉：一曰风，二曰赋，三曰比，四曰兴，五曰雅，六曰颂。”对于“六义”的解释，有着一个历史发展过程。唐代孔颖达提出了“三体”“三法”的说法，也就是将“六义”分为两组，“风”“雅”“颂”这三者是指体裁，“赋”“比”“兴”这三者是作法。 歌行体：“歌行”是我国古代诗歌的一种体裁，是初唐时期在汉魏六朝乐府诗的基础上建立起来的。刘希夷的《代悲白头吟》与张若虚的《春江花月夜》的出现，可说是这种体裁正式形成的标志。 明代文学家徐师曾在《诗体明辨》中对“歌”、“行”及“歌行”作了如下解释：“放情长言，杂而无方者曰歌；步骤驰骋，疏而不滞者曰行；兼之者曰歌行。” 《辞海》注曰：“行”是乐曲的意思；“歌”与“行”名称虽不同，但并无严格的区别，后来就有“歌行”一体。 风骚：1．指《诗经》和《离骚》。风指《诗经》中的《国风》，骚指《楚辞》中屈原的《离骚》，后来泛指广义文化；在文坛居于领袖地位或在某方面领先叫独领风骚。永明体：永明是南朝齐武帝的年号，“永明体”亦称“新体诗”，这种诗体要求严格四声八病之说，强调声韵格律。这种诗体的出现，对于纠正晋宋以来文人诗的语言过于艰涩的弊病，使创作转向清新通畅起了一定的作用。对“近体诗”的形成产生了重大影响。建安风骨：建安风骨是以曹氏父子为中心形成的文人集团所表现出的共同的文学倾向,他们高扬政治理想,展示强烈个性,具有浓郁的悲剧色彩,展现了东汉末年动荡的时代,形成了慷慨激昂、刚健有力的诗歌风格，所以被称为“建安风骨”，代表人物主要有“三曹”、“七子”和蔡琰等。
中国现当代文学名词解释 现代文学 新青年: 中国现代文学史、文化思想上最重要的刊物。1915年创刊于上海，原名《青年杂志》，陈独秀主编。"五四"前后以《新青年》为主要阵地，同时进行了新文化运动和文学改革运动。创刊号发表的《敬告青年》提出了民主、科学的反封建思想的革命主张，1917年初发表了胡适的《文学改良刍议》、陈独秀的《文学革命论》，正式掀起文学革命。1918年5月，现代文学史上第一篇白话小说《狂人日记》发表于其上。该刊还广泛译介外国文学。1920年9月，它成为上海共产主义小组机关刊物，1926年终刊。 文学改良刍议: 1917年发表于《新青年》，是倡导文学革命的第一篇理论文章，对文学革命在理论上作出了重要贡献。提出文学改良应从"八事"入手:须言之有物、不摹仿古人、须讲求文法、不作无病呻吟、务去滥调套语、不用典、不讲对仗、不避俗字俗语。文章宣扬的是一种反拟古主义的现实主义文学思想，从不同角度针贬了旧文坛的复古主义和形式主义流弊，粗浅的触及了文学内容与形式的关系、文学的时代性与社会性以及语言变革等问题，初步阐明了新文学的要求和推行白话文的立场。 "人的文学": 1918年12月，《新青年》刊登了周作人的《人的文学》，对当时的文学革命影响很大。周作人从个性解放的要求出发，充分肯定人道主义，强调一种"利己而利他，利他即是利己"的"理想生活"，提出以"人道主义为本，对于人生诸问题，加以记录研究的文字，便谓之人的文学"，认为新文学即人的文学，应充分表现"灵肉一致"的人性。这深深影响了五四时期表现个性解放主题的创作，"人的文学"成为五四时期文学的一个中心概念。在《平民文学》中，周作人进一步阐述"人的文学"的主张，强调文学须应用于人生上，提出"普遍"与"真挚"的原则，并申明"以真为主，以美即在其中"的文学观念，这对五四时期尤其是为人生派的创作影响很大。 双簧信:
1、六义说：源自《毛诗序》，六义说实本于《周礼》，六义为风、雅、颂、赋、比、兴。风即《国风》，主要是各地方民歌；雅包括《大雅》、《小雅》，主要是周王朝京畿地区的歌曲；颂包括《鲁颂》、《商颂》、《周颂》，主要是宗庙祭祀的舞曲。 2、赋比兴：赋、比、兴都是《诗经》常用的艺术表现手法。赋者，直言之也，也就是直接敷陈。比者，以此物比彼物也，也就是比拟。兴者，先言他物以引起所咏之物也，也就是兴发。 3、《楚辞》：战国中晚期产生于南方长江流域楚地的一种新型诗体，以屈原、宋玉等为代表作家，代表作品包括屈原《离骚》、《九歌》、《九章》等，因西汉刘向编辑《楚辞》而得名。 4、初唐四杰：指初唐王勃、杨炯、卢照邻、骆宾王四位诗人，他们的创作活动都基本集中在高宗和武后时期，以出众的文才盛名当时。他们的诗歌都充满进取精神，有慷慨悲凉的感人力量，他们的创作给初唐诗坛吹进清新的空气，为变革齐梁以来的绮靡文风、开创唐诗的新局面有大功。 5、山水田园诗派：山水田园诗派是指以山水或田园为歌咏对象的诗歌流派，为山水诗歌奠定基础的南朝诗人谢灵运，为田园诗开创新局面的是东晋大诗人陶渊明，盛唐山水田园诗的代表主要是王维、孟浩然等。 6、边塞诗派：盛唐时重要诗歌流派，其代表诗人为高适、岑参等人，他们的诗歌多以边塞奇丽风光为描绘对象，也反映了戍边将士的建功立业、思念故土等思想情感，多有慷慨悲凉的情调。 7、韩孟诗派：韩孟诗派是指中唐以韩愈、孟郊为代表的诗歌流派，他们的诗歌进一步发展了杜诗奇崛的一面，力求瑰奇怪谲。他们除追求诗歌的雄奇怪异之美外，还大胆创新，或以散文章法结构诗篇，或在诗中大量使用散文句法，他们的“以文为诗”对宋诗有很大影响。 8、元白诗派：元白诗派是指中唐以元稹、白居易为代表的诗歌流派，他们重写实、尚通俗。他们发起新乐府运动，强调诗歌的惩恶扬善、补察时政的功能，语言方面则力求通俗易解。 9、花间词：花间词是指晚唐后蜀以温庭筠、韦庄为代表的词派，他们的词多以男欢女爱、相思离别为主要内容，其风格是香艳浓丽、婉约缠绵，他们的词大多被收入赵崇祚编辑的词集《花间集》中，故称。 10、豪放词：豪放词是指以苏轼和辛弃疾等爱国词人为代表的词派，他们的词摆脱了词为“艳科”的格局，在词的表现内容、境界方面均有所提高。视野广阔，气象恢宏，语言宏博，不拘音律。 11、婉约词：婉约词是指自花间词以下、以温庭筠、柳永、周邦彦等词人为代表的词派，他们的词表情达意一般崇尚含蓄婉转，充分发挥了词“专主情致”的特点。重儿女情长，委婉含蓄，结构深细缜密，音律婉转和谐，语言圆润清丽。 12、公安派：明代万历年间，以袁宗道、袁宏道、袁中道三兄弟为代表的一个文学流派。
中国现当代文学名词解释 有考南师大文学院的请联系qq:309875834 (现代部分) 1917年1月，胡适发表《文学改良刍议》，并提出“八事主张”：“一曰，须言之有物；二曰，不摹仿古人；三曰，须讲求文法；四曰，不作无病之呻吟；五曰，务去滥调套话；六曰，不用典；七曰，不讲对仗；八曰，不避俗字俗语。以进化论的眼光断定白话文为中国文化之正宗，并旗帜鲜明的反对拟古主义和摹仿主义。 1917年2月，陈独秀发表文章《文学革命论》，明确提出“三大主义”：“曰推到雕琢的阿谀的贵族文学，建设平易的抒情的国民文学；曰推到陈腐的铺张的古典文学，建设新鲜的立诚的写实文学；曰推到愚昧的艰涩的山林文学，建设明了通俗的社会文学。”这从内容和形式两个方面提出文学改革的主张，态度比胡适更为坚决。 1918年周作人发表《人的文学》一文，提出新文学应是“人的文学”，反对封建的“非人的文学”。他所谓的“人的文学”，是以合乎人性的人的灵肉一致的生活为文学。周作人的“人的文学”的主张，对新文学第一个十年的理论建设和文学创作产生了重大影响，成为这一时期文学创作的重要特色。 指的是清末民初专写才子佳人题材的文学派别。又名礼拜六派(因鸳鸯蝴蝶派刊物中以《礼拜六》影响最大而得名)，始于20世纪初，1912—1917年为其繁盛期，直至1949年才基本消失。主要作家有包天笑、徐枕亚、周瘦鹃、李涵秋、李定夷等。主要刊物有《礼拜六》、《小说时报》、《小说新报》、《小说大观》等。文学主张是把小说作为“游戏”和“消遣”的工具。这一类文学以言情小说为骨干，总体特征是情调和风格偏于世俗、媚俗。代表作品有：徐枕亚《玉梨魂》、李涵秋《广陵潮》、包天笑《上海春秋》等。 其主流为言情小说，有坏的支流如黑幕小说等。鸳鸯蝴蝶派小说内容多为才子佳人恋爱婚姻，接触到婚姻制度不合理，但又常囿于礼教。其中好的有一定社会、艺术价值，但也有许多作品以营利为目的而粗制滥造。这一流派在小说形式、技巧方面有承前启后作用。文学研究会对其游戏、消遣的文学观进行过批判。 1921年1月,于北京成立。代表人物：周作人、郑振铎、茅盾（沈雁冰）、王统照、许地山、叶绍钧(叶圣陶)、朱自清、冰心、庐隐、俞平伯、老舍、丰子恺等。《小说月报》为代用会刊，还编印了《文学旬刊》及《诗》、《戏剧》月刊等刊物。 宗旨是：“研究介绍世界文学，整理中国旧文学，创造新文学”。 信仰：“相信文学是一种工作，而且又是于人生很切要的一种工作。”注重文学的社会功利性。以倡导“为人生”的现实主义文学为其主要倾向；文学研究会倡导和创作的反映各种社会问题的“问题小说”、“问题剧”和反映现实人生的“乡土文学”盛极一时；文学研究会注重翻译，以俄、法及北欧的现实主义名著居多。
1.《诗经》 《诗经》是中国古代诗歌的开端，也是最早的一部诗歌总集。反映了西周初期到春秋中叶约五百年间的社会面貌。《诗经》最初只称为“诗”或“诗三百”，到西汉时，被尊为儒家经典，才称为《诗经》。全篇按《风》、《雅》、《颂》三类编辑。内容丰富，反映了劳动与爱情、战争与徭役、压迫与反抗、风俗与婚姻、祭祖与宴会，甚至天象、地貌、动物、植物等方方面面，是周代社会生活的一面镜子。对后世影响深远。 2.《楚辞》 楚辞是屈原创作的一种新诗体，也是中国文学史上第一部浪漫主义诗歌总集。“楚辞”的名称，西汉初期已有之，至刘向乃编辑成集。原收战国楚人屈原、宋玉等人辞赋共十六篇。后增入《九思》，成十七篇。全书以屈原作品为主，其余各篇也是承袭屈赋的形式。以其运用楚地的文学样式、方言声韵和风土物产等，具有浓厚的地方色彩，故名《楚辞》，对后世诗歌产生深远影响。 3.古文运动 古文运动是指唐代中期以及宋朝提倡古文、反对骈文为特点的文体改革运动。因涉及文学的思想内容，所以兼有思想运动和社会运动的性质。“古文”这一概念由韩愈最先提出。他把六朝以来讲求声律及辞藻、排偶的骈文视为俗下文字，认为自己的散文继承了两汉文章的传统，所以称“古文”。韩愈提倡古文，目的在于恢复古代的儒学道统，将改革文风与复兴儒学变为相辅相成的运动。在提倡古文时，进一步强调要以文明道。除唐代的韩愈、柳宗元外，宋代的欧阳修、王安石、曾巩、苏洵、苏轼、苏辙等人也是其中的代表。 4.《红楼梦》 中国古典四大名著之首，清代作家曹雪芹创作的章回体长篇小说，共一百二十回，是一部具有世界影响力的人情小说作品，举世公认的中国古典小说巅峰之作，中国封建社会的百科全书，传统文化的集大成者。小说以贾、史、王、薛四大家族的兴衰为背景，贾宝玉、林黛玉、薛宝钗的爱情婚姻故事为主线，通过家族悲剧、女儿悲剧及主人公的人生悲剧，揭示出封建末世的危机。《红楼梦》对宫廷官场的黑暗、封建贵族的腐朽等社会现实及道德观念都进行了深刻的批判，具有极其深远的影响。 5.《呐喊》 鲁迅的第一部小说集，1923年8月首次出版。收1918年4月至1922年10月期间的作品共14篇。包括《狂人日记》、《孔乙己》、《故乡》、《阿Q正传》等著名作品。《呐喊》显示了鲁迅对传统文学和外来文艺的有机结合，成功地塑造了一系列典型形象，具有独特的民族风格和民族特色，代表了鲁迅文学创作的最高成就。它的出版，改变了文学革命初期仅有理论建树而创作不丰的局面，
大学语文试题库·名 词解释
大学语文试题库·名词解释 1、六书说：是关于汉字的构造最通行的学说。所谓六书，用《说文解字》的作者许慎的说法，六书是：一曰指事，二曰象形，三曰形声，四曰会意，五曰转注，六曰假借。在“六书”中，“象形、指事、会意、形声”是造字法，转注、假借为用字之法。 2、“春秋笔法”，又称被称为微言大义，是一种使用语言的艺术，是孔子首创的一种文章写法。指寓褒贬于曲折的文笔之中。孔子编写《春秋》，在记述历史时，暗含褒贬，行文中虽然不直接阐述对人物和事件的看法，但是却通过细
节描写，修辞手法（例如词汇的选取）和材料的筛选，委婉而微妙地表达作者主观看法。 3、《左传》：又称《春秋左氏传》或《左氏春秋》，是我国早期的一部编年体历史著作，同时也是具有文学价值的散文名著。相传作者为春秋末年鲁国史官左丘明。它与《谷梁传》、《公羊传》合称春秋三传，都是用来解释和阐明《春秋》的。 4、现代汉民族共同语：是以北京语音为标准音，以北方方言为基础方言，以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的普通话。 5、新词语：所谓新词语，是指内容新、形式新，原来的词汇系统中没有或虽有但内容是全新的词语。新词语是社会的一面镜子，它能直观迅速地反映社会的发展，历史上社会发展的时期往往也是新词语产生的高峰时期。 6、方言：是共同语的地域分支，指在某一个地方通行的语言。 7、现代汉语规范化：是指确立现代汉民族共同语明确一致的标准，并用这一标准来消除现代汉语使用过程中出现的语音、词汇、语法上的差异，以提高其交际效果，并促进这种标准的全面推行。 8、《诗经》：是我国第一部诗歌总集，也是中国诗歌的源头之一。全书主要收集了周初至春秋中叶五百多年间的作品。《诗经》按风、雅、颂分为三类，赋、比、兴的运用，既是《诗经》艺术特征的重要标志，也开启了我国古代诗歌创作的基本手法。 9、楚辞：其本义是指楚地的言辞，后来逐渐固定为两种含义：一指屈原开创的、战国后期在楚国流行的一种新诗体；一指以屈原的作品为主体的一部古代诗歌总集。从诗歌体裁来说，它是战国后期以屈原为代表的诗人，在楚国民歌基础上开创的一种新诗体，由于屈原的《离骚》是《楚辞》的代表作，故楚辞又称为骚或骚体。楚辞的基本特征是：“书楚语，作楚声，记楚地，名楚物，”具有鲜明的楚文化特点，和浓郁的浪漫主义色彩。从总集名称来说，它是西汉刘向在前人基础上辑录的一部“楚辞”体的诗歌总集，收入战国楚人屈原、宋玉的作品以及汉代贾谊、淮南小山、庄忌、东方朔、王褒、刘向诸人的仿骚作品。 10、建安风骨：指汉魏之际曹氏父子、建安七子等人诗文的骏爽刚健风格。建安时期的诗歌以曹氏父子为中心，他们的创作反映了动乱的时代。作品往往高扬政治理想，或抒发人生短暂的哀叹，具有鲜明的作家个性和浓郁的悲剧色彩。 11、初唐四杰：指唐代初期的四位诗人：王勃、杨炯、卢照邻、骆宾王。他们的诗歌虽然仍带有六朝绮靡之色，但已经初步显示了刚健之气。王勃《送杜少府之任蜀州》（五律）、《滕王阁序》；杨炯《从军行》；卢照邻《长安古意》，骆宾王《在狱咏蝉》。 12、古诗十九首：汉末文人五言抒情诗的代表，作为一个整体收录在梁代萧统编撰的《文选》中，是游子之歌和思妇之词，委曲婉转，反复低回，情景交融，语言纯净，对后代的文人诗影响深远。 13、文学母题：在文学作品中，有一种单一要素，如常规的情景、旨趣、事件、人物，甚至是不断出现的意象，都可以作为扩展叙事、形成新的文学作品的基础，称为母题。它比一般所说的主题更基本、更有生成性。不少文学作品的意蕴，其实就是同一母题的不断创新、演变，这样就在文学史上形成了一条生生不息的“作品链”。
名词解释 1.政治抒情诗 是十七年诗歌的主要诗体样式。在这种诗体中，诗人以“阶级”或“人民”的代言人身份，表达对当代重要政治事件、思潮的评说与情感反应。在诗体形态上，是强烈的革命情感宣泄和政论式的观念叙说的结合，即“实际上是抽象的思想、抽象的概念，但用了形象化的语言来表达。”这种诗体，通常采用大量的排比句式加以铺陈。代表诗人：郭小川、贺敬之。 2.“山药蛋派”/“山西作家群”/“山西派”/“‘火花’派”： 赵树理等山西作家因创作上有某些共性而被称为“山药蛋派”。马烽、西戎等的共性①地域：长期生活、工作在山西，作品写的也多为山西农村生活；②写作与农村“实际工作”的关系：主张在生活中“不作旁观者”；③“写实”的风格，作品的思想、形象，来自“当前生活的底层”；④重视故事性、语言通俗 3.新生代诗歌 “第三代诗人”或曰“新生代诗人”、“后新诗潮”的集体亮相是在1986年，《诗歌报》和《深圳青年报》联合以“现代主义诗歌大展”的方式集中介绍了由100多名第三代诗人分别组成的60余家自称诗派及其实验诗歌代表作品，如南京的“他们”，上海的“海上诗群”，四川的“莽汉主义”、“非非主义”、“整体主义”、“新传统主义”等等。内容上，反英雄、反高、平民化成为后新诗潮的总体特征。艺术上，反意象、反修辞和口语化，是后新诗潮在语言实验方面的重要特征。以韩东、于坚为代表的原生态口语化倾向构成了对新诗潮经典性的意象语言规范的颠覆。 4.第四次文代会 1979年10月30日至11月16日召开的第四次全国文艺工作者代表大会，是一个重要事件，它标志着文艺界的全面“解冻”。邓小平代表中共中央对大会的祝辞，提出了一系列的有关文艺的新的观念原则。《祝辞》指出：“艺术创作上提倡不同形式和风格的自由发展，在艺术理论上提倡不同观点和学派的自由讨论。”对文艺的“行政命令必须废止”，作家“写什么和怎样写”，“不要横加干涉。”这对新时期文学在恢复期里大步走向繁荣起到了积极的推动作用。新时期文学在复苏期的发展态势，是与这一阶段里一系列文艺观念的基本问题和创作中具有倾向性问题的热烈争鸣连在一起的。这些争鸣活动，既是理论界对新的创作成果的及时评价，又是对新时期文学发展历史的归纳、总结和升华，真实地记录了文艺观念拨乱反正的历程。 纪实文学，代表作主要有刘心武的《公共汽车咏叹调》、《5·19长镜头》，张辛欣《北京人》系列。 伤痕文学在七八十年代，“文革”是中国人无法回避的事件，也是作家思考表达的焦点。由此产生了伤痕文学，无情地揭露了文革造成的社会问题，极力伸张人道精神，努力恢复人在文学创作中的主体地位。伤痕文学是新时期最先出现的文学创作潮流。 伤痕文学：70 年代末期，一批揭露文革灾难，描述知青、知识分子、受迫害的官员在文革中的悲剧性遭遇的作品，被一些人称为“伤痕文学” 。它以1977年刘心武的小说《班主任》为开端，因卢新华的小说《伤痕》而得名。 伤痕小说的代表作品：刘心武《班主任》、卢新华《伤痕》、周克芹《许茂和他的女儿们》、莫应丰《将军吟》、从维熙《大墙下的红玉兰》、韩少功《月兰》、张贤亮《邢老汉和狗的故事》、郑义《枫》、张洁《从森林里来的孩子》、王亚平《神圣的使命》等。 反思文学20世纪70年代末80年代初，一批作家从政治、社会层面上还原“文革”的荒谬本质（更具追根溯源意味），并追溯到此前的历史，从一般地揭示社会谬误上升到历史经验教训（更具历史感）的总结上，和伤痕文学相比，其目光更为深邃、清醒，主题更为深刻（是伤痕文学的深化），带有更强的理性色彩，被称为“反思小说”。 改革文学 始把创作目光由历史拉到现实，一边关注着现实中的改革发展，一边在文学中发表自己关于祖国发展的种种思考和设想。这就是风骚一时的“改革文学”，其开篇之作，是。 【寻根小说】八十年代中期，文坛上兴起了一股“文化寻根”的热潮，作家们开始致力于对传统意识、民族文化心理的挖掘，他们的创作被称为“寻根文学”。代表：阿城《棋王》、韩少功《爸爸爸》、《女女女》、王安忆《小鲍庄》、张炜《古船》等。伤痕文学: “伤痕文学”是经历了文革十年浩劫后最先出现的文学现象。伤痕文学的内容主要是写社会伤痕和人们的心灵伤痕。十年动乱所造成的中国社会的悲剧，是一桩牵动亿万人心的巨大社会事件，不能不首先引起作家的深切关注；文革的切肤之痛，积郁十年的愤懑，人民所遭受的折磨和进行的痛苦挣扎，不能不要求文学优先表达。代表作有刘心武的《班主任》，