English Linguistics
英语语言学
Chapter Six
Language and Cognition
语言与认知
What is language ?
What is cognition ?
I . Cognition
(I). Definition:
?Mental processes of an individual, information processing
?Mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.
(Ⅱ).Three approaches to the study of language and cognition:
1.The formal approach: addresses the structural patterns, including the study of morphological, syntactic, and lexical structure.
2.The psychological approach: looks at language from the perspective of general cognitive systems ranging from perception, memory, attention to reasoning. PSYCHOLOGICAL LINGUISTICS 心理语言学
3.The conceptual approach: addresses how language structures (processes & patterns) conceptual content.COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS 认知语言学
Ⅱ. Psycholinguistics
(I). Definition:
Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language, it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.
(Ⅱ).Three subjects of research
?Language acquisition
?Language comprehension
?Language production
1. Language Acquisition
(1). Definition:
?Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words to communicate.
(2). Studies on Language acquisition:
?One of the central topics in psycholinguistics
?All normal humans speak, no nonhuman animal does.
?Children’s acquisition of language has received much attention.
?Scholars kept diaries of children’s speech for their research data.
(3). Stages of Language acquisition:
a. Holophrastic stage (from two months to a year)
–Language’s sound patterns
–Phonetic distinctions in parents’ language.
–One-word stage: objects, actions, motions, routines.
b.Two-word stage (around 18 months)
c. Three-word stage
–Give doggie paper.
–Put truck window.
–Tractor go floor.
d. Fluent grammatical conversation stage
?Embed one constituent inside another:
–Give doggie paper.
–Give big doggie paper.
?Use more function words: missing function words and inflection in the beginning but good use (90%) by the age of 3, with a full range of sentence types.
?All parts of a language are acquired before the child turns four.
2. Language comprehension
(1). Definition:
?The mental process in which humans can understand sentences that carry novel messages in a way exquisitely sensitive to the structure of the language.
(2). Stages of language comprehension:
?a. word recognition
?b. comprehension of sentences
?c. comprehension of texts
3. Language production
(1). Definition:
?In psycholinguistics, language production is the production of spoken or written language. It describes all of the stages between having a concept, and translating that concept into linguistic form.
(2). Stages of language production:
?a. access to words
?b. generation of sentences
?c. written language production
Ⅲ. Cognitive Linguistics
?Definition:
It is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think. ?It is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the (I) Construal and Construal Operations (识解与识解活动)
?Construal: the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in different ways
Construal Operations include the following aspects:
?Attention / salience
(注意∕突显)
?We activate the most relevant concepts more than concepts that are irrelevant to what we are thinking about.
a We drove along the road.
(a line:one-dimenaional)
b. She ran across the road.
(a surface:two-dimenaional)
c. The workers dug through the roa
d.
(a volume:three-dimenaional)
?a. He cleaned the window. (glass)
?b. He opened the window. (frame)
?a. I’ve broken the window. (I)
?b. A stone has broken the window. (stone)
2. Judgment / Comparison (判断∕比较)
Figure / Ground (图形∕背景)
?We cannot attend to all facets of a scene at the same time.
We cannot pay attention to everything. Instead, we focus on events of particular salience. ?Figure-ground organization
–The ground seems to be placed behind the figure extending in the background.
–The figure is thus more prominent, or even more interesting, than the ground.
?Figure-ground
?Figure-ground also seems to apply to our perception of moving objects.
?In order to distinguish between stationary and dynamic figure-ground relations, some cognitive linguists (eg Ronald Langacker) use the term trajector （射体）for a moving figure and landmark （界标）for the ground of a moving figure.
?
There’s a cat[figure] on the mat[ground]
?
There are still some peanuts[figure] in the bag[ground]
?
Batman[figure] was standing on the roof[ground]
?The computer[figure] under the table[ground] is mine
?
The spacecraft[figure] was hovering over Metropolis[ground]
?
Tarzan[trajector] jumped into the river[landmark]
?Spiderman[trajector] climbed up the wall[landmark]
?The bird[trajector] winged its way out the window[landmark]
?We[trajector] went across the field[landmark]
?
I[trajector]’m going to London[landmark]
3. Perspective∕Situatedness
(视角∕情景)
Perspective ：the way in which we view a scene in terms of our situatedness. It generally depends on two things:
?where we are situated in relation to the scene we're viewing
?how the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness.
–The tree is behind the man.
–The tree is in front of the man.
(Ⅱ) Categorization（范畴化）
1. Definition:
?The process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.
2. Three levels in categories:
–basic level
–superordinate level
–subordinate level
Basic level Superordinate level
Animal
Horse Dog Cat
Chihuahua German dachshund
shepherd
Subordinate level
Vertical organization
(Ⅲ) Image Schema（意象图式）
?Definition:
A recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience (Mark Johnson).
2. Patterns of image schemas:
Center-periphery schema
（中央—边缘图式）
?Involves
–a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and
–degrees of distance from the core.
?Examples (English):
–The structure of an apple
–An individual’s perceptual sphere
–An individual’s social sphere, with family and friends at the core and others having degrees of peripherality （周边性）
Containment schema
（容器图式）
?Involves a physical or metaphorical
–boundary
–enclosed area or volume, or
–excluded area or volume.
?Bodily experience: human bodies as containers.
?Structural elements: interior, boundary, exterior
–The ship is coming into view.
–She’s deep in thought.
–We stood in silence.
Cycle schema （循环图式）
?Involves repetitious events and event series. Its structure includes the following:
–A starting point
–A progression through successive events without backtracking
–A return to the initial state
?The schema often has superimposed on it a structure that builds toward a climax and then goes through a release or decline.
?Examples (English)
–Days
–Weeks
–Years
–Sleeping and waking
–Breathing
–Circulation
–Emotional buildup and release
Force schema （力量图式）
?Involves physical or metaphorical causal interaction. It includes the following elements:
–A source and target of the force
–A direction and intensity of the force
–A path of motion of the source and/or target
–A sequence of causation
?Examples (English):
–Physical: Wind, Gravity
–Structural elements: force, path, entity, etc.
–Interaction, directionality, causality
–Compulsion
–Blockage
–Counterforce
–Diversion
–Removal of restraint
Link schema（连接图式）
?Consists of two or more entities, connected physically or metaphorically, and the bond between them.
Entity A Entity B
?Examples (English):
–A child holding her mother’s hand
–Someone plugging a lamp into the wall
–A causal “connection”
–Kinship “ties”
Part-whole schema
（部分—整体图式）
?Involves physical or metaphorical wholes along with their parts and a configuration of the parts.
?Examples (English):
–Physical: The body and its parts
–Metaphorical: The family
Path schema（路径图式）
?Involves physical or metaphorical movement from place to place, and
?consists of a starting point, a goal, and a series of intermediate points.
?Examples (English):
?Physical: Paths; Trajectories
?Metaphorical: The purpose-as-physical-goal metaphor, as expressed in the following sentences: –Tom has gone a long way toward changing his personality.
–You have reached the midpoint of your flight training.
–She's just starting out to make her fortune.
–Jane was sidetracked in her search for self-understanding.
Scale schema（刻度图式）
?Involves an increase or decrease of physical or metaphorical amount, and
?consists of any of the following:
–A closed- or open-ended
progression of amount
–A position in the progression
of amount
–One or more norms of amount
?Examples:
–Physical amounts
–Properties in the number system
–Economic entities such as supply and demand
Verticality schema（垂直图式）
?Involves “up” and “down” relations.
?Examples:
–Standing upright
–Climbing stairs
–Viewing a flagpole
–Watching water rise in a tub
(Ⅳ) Metaphor
?George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press. <中小学英语教学与研究>2011第6期
?英语中的概念隐喻表达法
崔传明石磊
?（山东科技大学，山东泰安271000）
隐喻（metaphor）就是把一个领域的概念投射到另一领域，或者说从一个认知域—来源（source domain）投射到另一个认知域—目标域（target domain）。在隐喻结构中，两种通常看来毫无联系的事物被相提并论，这是因为人类在其认知领域中对它们产生相似联想，利用对两种事物感知的交融来解释、评价、表达他们对客观现实的真实感受和感情。
概念隐喻（conceptual metaphor）理论思想首先是在Lakoff 和Johnson在《我们赖以生存的隐喻》（Metaphors We Live by）一书中提出来的。其理论的核心内容有：隐喻是一种认知手段；隐喻的本质是概念性的；隐喻是跨概念域的系统映射；映射遵循恒定原则；概念隐喻的使用是潜意识的等等。该理论把隐喻视为一种思维推理的方式，而不仅仅是语言现象。
Lakoff和Johonson将概念隐喻分为三类：结构隐喻（Structural Metaphors）、方位隐喻（Orientional Metaphors）和实体隐喻（Ontological Metaphors）。
一、结构隐喻
结构隐喻指以一种概念的结构来构造另一种概念，使两种概念相叠加。将谈论
一种概念的各方面的意义用于谈论另一概念。例如：
?ARGUMENT IS W AR.
（争论就是战争。）
这个句子结构本身就是隐喻，即把争论比喻为战争。以这个概念为基础，会导致这样的英语表达：
He attacked every weak point in my argument. 他攻击到了我的论点中的每一个弱点。
His criticisms were right on target. 他的批评正中要害。
You disagree ? Okay, shoot ! 你不赞成？那就开火吧！
2. TIME IS MONEY.
（时间就是金钱。)
根据这个概念，我们会很自然地使用以下表达方式：
He spent two hours in reading the newspaper.
他花了两个小时读那张报纸。
You need to budget your time.
你需要预算你的时间。
I've invested a lot of time in her.
他在她身上投入了大量的时间。
3. KNOWLEDGE IS POWER.
（知识就是力量。）
根据这个概念，我们可以这样表达：
Her knowledge of English is very weak. 她英语知识很薄弱。
JRE Corporate benefits from strong local market knowledge. JRE公司得益于强大的地方市场了解。
His reading knowledge seems unbelievable for a boy of eighteen. 对于一个18岁的人来说，他读书的能力简直难以置信。
4. BOOKS ARE FOOD.（书是食粮。）
因此，我们可以这样表达：
He devours the book.
他贪婪地吞读书本。
Some books are to be tasted, others are to be swallowed, and some few are to be chewed and digested. 有的书需要品尝；有的书需要吞下；有的书需要细嚼和消化。
二、方位隐喻
方位隐喻是指参照空间方位而组建的一系列隐喻概念。即用诸如上下、左右、内外、前后、中心-边缘等表达方位的概念来组织另外一种概念。空间方位来源于人们与大自然的相互作用，是人们赖以生存的最基本概念。方位概念是人们较早产生的，可以直接理解的概念。在此基础上，人们将其它抽象的概念，如情绪、身体状况、数量、社会地位等投射于一些具体的方位概念上，形成用表示方位的词义表达抽象概念的意义。在很多语言中，空间方位隐喻形成的词汇及其义项往往最为丰富和复杂。例如：
?HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN
（幸福是向上，伤心是向下。）
在此概念基础上，产生以下隐喻性句子：
I’m feeling up, but she is feeling down. 我感到很快乐，而她感到很悲伤。
That boosted my spirits. 那使我精神高涨。
Thinking about her always gives me a lift. 一谈到她我总是很兴奋。
He’s really low these days. 最近他确实情绪低落。
My spirits sank. 我的情绪低落了。
2. LEFT IS RADICAL;RIGHT IS CONSERV ATIVE.
（“左”代表着“激进”；“右”代表着“保守”。）由此产生的句子有：
She is very right while her husband is very left. 她很保守，而他丈夫很激进。
But there did seem to be a shift to the right in the election’s results. 选举结果确实朝着保守派发生的变化。
On this question our Party made both Left and Right opportunistic mistakes. The former lingered longer than the latter and inflicted greater damage on us. 我们党在这个问题上既犯过左倾机会主义的错误，也犯过右倾机会主义的错误，犯左倾机会主义错误的时间比犯右倾机会主义错误的时间还长，损害还大。
3. THE FASHION IS IN;THE OUTDATED IS OUT.
（入时是内；过时是外。）
Her hair is in style.
她的发型很入时。
This kind of dress is out of date.
这种衣服过时了。
This idea is out of trend.
这种思想过时了
4. FRONT IS GOOD;BACK IS BAD.
(前好后坏.
He is ahead of me in English.
他在英语方面比我好。
He has fallen behind others.
他已经落在别人后面了。
The leader of the strike walked at the head of the procession.
罢工领导人走在队伍的前面
5. CENTER IS THE MOST IMPORTANT; EDGE IS THE LEAST IMPORTAN（中心是最重要的；边缘是最不重要的。）
因此，我们可以用此概念来表达意义：
She likes to be the center of attention all the time. 她喜欢总是成为关注的中心。
In China, Beijing is the center of politics, economy and culture. 北京是中国政治、经济和文化的中心。
American media often marginalize the value of working fathers. 美国媒体经常忽略在工作中的父亲们价值。
三、实体隐喻
人类最初的生存方式是物质的。人类对物体的经验为以实体表达抽象概念提供了物质基础。由此而派生出另一类隐喻—实体隐喻。实体隐喻是指我们可将抽象和模糊的思想、感情、心理活动、事件、状态等无形的概念看作具体的、有形的实体，特别是人体本身。在这类隐喻概念中，人们可以对许多无形概念进行谈论、量化、识别。实体隐喻也是词义派生的一个重要方法，请看以下几种实体隐喻的例子：
1. INFLATION IS AN ENTITY.（通货膨胀比作实体。）在此概念基础上，可产生以下带有隐喻性的句子表达：
Inflation is lowering our standard of living, so we need to combat inflation. 通货膨胀正降低我们的生活水平，因此我们需要同它做斗争。
Inflation is backing us into a corner. 通货膨胀一步步把我们逼向困境。
Inflation is taking its toll at the checkout counter and the gas pump. 通货膨胀正在结帐台和加油站缴税。
2. THINGS ARE CONTAINERS.（事物是容器。）实体隐喻更典型的和具有代表性的是容器
隐喻（container metaphor）。人是独立于周围以外的实体，每个人本身就是一个容器，由身体分界面、里外等。人们将这种概念投射于人体以外的其它物体，如房子、丛林、田野、地区甚至使一些无形的、抽象的时间、行为、情感、思想、活动、状态也看作一个容器。由此产生的隐喻表达在英语里比比皆是：
He is plunged in books. 他埋头读书。
The poor man is deep in debts. 这个穷人深陷债务。
She is in great difficulty. We must try to help her out. 她的处境很困难，我们必须帮她克服困难。
He sank into deep sorrow when he heard the bad news. 听到这个坏消息他陷入悲痛之中。
The man has pulled out of danger. 那人已经脱离危险。
3. THINGS ARE FLUIDS.（事物是液体。）实体隐喻中与容器隐喻相对应和互补的是液体隐喻（fluid metaphor）。这种隐喻将一些无形的、抽象的时间、行为、情感、思想、活动、状态看作是可以流动的液体，对各种事物进行生动的表达：
The sunlight poured through the window into his room. 阳光穿过窗户泻到他房间里。
Anger surged within him. 怒气在他心中汹涌澎湃。
She was overflowing with joy. 她洋溢着欢乐之情。
Time is flowing away. 时间在流逝。
(Ⅴ) Metonymy（转喻）
?It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target, within the same domain.
?The reference point activates the target.
?转喻映射原则：转喻主要指在同一认知域中用较易感知的部分来理解整体或者整体的另一部分，例如人们常以一个范畴中的典型成员来理解整个范畴。
?第五单元讲过。
Study Questions
I. Define the following terms.
1) cognitive linguistics 2) psycholinguistics
3) construal 4) categorization
5) image schema 6) ontological metaphor
7) structural metaphor 8) orientational metaphor
II. Answer the following questions.
1) What are the subjects of research within psycholinguistics?
2) Describe the stages of children’s language acquisition?
3) How does a metaphor work in the view of cognitive linguistics?
Chapter Seve
Language, Culture and Society
语言与文化及社会
(I) Language and Culture
?The relation between language and culture:
Language is a part of culture and plays a very important role in it. On the one hand, without language, culture would not be possible. On the other hand, language is influenced and shaped by culture; it reflects culture. In the broadest sense, language is the symbolic representation of a people, and it comprises their historical and cultural backgrounds as well as their approach to life and their ways of living and thinking.
Language and culture interact and understanding of one requires understanding of the other. Cultures differ from one another. Each culture is unique. Learning a foreign language well means more than merely mastering the pronunciation, grammar, words and idioms. It means learning also to see the world as native speakers of that language see it, learning the ways
in which their language reflects the ideas, customs, and behavior of their society, learning to understand their “language of the mind”. Learning a language, in fact, is inseparable from learning its culture.
2. Studies and theories of language and culture
2. Studies and theories of language and culture
?The heritage concerning the study of language and culture:
?At the start of the 20th century, AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL ORIENTATION in the study of language was developed both in England and in North America.
?England:
?Malinowski’s study马林诺夫斯基的研究:
?the word wood on the Trobriand Islands off eastern New Guinea
?Speech community言语社区
?Firth’s study 弗斯的研究:
?Context of Situation情景语境
?Halliday’s study韩礼德的研究:
?The study of language from a socially semiotic or interactional perspective
?North America:
?The relationship between language and culture
?The American Indian culture
?The reconstruction of American Native languages
?Boas, Sapir, Whorf
?Field work, first-hand evidence
?The ethnography of communication交际民俗学
?The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (萨丕尔—沃尔夫假说)
?Our language helps mould our way of thinking and different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world.
?Two points in his theory:
?1) Language may determine our thinking patterns;
?2) similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.
?Linguistic determinism(语言决定论):语言决定思维
?Linguistic relativity (语言相对论)：思维相对于语言，思维模式随着语言的不同而不同。?The German ethnologist, Willaim von Humboldt洪堡特
?Eugene Nida奈达: a linguist and translation theorist
?As translators, if we want to do a good job in CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICA TION, we should always be aware of some types of sub-culture.
3. Case studies
?The interplay of language and culture may range from textual structure to phonological variation. ?Kaplan(1966): The structural organization of a text tends to be culturally specific. 线性与螺旋型?Nid a(1998): Words are sometimes “idiomatically-governed” and “culturally-specific”.
?杨永林(1993) made several case studies through his personal exposure to the American culture. ?1) When you get your hands dirty, it does not necessarily mean in the American cultu re that you’ve done some manual work and need to wash your hand. (practice something, be engaged in doing something)
?2) When you have enough dumbbells(哑铃), it does not necessarily mean that you keep pairs of this instrument for regular physical practices. (have lots of stupid guys)
英汉习俗差异是多方面的，最典型的莫过于在对狗这种动物的态度上。狗在汉语中是一种卑微的动物。汉语中与狗有关的习语大都含有贬意：“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”等，尽管近些年来养庞物狗的人数大大增加，狗的“地位”似乎有所改变，但狗的贬义形象却深深地留在汉语言文化中。而在西方英语国家，狗被认为是人类最忠诚的朋友。英语中有关狗的习语除了一部分因受其他语言的影响而含有贬义外，大部分都没有贬义。在英语习语中，常以狗的形象来比喻人的行为。如You are a lucky dog（你是一个幸运儿），Every dog has his day （凡人皆有得意日），Old dog will mot learn mew tricks（老人学不了新东西）等等。形容人“病得厉害”用sick as a dog，“累极了”是dog-tired。与此相反，中国人十分喜爱猫，用“馋猫”比喻人贪嘴，常有亲呢的成份，而在西方文化中，“猫”被用来比喻“包藏祸心的女人”。
龙在中国人民的心目中占有崇高的位置，有关龙的成语非常多，且含有褒义。如“龙跃凤鸣”、“龙骧虎步”等。在外国语言中，赞扬龙的词语非常之少，且含有贬义。如“dragon”指凶暴的人，严厉的人，凶恶严格的监护人，凶恶的老妇人（尤指很少给在其看管下姑娘自由的老妇人）等。以dragon组成的词组也多含贬义。如dragon’s teeth ：相互争斗的根源；排列或多层的楔形反坦克混克混凝土障碍物。the old Dragon：魔鬼。
(Ⅱ) Language and society
?The relation between language and society:
Metaphorically, language is regarded as a mirror of society, through which we can understand social activities of a certain better. Functionally, society provides language with a suitable context of use, in which we can enjoy aspects of language vividly and truthfully.
First, language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships. This social function of language is embodied in the use of such utterances as“good morning”;“hi!”
Second, users of the same language in a sense all speak differently.the kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. and the language,in its turn, reveals information about its speaker.
Third ,language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society.for instance,there is only one word in English for “snow”, there are several for Eskimo.
2. Studies and theories of language and culture
Linguistics as a MONISTIC or AUTONOMOUS PURSUIT of an independent science 一元性或自治性
Chomskyan linguistics
?Linguistics as a DUALISTIC inquiry 二元性
Sociolinguistics
?The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between L and society, between the uses of L and the social structures in which the users of language live.
?A maxim in sociolinguistics:
“You are what you say.” (尔即尔所言)
?Some social factors that influence our language behaviour in a social context:
?1) class
?2) gender
?3) age
?4) ethnic identity
?5) education background
?6) occupation
?7) religious belief
?Gender differences in speech
?Differences between women and men have always been a topic of interest to the human species and supposed linguistic differences are often enshrined in proverbs:
?A woman's tongue wags like a lamb's tail.
?(England)
?Foxes are all tail and women are all tongue.
?The North Sea will sooner be found wanting in water than a woman at a loss for a word. ?There exists a WOMEN REGISTER. Its features include:
?1) Women use more “fancy” color terms
mauve, beige, aquamarine, lavender, magenta
Imagine a man and a woman both looking at the same wall, painted a pinkish shade of purple. The woman may say:
If the man should say the above sentence, one might well conclude he was imitating a woman sarcastically, or was a homosexual, or an interior decorator.
?2) Women use less powerful curse words
?少用God damn it! Damn! Shit! Fuck you!
?常用Oh, dear! Goodness me!
?a. Oh dear, you've put the peanut
?butter in the refrigerator again.
?b. Shit, you've put the peanut
?butter in the refrigerator again.
?3) Women use more intensifiers
?terrible ,awful, so good, such fun, exquisite, lovely, divine, precious, adorable, darling, fantastic. In Chapter III in Jane Austen’s novel,Pride and Prejudice,Mrs Bennet, excited after participating in a party, talked to her husband about Mr.Bingley as follows:
Oh! My dear Mr. Bennet, we have had a most excellent ball. …Jane was so admired. Every body said how well she looked. Mr. Bingley thought her quite beautiful, …I was so vexed to see him stand up with her. … I am quite delighted with him. He is so excessively handsome! …[Mr. Darcy] is a most disagreeable, horrid man. So high and so conceited that there was no enduring him! He walked here, and he walked there, fancying himself so very great! Not handsome enough to dance with.
?4) Women use more tag questions J ohn is here, isn’t it?
?5) Women use more statement questions
Dinner will be ready at seven o’clock?
?6) Women’s linguistic behaviour is more indirect and more polite than men’s
?These differences in language use are brought about by nothing less than wom en’s place in society. ?LINGUISTIC SEXISM语言性别歧视现象
?许多职业名称如doctor, professor, engineer等，人们习惯于把它们跟男性联系在一起，若要指称女性，往往要加上woman一词，如woman doctor。还有一些名称含有男性的语素---man，如chairman, congressman, spokesman, salesman等，也用来指女性。Man 作为mankind的同义词指人类，男女性都包括在内。与之相呼应，英语的人称代词中，he (他)有时也可包括she (她)，例如：
?A professor usually sees his students during office hours.
(Ⅲ). Cross-cultural communication
1 .What should we know all about cross-cultural communication?
?1) Successful communication occurs when the hearer can see, feel, and understand issues from the speaker’s point of view.
?2) Successful communication occurs when the speaker and hearer know each other’s intention.?3) Successful communication occurs when the two parties adopt a dynamic dialogue pattern.
2. case studies
?1) When in Rome do as the Romans do
?2) Put yourself in other’s shoes
?3) One culture’s meat is another culture’s poison
?4) Honesty and sincerity are key points to mutual understanding
Study Questions
?1. Define the following terms.
?1) linguistics determinism 2) linguistic relativity 3) Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
?2. Answer the following questions.
?1) What will you say to a statement like “one culture’s meat is another culture’s poison”?
?2) What are the features of women register?
?3) How does “micro-sociolinguistics”differ from “macro-sociolinguistics”?
?3. Is the following sentence more likely to be spoken by a woman or a man, and why?
?I think that golf on television is kind of boring, don’t you?
Chapter Eight
Language in Use
语言的运用
Introduction
?“You are a fool.”
?“You are such a genius.”
?“What do you mean?”
?SPEAKER’S MEANING(说话者意义), UTTERANCE MEANING (语句意义), CONTEXTUAL MEANING (语境意义),
?Depends more on the context
?Pragmatics: The study of language in use
?Pragmatics is usually concerned with the meanings that sentences have in particular contexts in which they are used.
?There is a car coming .
?Seen out of context, it is a statement that a car is coming.
?But in a particular context it might be a warning to a pedestrian not to step onto a road, an expression of hope that people invited to a dinner are at last arriving, and so on.
Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers use the sentences of a language to effect successful communication.
I. Speech act theory
言语行为理论
?The first major theory in the study of language in use.
?Originated with the Oxford philosopher John Langshaw Austin.
?How to Do Things with Words (1962)《怎样用词做事》
?Performatives and constatives
施为句和叙事句
?Two types of sentences: performatives and constatives
(1)Performatives: The utterance of a sentence is the doing of an action.
?I name the ship the Queen Elizabeth.
?I bequeath my watch to my brother.
?I bet you six pence it will rain tomorrow.
?I promise to finish it in time.
?I apologize.
?I declare the meeting open.
?I warn you that the bull will charge.
?它们的特点在于不只是言有所述，而且是言有所为。
(2) Constatives: A description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking.
I pour some liquid into the tube.
The sentence is said by a chemistry teacher in a demonstration of an experiment.
(3)两者区别：
施为句是指能导致一个行为发生的语句,这个行为可能是说话人发出的,也可能是听话人受说话人的话语刺激而发出的,但施为句发出者一定是说话人而不是听话人。施为句不能描述事物,也无真假可言。而表述句是描述客观现象是否真实的语句,它并不导致一个行为或改变客观世界,只是对现实的事物做如实的描述。施为句执行的是语言的意动功能,表述句执行的是语言的描述功能。
Felicity conditions 合适条件
?There are conditions for performatives to meet to be appropriate or felicitous. Austin suggested the following conditions:
?A. (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure,
?(ii) The relevant participants and circumstance must be appropriate.
?B. The procedure must be executed (i) correctly and (ii) completely.
?C. (i) The relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions,
?(ii) must follow it up with actions as specified.
?Example:
?the case of a ship-launching ceremony; the case of bequeathing one’s watch; the case of betting ?Features of typical performatives:
?Use first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice and performative verbs
?There are three senses in which saying something may be understood as doing something:
?1. When we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. “Morning!”
?the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.
?The act performed in this sense is called a LOCUTIONARY ACT (发话行为)(叙事行为) 为了叙述某事而说出话语,称“言之发”.
?2. When we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces. “Morning!” has the force of greeting, or it ought to have been taken as a greeting. To say something is to do something. The act performed is known as an ILLOCUTIONARY ACT(行事行为). Force can be regarded as part of meaning.
?In saying X, I was doing Y.
?In saying“I will come tomorrow”,I was making a promise.
?ILLOCUTIONARY FORCE(行事语力) is equivalent to speaker’s meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning(言外之意).
?在说出话语时不仅叙述某件事,而且做出了某件事,称“示言外之力”.
?3. The third sense in which to say something can mean to do something concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer. By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce him to do something, etc. It is part of the act that the speaker has performed. This act which is performed through a locutionary act is called a PERLOCUTIONARY ACT(取效行为). (成事行为) “Morning!”
?By saying X and doing Y, I did Z.
By saying“I will come tomorrow” and making a promise, I reassure my friends.
?说出话语后,在听话人身上产生了某种效果.“收言后之果”.
II. Conversational implicature
会话含义
?The second major theory in pragmatics is the theory of conversational implicature. ?Proposed by another Oxford philosopher Herebrt Paul Grice.
?Logic and Conversation《逻辑与形式》
Cooperative principle(CP ):
合作原则
?Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
?Maxims of CP：（会话合作原则标准）
（1）QUANTITY 数量准则
A. Make your contribution as informative as is required.
B. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
（2）QUALITY 质量准则
Try to make your contribution one that is true.
A. Do not say what you believe to be false.
B. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
（3）RELATION 关联准则
Be relevant.
（4）MANNER 方式准则
Be perspicuous.
A. Avoid obscurity of expression.
B. Avoid ambiguity.
C. Be brief.
D. Be orderly.
2. Violation of the maxims
?The use of the terms principle and maxim does not mean that the CP and its maxims will be followed by everybody all the time. People do violate them and tell lies. In fact, the significance CP lies in the violations.
?Examples of the violations of the maxims:
?1) Violation of the Maxim of Quantity
?A: What are you reading?
?B: A book.
?A: Do you know where Dr. Townsend lives?
?B: Somewhere in the southern surburbs of the city. (said when it is known to both A and B that B has Dr. Townsend’s address)
?2)Violation of the Maxim of Quality
?A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?
?B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.
?(said when it is known to both A and B that
? B is feeling perfectly well)
?Student:Beirut (贝鲁特，黎巴内首都）is in Peru（秘鲁）, isn’t it, teacher?
?Teacher:And Rome is in Romania, I suppose.
?3) Violation of the Maxim of Relevance
?A: What time is it?
?B: Well, the paper’s already come.
?A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?
?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?
?A: What do you think of the lecture?
?B: He’s a good cook.
?4) Violation of the Maxim of Manner
?A: Let’s stop and get something to eat.
?B: Okay, but not M-c-D-o-n-a-l-d-s.
?A: What did your sister buy at Sears yesterday?
?B: She bought a red dress, she bought a green dress, and she bought a blue dress.
3. Characteristics of implicature
?1) Calculability可推导性
?Implicatures can be worked out on the basis of some previous information.
?Hearers work out implicature based on conventional meaning, CP and its maxims, context, etc.?听话人一方面根据话语的字面意义，另一方面根据合作原则的各项准则，推导出相应的语用含义。
?推导过程为：
?A) S 说了p;
?B) 没有理由认为S不遵守准则，或至少S会遵守合作原则；
?C)S 说p,而又要遵守准则或总的合作原则，S必定想表达q;
?D) S必然知道，谈话双方都清楚，如果认为S是合作的，必须假设q;
?E) S无法阻止我（听话人）考虑q;
?F) 因此，S意图让我考虑q，并在说p时意味着q。
?2）Cancellability可取消性
?Also known as DEFEASIBILITY（可废除性）.
?The presence of a conversational implicature relies on a number of factors: the conventional meaning of words used, the CP, the linguistic and situational contexts. So if any of them changes, the implicature will also change.
?可取消性一般由两个因素引起：一是说话人在原先的话语上附加一个分句来表明（或暗示）自己要取消（或废除）原来说话的语用含义；二是话语在特定的语境中表明（或暗示）说话人意欲取消（或废除）该话语中的语用含义。
?A) 通过附加一个分句来取消含义的例子：
a. John has three cows.
b. John has only three cows and no more.
c. John has three cows, if not more.
d. John has at least three cows.
?B) 话语的语用含义在特定的语境中可被取消的例子：
?School staff member: Has John got 50 credits?
?Teacher: Yes, he has got 50 credits all right.
?3) Non-detachability 不可分离性
?A conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form.
?An implicature will not be detached, separated from the utterance as a whole, even though the specific words may be changed.
?如果话语在特定的语境中产生了语用含义，则无论使用什么样的同义结构，含义始终存在。假如大家都知道Jack is an idiot,但偏要嘲笑说Jack is a genius，含义为“杰克非常愚蠢。”改说下面任何一种同义结构，含义不变：
?Jack is a mental prodigy.
?Jack is an exceptionally clever human being.
?Jack is an enormous intellect.
?Jack is a big brain.
?A: What did you think of the lecture?
?B: Well, I thought the lecture hall was big.
Well, I believed the lecture hall was large.
Well, I reckoned the lecture hall was great.
?A: Shall we go the cinema tonight?
?B: There’ll be an exam tomorrow.
I’ll take an exam tomorrow.
Isn’t there an exam tomorrow?
?4) Non-conventionality非规约性
?Conversational implicature is by definition different from the conventional meaning of words. It is context-dependent. It varies with context.
会话含义是通过合作原则中各项准则，通过话语的字面意义，结合语境推导出来的。先有字面意义，才有语用含义。含义不是字面意义，也不是字面意义的一部分。字面意义在话语中是不变的，而语用含义却可能各式各样，随着语境的变化，含义也可能变化或消失。
?It’s cold here.
III. Relevance Theory 关联理论
?语用学者除了研究“说话人意义”之外，更转向研究“话语的理解”问题。
?“话语的理解”的学者热衷于从认知的角度看待自然语言交际。
?与交际、认知有关的关联理论是近年来给西方语言学界带来较大影响的认知语用理论。?这种理论体系不以规则为基础（rule- based），也不以准则为基础（maxim-based），而是以几个十分简单的看法作为依据。
?The theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition(关联性：交际与认知).
?They argue that all Gricean maxims should be reduced to a single principle of relevance, which is defined as:
?Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal
relevance.
?每一个明示交际行动都传递一种假定：该行动本身具备最佳关联性。
?Two key notions in it:
?Ostensive communication & presumption of optimal relevance
?1) Ostensive communication:
?Communication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding, it also involves inference. They maintain that inference has only to do with the hearer. From the speaker’s side, co mmunication should be seen as an act of making clear one’s intention to express something. This is called ostensive act. A complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-inferential(明示-推理).
?明示-推理交际是交际过程的两个方面。
?从交际者的角度看，交际是一种明示过程。所谓“明示”，就是示意，明白无误地示意。交际时，说话人用明白无误的明说表达出自己的意图；
?而从交际对象的角度看，交际又是一种推理的过程。这里的所谓“推理”，指听话人从说话人用明示手段提供的信息中推断出说话人暗含的意图。
?说话人话语的明示过程实际上提出了一个供听话人推理的认知环境。例如：
?A: Do you like rugby(橄榄球运动）?
?B: I am a New Zealander.
?2) Presumption of optimal relevance
?交际双方之所以能配合默契，主要由于有一个最佳的认知模式---关联性。要认知，就要找关联，要找关联，就要思辨、推理。
?Three definitions of relevance:
?1. An assumption is relevant in a context if and only if it has some contextual effect in the context. ?当且仅当一个设想在一种语境中具有语境效应时，这个设想在这个语境中才具有关联性。?A: Come and have a drink this evening.
?B: I’m afrai d I have to go to a meeting.
?But relevance is a comparative concept. Some assumptions may be more relevant than others. They have improved on the definition by adopting an extent-condition(程度条件) format:
?Extent condition 1:
?An assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that its contextual effects in this context are large. ?如果一个设想在一个语境中的语境效应大，那么这个设想在这个语境中就具有关联性。?Extent condition 2:
?An assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that the effort required to process it in this context is small.
?如果一个设想在一个语境中所需的处理努力小，那么这个设想在这个语境中就具有关联性。?2. An assumption is relevant to an individual at a given time if and only if it is relevant in one or more of the contexts available to that individual at that time.
?当且仅当一个设想在某一时刻，在某人可及的一种或多种语境中具有关联性时，这个设想才在当时与那个个体相关联。
?3. An assumption is relevant to an individual if and only if one or more of the assumptions it makes manifest is relevant to him.
?当且仅当某个现象显映的一个或多个设想与某个体相关时，这个现象才与该个体有关联。
<小说评论>2009年第5期
产生于违背会话合作原则的修辞效果
崔传明
（山东科技大学，山东泰安271000）.
?摘要：在交际会话中，人们都在遵守着一些合作原则以保证会话顺利进行。然而，人们有时为了达到某一特定目的，也会有意违背这些原则，从而产生了幽默、讽刺、夸张、滑稽的语言，创造出了一定的修辞效果。本文通过一些会话实例对四项合作原则的违背所产生的会话含义分析语言修辞效果。
?关键词：修辞效果；合作原则；数量准则；质量准则；关联准则；方式准则
美国语言学家格莱斯(H.P.Grice)在《逻辑与社会》(Logic and Society)一书中指出，在所有的言语交际活动中，为了达到特定的目的，谈话双方需要保证会话的顺利进行，为此，他们必须共同遵守一些基本原则，违背了这些准则就会产生会话含义，格莱斯将之称为合作原则(Cooperative Principle)。具体地说，合作原则要求每一个交谈参与者在整个交谈过程中所说的话要符合这一次交谈的目标或方向，正是交谈者的这种合作才使得他们能够进行有意义的语言交际。合作原则具体体现在四个方面：数量准则(Quantity Maxim)、质量准则(Quality Maxim)、关联准则(Relation Maxim)和方式准则(Manner Maxim)。然而，人们在交际中并不总是遵守这些准则，而是违背，听话者听到这些“不合作”的话语，并不会导致合作的失败，而是假定说话人是合作的，认为这与一定的态度、目的或冲突因素有关，从而构建一个语境结构，产生幽默、讽刺、夸张、滑稽的语言效果。
一、数量准则的违背
数量准则就是指所说的话要包含当前交谈目的所需要的信息，信息要适量，不多也不少。因此，数量准则的违背产生于两个方面：一是没有提供足够的信息，即当谈话者故意没有提供对方所需要的信息时导致幽默的产生；二是提供的信息超过需要的量，多产生讽刺的效例①：艾弗今年35岁了，还是一贫如洗，于是他去了算命先生那里请他算了算未来。算命先生告诉他：“你会贫穷到40岁！”艾弗听后激动不已，问：“那么40岁以后呢？”先生说：“你就会习惯了。”
在这则幽默中，算命先生一开始没有完全提供交谈目的所需要的全部信息，他的预测还没完，只是在艾弗的追问下他才道出足够信息，听者恍然大悟，幽默也就产生了。
例②：简·奥斯丁的《傲慢与偏见》中有这样一个对话：贝内特太太问：“这些姑娘们，在我急切需要她们的时候，她们都上哪儿去了？”伊丽莎白答：“您只要找到身穿红色制服的军人就可以了，妈妈。”
伊丽莎白的回答显然违背了数量原则，因为在她的回答中，她给母亲提供的信息少于母亲需要的信息，产生了幽默的会话含义，反映了伊丽莎白巧于应对、语言诙谐、谈吐轻松的个性。
例③：电视剧《刘老根》中有这样一情节：药匣子李宝库去“龙泉山庄”客房推销自己研制的治疗不孕不育的药，一对游客夫妇经劝说买下一个疗程的药后，与李宝库闲聊起来，问：“您老看上去很健康，与您从事的职业有关吗？”宝库答：“是的，我是搞医的，懂得如何保健，加上没儿没女，无牵无挂，自然身体健康！”结果这对夫妇一听，马上退掉了所买药品。
本来交易很顺利，但由于李宝库画蛇添足地多说了一句“加上没儿没女，无牵无挂，自然身体健康”，过多地提供了信息，违背了数量准则，产生了讽刺的语言效果。你想：李宝库自己无儿无女，他的治疗不孕不育的药还有人买吗？
例④：身痪绝症的妻子在临终前拉着妹妹的手对丈夫说：“亲爱的，我死后拜托你好好照顾我的妹妹，你娶了她也行啊！”丈夫说：“好的，你放心吧。我俩早就商量好了。”
其实，丈夫只要回答“好的，你放心吧”便足够了，然而他又多冒出一句“我俩早就商量好了”，这就暴露了他和小姨子早“有一腿”的秘密，这种对数量准则的违背所产生的语言效果是多么具有讽刺意义！
二、质量准则的违背
质量准则是指不要说自知是虚假的话，不要说缺乏足够证据的话。但有时为了达到特定的会话目的，当说话人或作者违背质量准则时，也就是故意说一些不符合事实的话时，便产生了夸张(hyperbole)、反语(irony)、隐喻(metaphor)等修辞手段，而这些修辞手段能表现出幽默的语言效果。
例①：—Let’s go to the restaurant and pig out.
— I could eat a horse.
“eat a horse”是一种不符合事实的话语，任何人，无论他有多么饥饿，绝对不能吃下一匹大马，这种违背质量准则的语言具有明显的夸张效果。
例②：王尔德的短篇小说《忠实的朋友》中有这样一段话：“It’s no use going to see little Hans in Winter,”the miller used to say to his wife.“When people are in trouble we must leave them alone and not bother them, that is my idea of friendship and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till spring comes, and then I shall visit him and he will give me a large bouquet of flowers, and that w ill make him very happy.”
英国谚语说“A friend in need is a friend indeed”，而磨房主的友谊观却是“when people are in trouble we must leave them alone and not bother them”。其观点与正确的友谊观相违背，也是违背了质量准则。以上的这段话语十分辛辣、讽刺，深刻地揭示了磨房主惟利是图、冷酷无情的丑恶嘴脸。
例③：在一家高档饭店里，一位顾客在一桌旁坐下并将一餐巾围在了脖子上。反感的经理叫来一个服务员并指示他要尽可能圆滑得体地告诉那位顾客不能那样用餐巾。于是这位服务员灵机一动对那位顾客说：“Pardon me, sir. Shave or haircut, sir?”
这位聪明的服务员明知道是客人把餐巾错系在脖子上了，但为了避免直接指出其不文雅的举止而使其难堪，他装作不知，问：“先生，要刮脸还是要剪发？”这是一种由比喻手段而产生的幽默。
三、关联准则的违背
关联准则要求会话双方所说的话都与话题相关，即说话要切题。如果违背了这一准则，一方说东，另一方道西，或者一方所答非另一方所问，交际就难以进行，而幽默也可由此产生。
例①：法官：“Order! Order! Order in the court!”
犯人：“I’ll take a ham sandwich on rye with beer.”
从法官的角度来看，犯人的回答和他的要求风马牛不相及，二者之间毫无关联，违背了关联准则。而从犯人的角度来看，他的回答又是可以有关联的：法官要求点菜，而犯人按要求做了。犯人正是利用了order（秩序；点菜）的一词多义和法官捣乱开玩笑，从而形成了幽默的语言。
例②：在海明威小说《永别了，武器》的第二章，亨利要去休假，他和他的战友有这样一段对话：
---回来时带个留声机回来。
---带些好唱片。
---带张卡鲁索的唱片。
---不要带他的唱片，他唱歌像公牛吼。
---难道你不希望他那样吼吗？
---他唱歌像公牛吼。我说，他唱歌像公牛吼。
从表层来看，这段对话中的最后一轮很显然是不关联的，它违背了关系准则，因为第二个会话者并没有直接回答第一个会话者的问题，是不合作的，也是不关联的。“难道你
中国语言学史期末复习资料 一、名词解释 1、雅学：《尔雅》首创按意义分类编排的体例和多种释词方法，对后代词书、类书的 发展产生了很大的影响，后人模仿《尔雅》创作了一系列以“雅”为书名的词书， 如《小尔雅》、《广雅》、《通雅》等，而研究雅书又成为一门学问，被称为“雅学”’。 2、小学：“小学”这个名词最初跟学校有关系的，《大戴礼记》云：“及太子少长，知 妃色，则入于小学。小学者所学之官也”；汉代小学指童蒙识字课，也即语言文字 方面的学问；隋唐时代小学概念扩大；唐代以后“小学”成为文字学、音韵学、训 诂学的总称。 3、《切韵》：隋代陆法言所著，是韵书中影响最大的一部，按四声分卷，共五卷；平 生分上下两卷，上、去、入各一卷，共分韵部193部，记音简略，先释义，后记音。 在汉语音韵学当中，《切韵》被看作是整个语音史的中枢，又是研究历代语音系统 和现代各方言因素的首要研究系统。 4、《广韵》：全名《大宋重修广韵》，陈彭年等奉赦编撰，这是目前保留下来最早的， 最完整的韵书，根据前代《切韵》、《唐韵》等韵书修订而成，共分为五卷（平声分 上下两卷，上、去、入各一卷）分206韵。 5、《干禄字书》：是唐中的一部正字书，作者颜元孙。干禄，求禄位，学好写字就能 求得禄位，是科举时代的字体标准。 6、《说文解字》：由东汉经学家、文字学家许慎所著，简称《说文》，根据文字的形体， 创立540个部首。系统阐述汉字的造字规律，是中国第一部即后代所说的字典。 7、因声求义：是传统的训诂方法之一，是指通过对汉字声音线索的分析来探求字义。 8、字书：字数是研究字形和根据字形以考证音义的书，包括（1）学童识字课本，如 《急就篇》等；（2）解释汉字形体、读音和意义的书，如（汉）许慎的《说文解字》，（梁）顾野王的《玉篇》，（宋）司马光等的《类篇》，（清）《康熙字典》等。（3） 刊正字书的书，如（唐）颜元孙的《干禄字书》，（宋）张有的《复古编》等。 9、秦代三书：李斯《仓颉篇》、赵高《爰历篇》、胡母敬的《博学篇》在历史上被称为 秦代三书。“秦代三书”的社会作用有两个：一是规范了文字书写形体，二是成就 了一部权威的蒙学知识教材。 10语文学：是文字或书面语言的研究，特别注重在文献资料的考证和文字的训诂，这种研究比较零碎和缺乏系统性。 11 语言学：研究对象是语言本身（口语与书面语），研究的结果可以得出科学的、系统 的、全面的语言理论。 12 声调：普通话中有四个声调，通常叫四声即阴平、阳平、上声、去声。 13反切：古代的一种记音方法，用两个字拼出另一个字的读音，取上字之声母，用下字之韵母及声调，拼出被切字的读音。 14 《中原音韵》：元.周德清著，他认为“言语一科，欲作乐府，必正名语，欲正名语 必思中原之音。”根据元朝的北曲用韵，把韵部分析归纳为19韵部。 15 《玉篇》：南朝梁.顾野王撰，是中国古代一部按汉字形体，分部编排的字书，是我 国第一部按部首分门别类的汉字字典。 16 大小徐：指徐铉、徐渭兄弟二人，两人俱精通文字，对说文有着重要的研究，号“大 小徐”。 17 籀文：古汉字中一种书体的名称，西周末和春秋初的文字，字体与秦篆相近，又称 “大篆”、“籀书”。 18 古文：指战国时期盛行于六国的文字。
中国先秦两汉时期传统语言学与西方希腊罗马时期语言学优点和缺点之比较 【摘要】中国作为世界语言学发源地之一，与印欧语言属于不同的语系，相比较印欧语有其优势和劣势。先秦两汉时期是中国传统语言学的繁荣时期，本文主要从先秦两汉时期《尔雅》、《说文解字》等传统语言学专著看汉语语法词源特点及传统语法特征并与西方语言学做一个对照，借此借鉴西方语言的长处，促进自身对中国传统语言学的认知。 【关键词】语法系统、《尔雅》、《说文解字》 一、总体比较中国先秦两汉时期传统语言学与西方希腊罗马时期语言学特点。 中国是语言学的发源地之一，世界的语言发源地有三。“真正的发源地有三：印度、希腊（罗马继其后）、中国。印度、希腊属印欧语系，同一语系的语言研究，必多共同之处。所以，古典语言学实际上只有两大传统，汉语传统和印欧语传统。这两个传统研究的都是语言，也必有共同之处。第一个共同点是，语言学的发生都跟哲学、逻辑学有关，研究对象是文献语言。第二个共同点是，都与诠释古代经典有关，研究对象是文献语言。由于印欧语和汉语的结构和形式大不相同，这就决定了研究的内容也大不相同。”① 笔者从何九盈先生这里得到些启示，在中国来说先秦时期的《尔雅》是以对事物的解释而成为一本有参考价值的被大多数人所认可的中国传统语言学专著，而《说文解字》则是以对字的构造、来源等进行解释而成为传统语言学中具有里程碑意义的著作。可是它们都不是语法专著，并不能代表着中国在先秦两汉时期有自己的语法体系。 “中国古代有无完整的语法学，说法不一。至少在先秦两汉时代，在隋唐两宋时代，并无语法专著产生。而印度、希腊、罗马的语言研究，语法学一直长盛不衰，这是两大传统最为重要的不同之处。 人所共知，印度大约在公元前4世纪（相当于中国的战国时期）出现了《波你尼经》。‘波你尼经集合了许多语法学家的成果，用了种种方法，终于把全部梵语（包括作为有例外的吠陀语）的语音、语词的构成和变化规则，隐括在三千九百八十三条经句之内，又把这样 ①《中国古代语言学史》何九盈著商务印书馆北京第4版，2013.第32页
Design features（定义特征）: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. Synchronic（共时的）: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic（历时的）: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Prescriptive（规定式）: to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language. Descriptive（描写式）: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. Competence（语言能力）: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。Performance（语言运用）:
the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue（语言）: the language system shared by a “speech community”. 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole（言语）: the concrete utterances of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Phonology（音系学）： the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. International Phonetic Alphabet（国际音标）: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include
中国语言学必读必备书目400种 北京大学语言学院推荐 （英）The Categories(范畴)：亚里士多德 （英）THE DEVIL’S DICTIONARY(魔鬼词典)-- AMBROSE BIERCE(阿姆布诺斯·比尔斯) （英）The Foolish Dictionary(愚蠢的词典)-- Gideon Wurdz(吉顿·伍兹) （英）表述和意义：言语行为研究[美]塞尔[Searle,J.R.] （英）词汇、语义学和语言教育[英]哈切（Hatch,E （英）从语言学的角度看语言习得 （英）当代句法理论通览 （英）当代语义理论指南--[美]拉宾（Lappin,S.）著 （英）德里达--诺利斯 （英）汉语方言的连续变化变调模式--陈渊泉 （英）话语分析入门：理论与方法[美]吉（Gee,J.P.）著 （英）会说话的哺乳动物：心理语言学入门 （英）剑桥语言百科词典 （英）交际语言教学论 （英）句法：结构、意义与功能 （英）跨文化交际：语篇分析法[美]斯科隆（Scbllon,R.）等著 （英）历史语言学 （英）普通语言学教程--索绪尔 （英）乔姆司基的普通语言学教程 （英）人类语言学入门 （英）认知语言学入门 （英）社会语言学教程 （英）言语的萌发：语言的起源和进化 （英）言语行为：语言哲学论[美]塞尔（Searle,J.R.）著 （英）应用语言学研究方法与论文写作 （英）英诗学习指南：语言学的分析方法[英]利奇（Leech,G.N.）著 （英）语法化学说 （英）语料库语言学 （英）语料库语言学入门[新]肯尼迪（Kennedy,G.）著 （英）语言和人 （英）语言类型学与普通语法特征--Croft （英）语言论：言语研究导论--Sapir （英）语言迁移：语言学习的语际影响[美]奥德林（Odlin，T.）著 （英）语言心理学[美]卡罗尔（Carroll,D.W.）著 （英）语言学和第二语言习得 （英）语言学教程--Radford （英）语言学课题：语言研究实用指南 （英）语言学理论：对基要原著的语篇研究 （英）语言学入门[英]普尔（Poole,S.C.）著 （英）语言学习和语言使用中的错误：错误分析探讨
对比语言学的定义、起源与发展 对比语言学(Contrastive Linguistics)的定义 1、语言学中的比较与对比 比较是人类认识事物、研究事物的一种基本方法，也是语言学研究的一种基本方法。如果说，语言学的根本任务是对语言的某种现象加以阐述的话，那么要对某一语言现象作出阐述，总是需要对这一现象的种种表现加以比较和分析(Harlmann1980:22)。因而，按其本质来说，对比语言学也是一种比较,不过是一种具有特定含义的语言学中的比较。下面，先让我们来看看对比语言学的比较，与语言学中其他分支的比较有什么不同，从而使我们能够确定对比语言学在整个语言学中的位置，及其与其他语言学研究的联系。 在进行语言学比较时，根据比较对象的不同，可以沿两条轴线来进行。一方面，可以选择共时或历时的语言现象来进行比较;另一方面，可以选择在某一语言内部或各种语言之间的语言现象来进行比较。这两条轴线的互相交叉，便形成了如下四个象限，这四个象限将语言学研究分成四大类性质和目的不同的比较。 象限I代表了同一语言内部的共时比较。这类比较是对某一语言在其历史发展的某一阶段(特别是现时阶段)的语音、语法和词汇等系统的内部构成成分及组织结构的比较。 在共时语言学研究中，要对某一语言的某一结构系统进行描述，就必须对这一结构系统里的各种语言现象加以比较分析。例如，如果我们要研究一种语言的语音系统，我们就要比较这个系统里的各个音素的发音部位和方法有什么不同，它们的声学物理属性有什么不同，在音节中的分布又有什么不同的规律，我们就必须比较这个语言中各类词的语法作用有什么不同，组合搭配有什么特点，等等。而且，要确定一个语言中的词可以区分为哪几个词类，这本身就要进行大量的形态、语义、语法特征等方面的比较。因此可以说，同一语言内的共时比较是语音学、语法学、词汇学等构成当代语言学主流的各个
应用语言学的学科体系 应用语言学研究领域十分广泛，并且随着语言应用领域的不断发展，应用语言学的新的研究对象即新的分支学科在不断产生。那么怎样来看待应用语言学的学科结构呢？或者说应用语言学的主要研究对象、研究领域是哪些呢？ （一）国外应用语言学的主要研究领域 由于语言学在社会生活中的应用领域十分广泛，因而应用语言学从早期单一的研究对象发展到今天已经形成内容十分广泛丰富的研究领域。早期的应用语言学或传统的、狭义应用语言学专指语言教学，尤其特指第二语言教学，而目前应用语言学的研究对象可以说丰富多样、琳琅满目，研究范围日益扩大，如“国际应用语言学协会”设有19个科学委员会，即有19个研究领域，分别是：成人语言教学、应用计算语言学、儿童语言学、对比语言学与偏误分析、言谈分析、教育技术与语言培训、多语环境下的语言教育、语言与性别、特殊用途的语言（如聋哑人的手势语）、语言规划、语言测试、词典编纂与词汇学、母语教育、心理语言学、修辞学与风格学、第二语言习得、社会语言学、术语学、翻译等。像1996年召开的第11届国际应用语言学会议设有多个议题，如语言教学、心理语言学、社会语言学、语段学、语用学、语言测试与评估、翻译理论与实践、自然语言信息处理、语言与科技、语言文化学、生态语言学等等。 （二）我国应用语言学的研究领域 目前在我国，应用语言学的研究对象既包括语言教学、语言文字规划、词典学、人名学和地名学等传统的研究领域，也包括社会语言学、心理语言学、神经语言学、病理语言学、计算语言学、人类语言学、语言风格学、语言测试、术语学、计算语言学（包括语言信息处理）、儿童语言习得、翻译学、言语交际学、传播语言学（广播、电影、电视、报刊等新闻媒体语言以及广告语言、网络语言等）、法律语言学、刑侦语言学、体态语等研究领域。总之，对应用语言学的研究对象应该持一种开放的态度，随着语言应用领域的扩展，应用语言学的研究领域也必将随之拓展。 据刘春艳（2005）的统计，在《语言文字应用》杂志1992年第1期到2003年第4期中，从所发表的论文来看共涉及29个研究领域，除了词汇研究、汉字研究、语法研究、语言修辞研究、语音语义研究、语用研究、杂感、治学方法等不属于真正意义上的应用语言学研究领域外，其他21个研究领域都可以看作是应用语言学的研究对象，分别是：辞书研究、对外汉语教学研究、儿童语言研究、翻译研究、港澳台语文研究、计算语言学、普通话及推普研究、社会语言学、神经语言学、中介语研究、文化语言学、学科研究、语感研究、语文学习与教学研究、语言风格研究、语言规范研究、语文规划研究、语言立法、语言市场调查研究、语言应用、新词新语研究等。从这些丰富多彩的研究领域来看，我国的应用语言学研究在研究对象和研究领域上已经接近于外国的应用语言学。
第一章 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 一Design features of language语言的结构特征 Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability. Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.) The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features. What is arbitrariness?任意性 a. arbitrariness----arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of human language,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指语 言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.) It was discussed by Saussure first.The link between them is a matter of convention. E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese) Mansion (French) 房子(Chinese) (1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性 a. By ―arbitrary‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。 A gog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a gig. Language therefore is largely arbitrary. b. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like ―bang ‖ ‖crash‖ ‖roar ‖ ‖ rumble ‖ ‖cakle‖, which are motivated in a certain sense.‖ onomatopoeia拟声词---words that sound like the sounds they describe那些发音像它们的描写的声音的词 c. some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitary either. ―type ‖ and ‖write ‖are opaque or unmotivated words, while ―type -writer‖ is less so, or more trans parent or motivated than the words that make it . so we can say ―arbitrariness‖ is a matter of degree. arbitrary and onometopoeic effect may work at the same time.任意性和拟声可以同时起作用。 Eg. The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.夏日黄昏，群蝇嗡嗡地非。 (2) Arbitrary at the syntactic level 句法上的非任意性 According to systematic-functionalists and American functionlists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. 对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。 Syntax-----it refers to the ways that sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement.句法就是依据语法安排造句之法。 (3) Aribrtary and convention任意性和约定性 The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.语言学上的符号和它的意义之间是约定俗成的关系。 The other side of coin of arbitrariness , namely, conventionality.任意性的相反面，即约定性。 conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way. Arbitrainess of langauge makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious.任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，而语言的约定性又使学习语言变得费力。 There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)
中国著名的语言学家简介 岑麒祥主要研究方向为普通语言学和语言学史 《语言学史概要》是其最重要、影响最大的一部著作，也是我国第一部语言学史著作 陈望道中国著名教育家、修辞学家、语言学家，中国现代修辞学研究的开拓者和奠基人《修辞学发凡》第一部有系统的兼顾古话文今话文的修辞学著作 丁声树中国杰出的语言学家，词典编纂专家 编写《现代汉语词典》，《现代汉语语法讲话》 符淮青汉语词汇学、语义学、词典学研究 《现代汉语词汇学》 高名凯著名语言学家 与石安石主编的《语言学概论》观点平妥，简明通俗，至今仍被许多高等学院用为教材。 桂诗春著名语言学家和外语教育家，心理语言学、应用语言学、语言测试、统计语言学等 郭锡良主要著作有：《古代汉语》（三种）、《汉字古音手册》、《汉字知识》等著作10种。音韵方面也第一次提出了殷商音系的设想，为汉语语音史填补了一项空白。 何九盈中国古汉语、汉语音韵学专家 《中国现代语言学史》 胡明扬胡明扬的学术活动主要有两个方面：一是对现代汉语语法、汉语方言并结合汉语实际对语言理论的研究；一是向国内介绍国外语言学的理论和方法 《北京话初探》、《北京话的语气助词和叹词》 胡裕树汉语语法理论、现代汉语教学、语言文字辞书编纂 《现代汉语》、《今日汉语》、《汉语语法研究》 胡壮麟国外语言学、功能语言学、语用学、语篇分析、英语教学法、符号学、认知与隐喻《语言学教程》 黄伯荣现代汉语和汉语方言的研究，现代汉语的语音、文字、词汇、语法及汉语方言等方面《汉语方言语法类编》 蒋礼鸿著名语言学家、敦煌学家、辞书学家 《敦煌变文字义通释》、《义府续貂》 金兆梓著名语言学家、文史学家 《国文法之研究》 黎锦熙《新著国语文法》第一次科学地、系统地揭示了我国白话文内在的语言规律，是我国第一部完整的、具有自己独特体系的、将传统语法体系应用于现代汉语的专门著作。 李方桂李方桂的学术成就主要有以下三个方面：印第安语言的研究、侗台（壮侗）语族语言的研究、汉语和藏语的研究 参与翻译《中国音韵学硏究》（ps：《中国音韵学研究》是高本汉构拟中古音的代表作，陆续发 表于1915-1926间，中译本是由赵元任、李方桂、罗常培共同翻译的，在翻译中三位学者加了 注释和补订。该书影响极大，标志着中国现代音韵学史的开端） 李荣音韵学家、方言学家 《切韵音系》、《汉语方言调查手册》、创办了《方言》杂志 李行健主持完成国家规范标准项目《第一批异形词整理表》《现代汉语常用词表》 廖序东方言学、教学语法研究、楚辞研究 《现代汉语》、《汉语语言学书目答问》、《楚辞语法研究》 林焘汉语音韵学、现代语音学、汉语方言学、对外汉语教学等领域 《语音学教程》、《北京话的连读音变》、《北京语音实验录》
Chapter 1 Introduction 1.What is linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. The scope of linguistics: 2. syntax 句法学；音位学；morphology 形态学；(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology pragmatics 语用学心理语言学；社会语言学；(2). sociolinguistics psycholinguistics 应用语言学applied linguisticsSome important distinction in linguistics 3. 描述性与规定性(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, ①it is said to be descriptive; behavior ””correct and standard②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules forin using language, . to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. 共时性与历时性(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic the not necessarily, fixed instant (usually, but ①A synchronic description takes a present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. ②语言与会话(2) Langue & parole a members of shared system by all the the ①Language refers to abstract linguistic speech community. Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.②语言能力与语言运用(4)Competence and performance his is called rules system about unconscious language ①A user's knowledge the of linguistic competence. Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. ②． (5)speech and writing 语言与文字 Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. (6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学 4.Definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules. Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands. Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. The term “human”in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific. 5.Design features of language 6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)
中国语言学简史 中国语言学的发展路线，是由两个因素决定的：第一个因素是社会发展的历史；第二个因素是汉族语言文字本身的特点。 中国社会发展的历史，规定了中国古代语言学是为了实用的目的的。这与经济基础不是直接的关系，而是间接的关系。在漫长的封建社会过程中，“先王之道”被认为是巩固封建统治的法宝。即使是提倡变法的王安石，也主张“当法其意”(《上仁宗皇帝书》)。要法其意，也就必须通《经》。通《经》必先识字；识字只是手段，不是目的，但是非通过这个手段不能达到通《经》的目的，也就无从确知“先王之道”。张之洞说：“治经，贵通大义，然求通义理，必自音韵始；欲通音训，必自《说文》始。”这种指导思想贯穿着近两千年的中国语言学。 语言学(linguistics)的前身是语文学(philology)。语文学与语言学是有分别的。前者是文字或书面语言的研究，特别着重在文献资料的考证和故训的寻求，这种研究比较零碎，缺乏系统性(又叫文献学、语史学、传统语言学)；后者的研究对象则是语言本身，研究的结果可以得出科学的、系统的、细致的、全面的语言理论。中国在“五四”以前所作的语言研究，大致是属于语文学范围的。 语文学在中国古代称为小学。小学这个名称最初跟小学校有关系。根据班固《汉书?艺文志》，我们知道古人八岁入小学，老师教他六书。识字是小学里的事，所以把识字的学问叫做小学。到了后来，小学的范围扩大了。清代的《四库全书总目提要》把小学类分为训诂之属、字书之属、韵书之属。训诂是研究字义的，字书是研究字形的，韵书是研究字音的。但是，研究字形的时候不能不讲字形与字音、字义的关系，三者的界限不是十分清楚的。但有一点可以肯定：小学是有关文字的学问。古人治小学不是以语言为对象，而是以文字为对象的。 第一章训诂为主的时期 第一节语言研究的萌芽 一、语文学的萌芽 语文学在先秦还没有产生。因为春秋战国时代去古未远，而且书籍很少，人们还不感觉到有语文学的需要，即还没有产生语言研究动因。但是零星的语文学知识已经萌芽。 首先是作者借字义的解释来阐明一种哲理或政治主张。孔子、孟子解释字义，主要是为了表达他们的政治思想，即并不是为了语文学的目的，但也反映了古代有关语言、字义研究的萌芽。 其次，作者也可以借字形的解释来阐明一种哲理或政治主张。《左传》和《韩非子》对“武”“厶”等字的解释虽然都被《说文》引用了，但也不一定就是正确地说明了古人造字的原意，很可能还是牵强附会。这也说明了，作者在讲字形的时候，也并不是为了语文学的目的，而是为了政治的目的。最合于语文学性质的，则是对古书字义的解释。 二、关于文字起源问题 春秋战国时期，我国许多哲学家、思想家对语言、文字问题进行了讨论，并提出了比较科学的认识。 关于文字的起源问题，最古的记载见于《易经?系辞传》：“包羲氏之王天下也，仰则观象于天，俯则观法于地，观鸟兽之文与地之宜，近取诸身，远取诸物，
语言学概论复习资料（全） 1口语是有声的口头语言。书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。口和书的差别：书面语不是口语机械的复制品，有比较充裕的时间来推敲，更精练。书面语的产生具有重大的社会历史意义是因为书面语的产生克服了人和人之间进行交际、信息传递和交流思想感情在空间和时间方面的限制，极大地加快了人类社会经验和知识积累的速度和传播的范围，从而大大加快了社会发展的步伐。语言和种族的关系：语言能力和生理、心理因素有关，但是语言不是一种生理或心理现象，不是先天遗传，它是一种社会现象，完全是在一定的语言环境中后天获得的，所以语言和种族无必然联系。语言科学要成为一门科学必须要有明确的研究对象然后才有可能形成自己完整的理论和方法论体系，若对象长期不稳定太杂太宽，则不可深入。语言的客观存在形式是跟人和人类社会的口头交际活动分不开的。首先表现为有声的口头语言，而当出现文字后，表现为有形的书面语言。为何与语言学家研究的语言不完全一样不同人对不同语言有不同理解，根据不同需要，去研究客观存在的语言的各个不同的方面，如历史学家研究语言和文字是为历史学服务的。口语第一性书面语第二性先有口后有书，任何一种书面语都只能是在口语的基础上产生的，并且或迟或早总是要随着口语的演变而演变；研究语言首先研究口语。语言是民族的重要但不是可靠的标志1绝大多数一个民族使用同一种语言，如汉族人使用汉语2一个民族多种语言，如瑞士有说德语、意大利语。共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感是根本标准。不能单凭“相互理解程度”区分语言和方言把复杂过于简单可能在政治上引起严重后果，只对弱国坚持自己的主张强调原则。德国和荷兰交界地带语言相通，用相互理解说不通。符号指根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。能指索绪尔指能够指称某种意义的成分；所指是给符号所指的意义内容创造的专门术语。聚合关系是在同一位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位处在互相可以联想起来的关系之中，因而聚合成一个类。组合关系是一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位等前后之间的关系，整体和部分。组与聚的关系是有机统一的，聚合关系是在组合关系中体现，组合关系又体现为聚合类的线性序列。语言和言语的区别：语言是言语活动中社会成员约定俗成共同使用的部分，是均质的，是言语活动的社会部分，有内在一致到规律。言语具个人特色，如具体发音、使用词语。区分意义是不区分跟规范普通话一致的成分和古代汉语成分等，企图从这些异质“中找出共同规律，违反了理论。从理论上说，在各种”异质成分之间就根本不可能找出适用于全体异质成分的“共同”规律来，因此对现代汉语研究有理论和实践的重大意义。语言符号有任意性强制性和可变性。任意性只是单纯的初始的语言符号的物质实体和所表示的意义之间的没有必然的理据关系。如凳字，个人不能任意改变的，是社会约定俗成的。随时间的推移和社会的变化而变化，都是后天学习。语言符号的离散和线性特征对语言系统的结构特点的意义语言符号的线性特征使离散的语言符号有可能组合成大小不等的语言单位，组合成连续的语流。组合单位的成员之间，整个语流的各个部分之间都有可能形成各种关系，产生各种影响。语言系统由语音语汇语法语义等子系统组成包系统性（差多数异性和封闭性，如现代汉语多数方言的浊塞音和浊塞擦音已清化，个人的生老病死不会影响）层次性（如最小）语言单位“语素”，语素和语素可组成“词”，词是最小的可以自由运用的语言单位）语言学是研究语言的科学普通语言学是研究人类社会的语言这种社会现象的一半理论理论语言学是侧重理论探讨应用语言学是侧重语言学理论和成果的实际应用传统语言学是索绪尔开创的结构主义语言学以前的语言学。结构主义语言学是单纯研究语言本体内部的结构古代哲学家把对语言的哲学思辨作为语言研究的重点。索绪尔的贡献从语言本体的角度界定语言；明确限定语言学的研究对象范围和重点，走上了研究对象相对单纯，因而有可能逐步形成本学科特有的理论体系和方法论体系的现代科学道路。社会、功能、认知语言学是结构主义语言学过分强调自主性，忽视语义研究等局限而产生的。语言学研究在语言规划中的作用（历史学和考古学，甲骨文和金文的解读，古埃及和玛雅文字的解读）尽管语言是客观存在的，但是以语言为研究对象的语言学却存在不同理论？是由不同理论和学说是由于观察研究的角度侧重点目的依据的理论和素材、使用的方法等不同而造成的，所以要分清客观存在的事物和现象。语言学研究的不同角度着眼于语言的“本体”（语音等系统内部结构规律）；着眼于语言的社会功能；语言和思维之间的关系（影响）。 2．语音是语言的物质外壳，由人的发音器官发出，负载一定意义，并作为语言符号系统载体的声音。感冒引起的咳嗽声属一般语音。声音四要素为音高、音强、音长（声音的长短）、音质（即音色，是声音的个性和特色，是一个声音区别于其他声音的基本特征）。振幅是发音体振动时离开平衡位置的最大偏移距离。频率是发音体在每一秒钟内振动的次数。音高是声音高低。音强是声音的强弱。响度是人们听觉上锁感到的声音的强弱。基音是振动中有一个频率最低的振动。陪音是其他振动发出的声音。乐音是当基音和陪音的频率之间存在着整倍数的比例关系时，会形成一种复杂而有规则的。具有周期性重复特征的声波形式。噪音是如果不存在整倍数的比例关系，形成一种杂乱无章的不规则的声波形式。人的发音器官极其运动是语音的生理基础。声门是音声门和气声门。软腭是上颚后面的比较柔软的部分。舌叶是舌头自然平伸时，与齿龈相对部分。舌面是舌头后面的部分。舌根是与软腭相对的是舌面后。鼻音是如果口腔内形成某种阻碍以致气流无法通过，气流就会完全从鼻腔呼出而发出的音。鼻化音是如果口腔内未形成任何阻碍，则气流同时从口腔和鼻腔呼出的音。主动的发音器官是能够活动的，如唇舌头软腭小舌下颚声带等。被动的发音器官是在发音时，常由主动的发音器官去接触或靠近被动的发音器官，发出不同声音。音高中频率的大小同发音体的形状和质地有关大长松厚的发音体振动慢频率低，发出的声音也低；小短粗细薄紧的发音体振动快频率高发生也高。音高在语音中的作用是音节内的音高变化构成能够区别意义声调；语言中句子的语调具有丰富的表达功能，它可表达各种语气以及说话人的态度和情绪等；音高变化时语调的主要构成要素。振幅的大小决定于使发音体振动的外力的大小，如外力大振幅大声音强。音强和响度关系密切？一个强度较大的音听起来不一定比一个强度较小的音更响亮，音高等因素对声音的响度也会产生影响。音强的作用是区别意义，如北京话中的地道，读轻声为形容词，不读轻声为名词。音长变化在许多语言和一些汉语方言中有区别意义（音高、音强）的作用。产生不同音质有发音体和发音方法共鸣器的形状不同。语音的心理属性是语音与人类心理活动之间的密切联系。语音本质上是社会现象？语音是和语言的意义联系在一起的，是约定俗成的；并体现为语音的民族性和地域性，是在特定的社会中形成的。不同的语言会使用不同的语言，不由人的生理条件决定。音素是构成各种语音片段的基本元素。音标是标写语音的书面符号。国际音标的制订原则是一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素。音标的优点①按国际原则制订，音素与标写音素的符号一一对应，无标音含混的缺陷②它的符号以世界上很多民众通用的拉丁字母为基础或直接采用如a符号形体简单清晰易学③符号较完备，可标写各种音素，还有一套附加符号可用来标写语音在音高音强音长以及各种特殊色彩方面的特征。使用音标应注意将国际音标与字母区分开来；将形体相似的音标区分开来；要了解国际音标记录语言有严式和宽式的区别。元音和辅音的区别①发元音时声道完全开放，呼出的气流在整个声道内顺利通行不受任何阻碍。发辅音时，声道的某一部位封闭起来而形成阻碍，气流需克服才通②发元音时，发音器官各个部分的紧张程度是均衡的；发辅音时，要形成阻碍不让气流外出，因而形成阻碍的部位就会特紧张③发元音时，呼吸气流畅通，气流较弱；发辅音，须冲破阻碍气流较强，有的声带振动如m，有的不振动如s。宽式标音是比较概括的，与区别意义无关的发音的特征和差别可不必反映，即音位标音。严式标音是一种详尽反映发音特征和差别的标音，即音素标音。舌面元音是由舌面起作用发出的。舌尖元音是由舌尖起主要作用发出的元音。卷舌元音是发舌面元音的同时舌尖向硬腭翘起。前元音是舌位靠前。元音音质的差别由共鸣器的不同形状决定。改变口腔形状的方式是舌位的高低；舌头伸前或缩后，舌位前后；嘴唇的圆展。三方式的作用共同决定一个舌面元音的音质，任何一个方面的变化都会改变元音的音质。发音部位是发辅音时发音器官形成阻碍的部位。发音方法是发辅音时形成阻碍和克服阻碍的方式以及其他方面的变化。发音过程是成阻、持阻、除阻。3节音位是从社会功能的角度划分出来的语音单位，它是特定语言或方言中具有区别意义作用的最小的语音单位（音位的这种区别意义的作用叫做辨义功能）。音质音位是以音素为材料，通过音质的差别来起辨义作用的音位。非音质音位是通过音高音强音长的差别来起辨义作用的音位。音位变体是同属于一个音位的不同音素。音位的条件变体是出现的语音环境各不相同而又同属于一个音位的两个或几个音素。音位的自由变体是可以在同一语言环境里出现而又不能区别意义的两个或几个音素。音位的区别特征是二项对立，即每一方面的特征总是具有是或非有或无两个对立项。音位与音素的区别是音位是由一组彼此的差别没有辨义作用而音感上又相似的音素概括而成的音类。音素是从音质角度划分出来的语音单位。一个音位具有？样的区别特征是由特定的音位系统决定是一个音位具有哪些区别特征，需要把它放到特定语言或方言的音位系统中去考察，放到与其他所有音位对立的关系中去分析才能确定。因为一个