一名词
1音位：是某种语言或方言中能区别语素或词的语音形式的最小语音单位。
2语流音变：语言单位的读音进入言语之后，其中一个音受到前后音或者说话各种因素的影响而在发音上产生某种变化。
3语境：语言环境的简称，指的是人们用语言进行交际时的具体环境。分狭义(前后语和上下文)和广义（背景）两种。
4组合关系：语法单位相互连接起来构成更大的语言片段的规则叫做语法组合规则。是索绪尔的结构主义语言学中研究语言状态关系的两大主轴之一。
5语法范畴：把不同的形式所表示的同一语法意义进行归类所得出的类，就是语法范畴。6语法单位：语法单位是在语句中活动的能够在组合的某一位置上被替换下来的片段。从小到大有：语素、词、短语、句子、句群、篇章。
二填空
1我国传统的语音学包括（音韵学训诂学文字学）
2语言的符号系统性（语音、语义、词汇、语法）它的特点是（音义结合）
3现代语言学之父是（索绪尔）代表做是（《普通语言学教程》）
4语音4要素（音高、音强、音长和音质）5词义演变的结果（）
6语义三角（语义、语音、客观事物）
7基本词汇的特点（全民常用性稳定性能产性）
8反义词的分类（互补对立、两极对立和关系对立）
9语素和词的区别是（能否独立运用）
10词义演变的途径有（旧义的扩大、缩小和转移）
11文字的分类（表意文字和表音文字、表单位文字）
三选择
1语音四要素（音高、音强、音长和音质）2 2辅音、舌根音（G选K H）
3元音（前原因）
4语意场的分类（同义义场同义义场多义义场联想义场）1短语的结构类型
2层次分析句子
3歧义句(说明有没有歧意，造成的原因（省略不当，指代不明，一词多义），写出歧意) 5语法的课后习题
五简答
1音位的划分与归并的原则
2组合关系和聚合关系
答：语言符号与符号之间按照一定的规则组成的言语链条关系，叫组合关系。在链条的某个环节上能够相互替换的，具有相同作用的符号聚积成类的关系，叫聚合关系。
3语言发展演变的特点
答：不平衡性与渐变性，语言是人类社会最基本的交际工具，这是语言的本质属性。它决定了语言必须不断有所变动，否则不能满足社会发展的需要，它也决定了语言不能突变，否则不能为交际的各方共同理解。而语言内部各要素演变速度的不平衡性适应了语言渐变性的需要。
六论述
语言符号的任意性
答：任意性：表现在音和义的结合是任意的，没有什么必然的、本质的联系。不同的语言或方言用不用的声音表示同一个词义，或者同一个事物在不同的语言或方言中有不同的叫法，这些都是任意性的表现。花：HUA，flower 方言：[fa]
任意性≠随意性，语言符号音义的结合是约定俗成的，但是不是随意可以改变的。符号一旦进入交际，与某一意义结合起来，就有了强制性。语言符号的任意性和强制性形成了语言符号一个矛盾体的两个方面，在语言系统中同时起着各自的作用。
任意性和强制性是世界语言多样化的根本原因，也是各种语言既能稳定又能发展与变化的根本原因。
练习1 1. There is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. This is one of the design features of language.A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 2. Language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is . It makes people possible to talk everything within his knowledge. A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 3. ___ refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that he has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation .A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 4. __ __ refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. The dog couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for some lost love or a bone to be lost. A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 5. ______ means language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but the linguistic system must be learnt anew by each speaker. A. duality B. Arbitrariness C. interchangeability D. cultural transmission 6. ______ means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. A. duality B. Arbitrariness C. interchangeability D. cultural transmission 7. To say “How are you.” “Hi” to your friends is the ____ __of language. A. directive function B. informative function C. phatic function D. interrogative function 8. “Tell me the result when you finish.” If you want to get your hearer to do something, y ou should use the _____ of language. A. directive function B. informative function C. phatic function D. interrogative function 9. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as __ ___. A. unnatural B. something to be feared C. natural D. abnormal 10. A linguist is interested in ___A. speech sounds only B. all sounds C. vowels only 11. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? A. [t] B. [m] C. [b] D. [p 12. Which of the following sounds is a voiced affricate? A. [y] B. [t∫] C. [z] D. [dЗ] 13. Which of the following sounds is a central vowel? A. [ ? ] B. [ i ] C. [ou] D. [a: ] 14. In the following sounds , ______ is a palatal fricative ? A. [ s ] B. [∫] C. [ l ] D. [θ] 15. In the following sounds, _____ is a voiceless affricative? A. [dЗ] B. [v] C. [t∫] D. [θ] 16. In English if a word begins with a [ l ] or [ r ],then the next sound must be a __ __. A. fricative B. nasal sound C. semi-vowel D. vowel 17. Of the “words” listed below___ is not an English word A. [r∧b ] B. [ l? b ] C. [m?sta:∫] D. [lm?p] 18. ___ are produced when the obstruction created by the speech organs is total and audibly released. A. Back vowels B. Stops C. Fricatives D. Glides 19. The International Phonetic Association devised the INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET in _____. A. 1965 B. 1957 C. 1888 D. 1788 20. ___ is a phonological unit , and it is a unit that is of distinctive value. A. Phone B. Phoneme C. Allophone D. Sound 1. [ f ] is a dental consonant. F 2. Phonology studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. F 7. The three / p / are allophones. T 3. Phoneme is a phonological unit. T 4. Phone is a phonetic unit. T
一. What is language? 1. Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat. Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen”by any other name is the thing we use to write with. Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare Vocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries. The design/defining /distinctive features of human language: Arbitrariness (任意性） Productivity/Creativity(创造性） Duality （二元性、二层性） Displacement （移位性） Cultural transmission（文化传递性） 2.语言&言语 Langue--- the language system shared by a community of speakers Parole--- the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker. 3. Synchronic vs. diachronic Synchronic (linguistics)---languages are studied at a theoretic point in time: one describes a ‘state’of language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place. Diachronic----languages are studied from point of view of their historical development –for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological, grammatical and semantic terms. 二．语音学（选择题） 三．音位学Phonology 1.音位变体 Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. 同一音位在不同环境中表现出来的两个或多个语音上不同的音段. 例如，在英语里，音位/t/在tin里是送气的[th], 在stand里是不送气的[t]，在eighth里是齿化的[t],在cotton里是鼻除阻的[tn]，在bottle里是边除阻的[tl],在hit里则表现为声门化的[t]. 此外，随着说话人口音的不同，可能还会有其他的语音形式. 这样一套在说话人话语中的语音形式就是音位/t/的音位变体. 把两个音素划归成同一音位的两个音位变体必须满足语音相似性原则，而且它们不能处于对比分布. [p, ph] are two different phones 音子and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution 互补分布because they never occur in the same context: [p] occurs after [s] while [ph] occurs in other places. /p/ [p] / [s] _____
语言学题库： Chapter 1 1. Read the following passage carefully and then state your own position concerning the use of knowing some linguistics. ( 2007, 中国人民大学研究生入学试题) One famous scholar says that language is an interesting subject to study on its own right, for the simple reason that everybody uses it every day. It is unbelievable that we know very little about something we are so familiar with. Just a few questions will arouse our interest in language. Why should we call the thing we sit on chair? Can’t we call chair table and table chair? How is ti that children don’t seem to make a big effort in learning their first language while we adults have to word very hard to learn a second language? Why can we talk about yesterday and last year while cats and dogs never seem to make noises about their past experience? Do you think we can think as clearly without language as with language? Does language determine what we think or thought determines what we say? These questions make us curious about language and linguistics can satisfy our curiosity. To seek the answer to any of these questions is a good reason for studying linguistics. I. Please disambiguate each of the following ambiguous sentences by means of tree diagrams. 1. She showed her baby pictures. 2. The old man was drinking in the open air. 3. John left directions for Tom to follow. 4. The young bachelor hit the color ball. 5. Leave the book on the shelf. 6. John saw a girl with a telescope. 7. more beautiful flowers 8. I went to the bank. (? Polysemy/ homonymy)
Chapter 1 Introductions to Linguistics I. Choose the best answer. (20%) 1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________ A. contact B. communication C. relation D. community 2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary？ A. tree B. typewriter C. crash D. bang 3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________. A. interrogative（疑问） B. directive C. informative D. performative 4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform？ A. Interpersonal B. Emotive C. Performative√ D. Recreational 5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation？ A. Transferability B. Duality C. Displacement D. Arbitrariness 6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language？ —A nice day, isn’t it？ — Right! I really enjoy the sunlight. A. Emotive B. Phatic C. Performative D. Interpersonal 7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances. A. Performance B. Competence C. Langue D. Parole 8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________. A. cultural transmission B. productivity C. displacement D. duality 9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language. A. Psycholinguistics linguistics C. Sociolinguistics D. Applied linguistics 10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education. A. Linguistic theory B. Practical linguistics C. Applied linguistics D. Comparative linguistics II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not 12. Language change is universal, ongoing and ？ 13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication ？ 14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all
32. What is the function of context in communication? Try to explain the following utterances rather than just state facts. (1) The room is messy. (2) It would be good if she had a green skirt on. Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by both the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation (time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc. Context determ ines the speaker’s use of language and also hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc. It may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used. (1) a. A mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room. b. In a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.” c. The room was wanted for a meeting. (2) a. A mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’s appearance. b.A regret that the customer had not taken the dress. c.That she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion. Suprasegamental feature(definition, category) S uprasegmental features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, pitch etc. ⑴Stress: definition is the intensity or prominence given to a syllable at the word level right (argument; Example;explain how) at the sentence level peter left direction for mary to follow peter left direction for mary to follow (argument; Example;explain how) (The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives, adverbs, etc. are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect.(argument) Take the sentence “He is driving MY car.” for example.To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun “my”, which under normal circumstances is not stressed. (explain how) ⑵Pitch: (definition;argument; Example;explain how) ⑶Tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.(definition;argument; Example;explain how) ⑷(definition;argument; Example;explain how) ⑸Intonation:When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black. 2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain
Chapter one Introduction 1.1什么是语言学 1.1.1定义 语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学） The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） 1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3 （1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写 If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not. 规定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say. 描述性Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. （2）Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时 The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important. 历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time.
英语语言学 Ⅰ.Directions：Read each of the following statements carefully，Decide which of the four choices completes the statement and put the letter A,B,C or D in the brackets. 1.There are ( )main areas of phonetic study. A.2 B.3 C.4 D.5 ANSWER:B 2.The term( )linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages. A.synchronic B.diachronic https://www.doczj.com/doc/2d10746460.html,parative D.historical comparative ANSWER:B 3.Foreign language learning always contain ( ) A language historical process learning B.input and language learning C inter language in language learning D.grammar and language learning ANSWER:BCD 4.The way in which people address each other depends on their age, sex, social group, and personal relationship. The English system of address forms frequently used includes first name, last name, title+ last name, ( )and kin term. A title+ first name B title+ title
Model 1 I. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration if it is necessary. 1. macrolinguistics::_______________________ 2. compound:_____________________________ 3. Reference: _____________________________ 4. Idiolect:________________________________ 5. Minimal pair:___________________________ 6. Competence:___________________________ 7. Diglossia: _____________________________ 8. Sound assimilation:______________________ 9. Arbitrariness:___________________________ 10. Semantic shift:_________________________ II. Indicate the following statements true or false. 1. Language use is both systematic and non-systematic, subject to external as well as to internal variation. 2. Corpus is a collection of texts input into a computer. Language corpora make it possible for material developers to select authentic, natural and typical language. 3. Mistakes often occur when learners fail to perform their competence. 4. Root is understood in terms of meanings while syem is understood with emphasis on affix. Sometimes a linguistic element is both a root and stem. 5. All instances of NP--movement are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. 6. Word lays in the central position in language comprehension because of its extremely important role in transmitting the meaning.
第一章 一、填空 语言的功能 1、语言的功能包括（社会）功能和（思维）功能。 2、语言的社会功能包括（信息传递）功能和（人际互动）功能。 3、在各种信息传递形式中，语言）是第一性的、最基本的手段。（ 4、人的大脑分左右两个半球，语言功能及计数、推理能力等由（左）半球掌管，音乐感知、立体图形识别等能力由（右）半球制约。 5、儿童语言习得一般经过（独词句）阶段和（双词句）阶段，这是儿童学话的关键两步。二、判断正误（对）1、文字是建立在语言基础之上的再编码形式。（错）2、当说话者陈述一个客观事实时，话语中不具有主观性。（错）3、书刊上的话语不具有人际互动功能。（对）4、抽象思维要以语言为形式依托。（错）5、布洛卡区在大脑的右半球前部。（错） 6、聋哑人不会说话，所以不具有抽象思维的能力。（对） 7、不同语言结构的差异体现出思维方式的不同。（错） 8、汉语名词没有数的变化，所以汉语没有区别单数和多数的概念。三．思考题1、为什么说语言是人类最重要的信息传递的手段？除了语言之外，人们还使用其他的信息传递工具：（1）文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号、化学公式等辅助性的交际工具（2）体态语等伴随性的副语言交际工具，（3）盲文、手语等类语言交际工具。但这些交际工具或者使用范围的有限，或者运用效率低下，或者使用频率不高，很难与语言这种交际工具相提并论。文字记录语言，打破了语言交际中时间和空间的限制，在社会生活中起着重大的作用，中小学语文教学主要就是教学生识字、阅读、写作。但是，文字在交际中的重要性远不能和语言相比。一个社会可以没有文字，但是不能没有语言；没有语言，社会就不能生存和发展。文字是在语言的基础上产生的，只有几千年的历史。在文字产生以前，语言早已存在，估计有几十万年。今天世界上没有文字的语言比有文字的语言多得多。文字产生以后要随着语言的发展而演变，它始终从属于语言，是一种辅助的交际工具。总之，在上述的种种信息传递工具当中，身势等伴随动作是非语言的交际工具；旗语之类是建立在语言，文字基础之上的辅助性交际工具；文字是建立在语言基础之上的一种最重要的辅助交际工具；语言是人类最重要的信息传递工具。 2、语言的人际互动功能表现在哪些方面？说话者在传递客观经验信息的同时，也在表达着主观的情感、态度和意图，寻求听话者的反馈。而受话者在接收说话者传递的客观经验信息的同时，也了解了说话者的主观情感态度，从而做出回应。这样语言就成为说话者和听话者间交际互动的工具。例如：张三和李四同时在教室看书，张三坐在窗子边的位置，李四坐在中间位置。 A.李四说：“今天气温很低。” B.张三说：“我马上关上。” A、B 的对话表达了一种委婉的请求。李四说“今天气温很低”的目的并不是反映今天的天气，而是向坐在窗户边的张三请求将窗户关上。 3、为什么说思维离不开语言？思维需要语言（1）语言是人类思维的工具，思维活动必须用语言作手段（2）语言是保存思维成果的媒介。思维成果必须依靠语言的巩固才能得以保持。（3）语言可帮助思维逐步深化（4）语言可帮助思维条理化（5）语言可帮助传递思维成果。思维的成果靠语言才能表达出来，使听读者了解。 4、语言思维功能的生理基础是什么，有哪些表现？人类的大脑的左右半球的分工是人类所特有的。人类以外的动物，没有这样的分 2 工,没有专门管语言的“左半球” ，因此它们没有逻辑思维的能力，也掌握不了语言。大脑中人类特有的语言功能区（1）说话中枢，也称布洛卡区，在大脑左半球前部，是19 世纪60 年代，法国神经解剖学家保罗·布洛卡(Paul Broca)发现的。这一区域受到损伤就会得失语症，丧失说话能力，但基本能听懂别人的话。（2）书写中枢，也在大脑左半球前部，靠近布洛卡