Chapter 5 Meaning Semantics:
the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.
5.1 Meanings of “meaning”
7 types of meaning(Leech):
1. Conceptual meaning: Logical, cognitive, or
denotative content
Associate meaning:
2. Connotative meaning:What is communicated
by virtue of what language refers to.
3. Social meaning:What is communicated of the
social circumstances of language use.
4. Affective meaning: What is communicated of
the feelings and attitudes of the
speaker/writer.
5. Reflected meaning: What is communicated
through association with another sense of
the same expression.
6. Collocative meaning: What is communicated
through association with words which tend
to occur in the environment of another word.
7.Thematic meaning: What is communicated
by the way in which the message is
organized in terms of order and emphasis.
-Connotation and denotation
5.2 The referential theory
-The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.
-Semantic triangle(Ogden and Richards):
concept
word thing
-Sense and reference
5.3 Sense relations
Sense: the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally
between one linguistic unit and another.
3 kinds of sense relations:
1)Sameness relation---Synonymy
2)Oppositeness relation---Antonymy
3)Inclusiveness relation---Hyponymy
5.3.1 Synonymy
1)Differ in style: buy and purchase
2) Differ in connotations: thrifty, economical
and stingy
3) Dialectual difference: autumn and fall, flat
and apartment, underground and tube
5.3.2 Antonymy
1) Gradable antonymy: good-bad, long-short, big-small, hot-cold, warm-cool
“Marked”(unusual)and “Unmarked”(the cover term, unusual, e.g. old)
2) Complementary antonymy:alive-dead, male-female,present-absent, pass-fail (a test),odd-even, hit-miss (a target), boy-girl
3) Converse antonymy(Relational opposite): buy-sell, lend-borrow, give-receive, before-after, husband-wife, host-guest, employee-employer
5.3.3 Hyponymy Hyponyms: the members, the lower terms
Co-hyponyms: members of the same class
Superordinate:the name of a class
A superordinate may be missing. Hyponyms may also be missing.
Ex. living
plant animal
bird fish insect animal
human animal
tiger lion elephant …
5.4 Componential analysis Componential analysis refers to an approach by structural semantics in describing the meaning of words.
It aims at breaking down the meaning of a word into its minimal distinctive features which are also called components.
E.g. the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE. Girl may be analyzed into HUMAN, YOUNG and FEMALE; man into HUMAN, ADULT and MALE, and woman into HUMAN, ADULT and FEMALE.
5.5 Sentence meaning
5.5.1 An integrated theory
The principle of compositionality: the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.
A semantic theory consists of two parts(Katz and Postal): a grammantical classification and semantic rules.
Grammatical/Syntactic markers Semantic markers Distinguishers
Selection restrictions Problems
5.5.2 Logical semantics Propositional logic( propositional calculus or sentential calculus) is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite proposition is determined by the truth value of its constituent propositions and the connections between them.
“A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.”(J.Lyons)
Predicate logic( predicate calculus) studies the internal structure of simple propositions.
Argument and predicate
An argument is a term which refers to some entity about which a statement is being made.
A predicate is a term which ascribes some property, or relation, to the entity, or entities, referred to. In terms of the number of arguments it takes, it can be classified into: one-place predicate: Socrates is a man.
two-place predicate:John loves Mary.
three-place predicate: John gave Mary a book.
Questions and Exercises Some people maintain that there are no true
synonyms. If two words mean really the same, one of them will definitely die out. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words are synonymous with each other?
Consider the following antonyms: friendly:unfriendly, honest: dishonest, normal: abnormal, logical: illogical.Which type of antonymy do they belong to?
Comment on F.R.Palmer’s following argument: “…We can treat male/female, married/single, alive/dead as gradable antonyms on occasions. Someone can be very male or more married and certainly more dead than alive.”
Which type of antonymy do the following antonyms belong to? Bigger:smaller, longer:shorter, better: worse, older: younger.
姜望琪（1991：79）claims that “To some extent, we can say that any two words of the same part of speech may become antonyms, as long as the meaning difference between them is what needs to be emphasized in the particular context.”He uses the two sentences below as examples. What do you think of the claim?
You have to peel a raw potato but you can skin a boiled one. He’s no statesman, but a mere politician.
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is
Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background
9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language
9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition
-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?
第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点： 语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。
本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process
英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版) Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1. What is language? “ Languageis system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains a is explained by the fact that different languages have different “ books ”“:book ”in English, “ livre in” French, “shu” ii n eCseh. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “ human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2. Design Features of Language. “ Design features ” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1) Arbitrariness: By “ arbitrariness ”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2) Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3) Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one?s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4) Displacement: “ Displacement ”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5) Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6) Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3. Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1) Phatic function: The “ phaticfunction r”efers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2) Directive function: The “ directive function ”thamt laenagnusage may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the res you finish. ” (3) Informative function: Language serves an “ informational function ”when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). (4) Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “ interrogat
Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind 6.1 Introduction 1. Language is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. 2. Language is a product of human intelligence, created a new in each individual by operation that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. 3. Psycholinguistics “proper” can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). 4. Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. 5. The differences between psycholinguistics and psychology of language. Psycholinguistics can be defined as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). It is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. On the other hand, the psychology of language deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought, and from the psychology of communication, includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions. 6. Cognitive psycholinguistics: Cognitive psycholinguistics is concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mind. 7. Experimental psycholinguistics: Experimental psycholinguistics is mainly concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word. 6.1.1 Evidence 1. Linguists tend to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their main source of evidence, whereas psychologists mostly prefer experimental studies. 2. The subjects of psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults and children on the one hand, and aphasics----people with speech disorders-----on the other. The primary assumption with regard to aphasic patient that a breakdown in some part of language could lead to an understanding of which components might be independent of others. 6.1.2 Current issues 1. Modular theory: Modular theory assumes that the mind is structured into separate modules or components, each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others. 2. Cohort theory: The cohort theory hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived. This theory can be expanded to deal with written materials as well. Several experiments have supported this view of word
Chapter 12 Theories and Schools
Introduction 1 Modern linguistics began from the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), who is often described as “father of modern linguistics”. His lectures are collected in the book “Course in General Linguistics”. 2 Saussure believed that language is a System of Signs. This sign is the union of a form and an idea, which he called the signifier and the signified. 3 Saussure’s ideas on the arbitrary nature of sign, on the relational nature of linguistic units, on the distinction of Langue and Parole and of Synchronic and Diachronic linguistics pushed linguistics into a brand new stage.
12.1The Prague School 12.1.1 Introduction 1) The Prague School can be traced back to its first meeting u nder the leadership of V.Mathesius in 1926. This school practiced a special style of synchronic linguistics, and its most important contribution to l inguistics is that it sees language in terms of function. 2) Three most important ideas developed in Prague School 12.1.2 Phonology & Phonological Oppositions 1) The Prague School is best known for its contribution to p honology and the distinction of phonetics and phonology. 2) Its representative is Trubetzkoy. 3) Oppositions ( a---I ) bilateral opposition; multilateral opposition; proportio nal opposition; isolated opposition; privative opposition; gradual opposition; equivalent opposition;neutralisable opposition; constant opposition. 12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 1)Theme & Rheme. 2) Communicative Dynamism (CD).
英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版） Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1.What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2.Design Features of Language. “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer
胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享（全；免"支持"版：） 《语言学教程》重难点学习提示 第一章??语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。 第二章? ?? ?语言学 语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。 第三章? ?? ?语音学 发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。 第四章? ???音位学 音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。 第五章? ? 词法学 词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。 第六章? ? 词汇学 词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。 第七章??句法 句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。 第八章? ?语义学 语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。 第九章? ?语言变化 语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）； 第十章??语言、思维与文化 语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。 第十一章??语用学 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。 1.1.??What is language? "Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly.
第12章现代语言学理论与流派 12.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 布拉格学派与功能句子观 2. The London School and context of situation 伦敦学派与语境观 3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 韩礼德与系统——功能语法 4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism 布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义 5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法 常考考点： 各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。 本章内容索引：
I. Saussure and modern linguistics II. The Prague School 1. Main points and contribution 2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) III. The London School 1. Introduction 2. Malinowski’s theories 3. Firth’s theories 4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar (1) Systemic grammar (2) Functional grammar IV. American Structuralism 1. Introduction 2. Three stages of the development V. Transformational-Generative Grammar 1. Introduction 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 3. Generative Grammar 4. Stage of development of TG Grammar 5. Main features of TG Grammar
Chapter 8 Language in Use 1. 语义学与语用学的区别 1.1 语用学（Pragmatics） Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。） 1.2 区别 Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。） 2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice） 2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle) 说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。他把这种机制称作合作原则。 2.2. 准则(maxims) 数量准则(quantity) ①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。 ②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。 质量准则(quality) 设法使你的话语真实 ①不要讲明知是虚假的话 ②不要说没证据的话