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高三宇宙奥秘英语阅读理解30题1<背景文章>Black holes are one of the most fascinating and mysterious phenomena in the universe. A black hole is formed when a massive star collapses at the end of its life. The gravitational pull of a black hole is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape from it.The formation of a black hole begins with the collapse of a massive star. As the star runs out of fuel, it can no longer support its own weight and begins to collapse. The collapse continues until the star reaches a critical density, at which point it becomes a black hole.Black holes have several unique characteristics. One of the most notable is their event horizon, which is the boundary beyond which nothing can escape. Another characteristic is their intense gravitational field, which can distort the space and time around them.Black holes can have a significant impact on the surrounding celestial bodies. They can attract and swallow nearby stars and planets, and their gravitational pull can also affect the orbits of other celestial bodies.Scientists are still working to understand black holes better. They use a variety of tools and techniques, such as telescopes and computer simulations, to study these mysterious objects. Despite significant progressin recent years, there is still much that we don't know about black holes.1. What is a black hole formed by?A. A small star collapsing.B. A massive star collapsing.C. A planet collapsing.D. A moon collapsing.答案：B。
Growing up in a small town nestled in the lush greenery of the countryside, I have always been surrounded by a natural environment that many city dwellers can only dream of. My hometown boasts a pristine environment that is a testament to the harmony between humans and nature. Here, I will share my experiences and observations about the environment in my hometown, which I believe is a perfect blend of natural beauty and human care.From the moment I wake up to the gentle chirping of birds outside my window, I am reminded of the serenity that my hometown offers. The air is crisp and fresh, devoid of the smog and pollution that plague many urban areas. The sky is a canvas of blues, often interrupted by the occasional fluffy white clouds drifting lazily by. The scent of blooming flowers and the rustling of leaves are the soundtrack to my daily life, a stark contrast to the cacophony of traffic and noise that one might find in a bustling city.The rivers and streams that crisscross the landscape are a vital part of our environment. They are crystal clear, reflecting the azure sky above and teeming with life beneath the surface. Fish dart through the water, and the occasional turtle sunbathes on a rock, basking in the warmth of the sun. The banks of these waterways are lined with lush vegetation, providing a habitat for a variety of wildlife. It is not uncommon to spot deer grazing on the grassy banks or rabbits hopping through the underbrush.The fields surrounding the town are a patchwork of green and gold, depending on the season. In spring, the fields are a vibrant green as the crops begin to grow. As summer progresses, the fields turn golden withthe ripening wheat and corn. The sight of these fields, stretching out as far as the eye can see, is a feast for the eyes and a testament to the hard work of the local farmers.The forests that envelop parts of my hometown are a treasure trove of biodiversity. Walking through these woods is like stepping into a different world, where the hustle and bustle of everyday life are left behind. The air is cool and fresh, and the dappled sunlight filters through the canopy above. The forest floor is a carpet of fallen leaves and moss, and the occasional mushroom peeks out from between the tree roots. The sounds of the forest are a symphony of nature the rustling of leaves, the chirping of birds, and the distant hoot of an owl.One of the most striking aspects of my hometowns environment is the respect and care that the community has for it. There is a strong sense of environmental stewardship among the residents. Recycling and waste management are taken seriously, and efforts are made to minimize pollution and preserve the natural beauty of the area. Community cleanup events are organized regularly, and there is a general consensus that everyone has a role to play in maintaining the pristine condition of our environment.Moreover, the local government has implemented policies to protect the environment and promote sustainable living. There are strict regulations regarding the use of pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture, ensuring that the soil and water remain uncontaminated. Renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, are being increasingly adopted, reducingthe reliance on fossil fuels and lowering the carbon footprint of the community.In conclusion, the environment in my hometown is a source of pride and joy for its residents. The natural beauty that surrounds us is a constant reminder of the importance of living in harmony with nature. The efforts made by the community and the local government to protect and preserve this environment are commendable and serve as an example for other communities to follow. As I continue to grow and learn, I hope to contribute to the preservation of this beautiful environment and pass on the values of environmental stewardship to future generations.。
八年级后羿射日英语作文80词初二全文共6篇示例，供读者参考篇1The Awesome Story of Hou Yi Shooting Down the SunsHi everyone! Today I want to tell you an amazing old Chinese story that my grandpa told me. It's about this guy named Hou Yi who was such a great archer that he shot down nine suns from the sky! Can you believe that? Nine suns!See, back in the reeeaaally old days, there were ten suns in the sky at the same time instead of just one. I know, crazy right? Having that many suns made the earth way too hot though. The crops couldn't grow, the rivers and lakes were drying up, and everyone was sweating like crazy all the time. It was a total disaster!The poor people were suffering and didn't know what to do. Then along came Hou Yi, who was not just an incredible archer, but also a badass heroic figure. When he saw how miserable everyone was because of the intense heat, he knew he had to do something to help.Using his mad archery skills, Hou Yi aimed his super powerful beast-bone bow towards the suns one by one and started firing arrows. His arrows ripped through the air with the most insane speed you can imagine. Suns started dropping from the sky left and right as his arrows struck them perfectly every single time! The crowd went absolutely wild, cheering him on. It was like watching an epic movie battle scene happening right before their eyes.After taking down nine of the suns, there was just one sun left. Hou Yi could have shot that last one too, but he didn't because he knew the world needed some sunlight to survive. What a smart guy! From then on, everything was back to normal with just the right amount of sun. Crops could grow again, rivers and lakes refilled, and people could finally go outside without melting from the heat. Thanks to Hou Yi's heroics, disaster was averted and balance was restored!But the story gets even crazier. See, by using his divine archery skills to help humankind, Hou Yi had technically done something only an immortal god should be able to do. As a reward, he was given a magic potion by the Immortals that could turn him immortal too if he drank it. Wild, right?However, Hou Yi didn't want to leave his beautiful wife Chang'e behind on earth to die without him. So he gave her the potion to drink first, thinking he would find another way to become immortal too later. Unfortunately, a crazy turn of events caused Chang'e to accidentally float up to the moon while she was immortal! She's still living up there to this day. Pretty nuts, huh?Anyway, that's the amazing tale of Hou Yi the legendary archery hero. He took out nine suns to save humanity from the unbearable heat, helped restore balance to the world, and his wife ended up living on the moon forever. It's one of the coolest and most epic stories I've ever heard!I really hope you guys enjoyed listening to me recount this classic Chinese myth as much as I enjoyed telling it. Stories of heroic badasses risking everything to overcome crazy challenges never get old. Hou Yi shooting down the suns with hisbeast-bone bow is definitely one for the ages. Maybe next time we can go over the crazy adventures of the Monkey King! Let me know if you'd be into that. But for now, thanks for reading and have an awesome rest of your day!篇2Hou Yi Shooting Down the SunsHave you ever heard the crazy story about the guy who shot down the suns? Yeah, I'm talking about Hou Yi, this legendary archer dude from ancient Chinese mythology. His tale is just bonkers! Let me fill you in.So way back in the day, there were ten suns circling around the earth. I know, that sounds nuts, right? Can you imagine how hot and bright it must have been with all those suns blazing away? Total scorcher! Anyway, all that intense heat was causing major droughts and crop failures. The people were super hungry and miserable.That's when Hou Yi stepped up to save the day. This guy was an archery master, the real deal. He could nail a bulls-eye from like a million miles away while doing a handstand and juggling flaming torches. Okay, maybe I'm exaggerating a tad, but you get the idea - he had some serious skills with a bow and arrow.Hou Yi was like, "Enough is enough with theseout-of-control suns! I'm putting a stop to this madness." So he grabbed his mega powerful beast-slaying bow and a quiver full of magical arrow-ammunition. I'm picturing they had some crazy properties like homing abilities or explosive tips or something.Hou Yi just went to town shooting those suns right out of the sky!Can you imagine how insane that must have looked? Fiery suns plummeting from the heavens one after another as Hou Yi rapidly fired away. He was a deadeye sharpshooter on an absolute tear. The ground must have been shaking from the impacts of those falling suns crashing down. I'll bet Hou Yi had to do some crazy ninja moves just to avoid getting vaporized by their heat.In the end, Hou Yi managed to take out nine of the ten suns. That one remaining sun was just the right amount of heat and light to get the crops growing again and restore balance to the world. The people rejoiced at Hou Yi's heroic feat. They were finally free from that scorching misery.I can't even fathom how Hou Yi pulled that off. He must have been sweating like a banshee from the intense heat of all those suns bearing down on him. Yet he kept his cool and did what needed to be done with his trusty bow. I wonder if the arrows had to curve perfectly to adjusting for the gravitational pull of the other suns? There's so many mind-bending aspects to this tale.Some of the myths say Hou Yi was rewarded for his marvelous deed by being granted a magical pill of immortality. But his wife Changedrank it instead when he stepped away for a moment. Major bummer! She ended up ascending to the heavens and becoming the moon goddess. So instead of eternal life together on earth, Hou Yi was separated from his wife with only the moon to gaze upon at night and remember her by. Pretty tragic ending after such an amazing display of heroics.Still, you have to just marvel at Hou Yi's insane archery prowess to take out nine scorching hot suns from the sky like that. Dude went full-on Hawkeye mixed with a little Legolas to save humanity from an inferno of heat and starvation. That's one legendary loose-lipped archer if you ask me! I almost can't decide what's crazier - the feat itself or the fact that I have to write a 2000 word essay about it for school. Yikes! Teach really piled on the torture with this bizarre assignment. Alright that's about all I've got left in the quiver for poor Hou Yi's tale. I don't know about you, but I need a big glass of ice water just from recounting all those sun-shooting escapades!篇3The Legendary Tale of Hou Yi Shooting Down the SunsDo you know the ancient Chinese myth about the famous archer Hou Yi who shot down the extra suns? It's one of the coolest stories I've ever heard! Let me tell it to you.A long, long time ago, there were ten suns in the sky at once.I know, that sounds crazy! Can you imagine how hot and bright it must have been? The suns were actually the sons of the powerful Jade Emperor, ruler of Heaven.These suns took turns circling the earth each day, but one day they all decided to come out at the same time. This caused terrible droughts and famine across the land as their heat scorched the crops and dried up all the water sources. The people were suffering and didn't know what to do.That's when the great archer Hou Yi stepped in. Hou Yi was an amazing marksman who could hit any target, no matter how small or distant. When he saw the devastation the ten suns were causing, he knew he had to act.Hou Yi carefully made special arrows crafted from a magical metal that could pierce through anything. Then he took aim at the suns one by one and fired his arrows. Amazingly, he struck down nine of the suns right out of the sky! The last remaining sun was the leader and promised to circle the earth properly from then on.With only one sun left, the world returned to normal. The droughts ended, water flowed again, and plants could grow once more. The people were saved thanks to the bravery and skill of Hou Yi the archer!But the story doesn't end there. Hou Yi's wife was a beautiful and kind woman named Chang'e. Unfortunately, an evil immortal trick Chang'e into drinking an elixir of immortality that caused her body to float up into the heavens towards the moon.Hou Yi was heartbroken to see his beloved wife trapped on the moon, unable to return to earth. So he set out cakes and fruits as offerings, hoping Chang'e would be able to eat them up in the sky. This tradition is still celebrated today during theMid-Autumn Moon Festival.There are so many fascinating parts to this classic tale! The imagery of the ten suns scorching the earth, the amazing archery skills of Hou Yi, Chang'e becoming immortal on the moon - it's all so vivid and imaginative.I love myths and legends that blend action, romance, supernatural elements, and important cultural traditions all into one epic story. The tale of Hou Yi shooting the suns reminds us of the power of heroism and sacrifice in the face of great challenges.Let's keep retelling these ancient stories and passing them down to future generations. Their valuable lessons about courage, love, and humanity's relationship with the natural world should never be forgotten. Epic myths like this one are what first sparked my imagination as a kid and made me fall in love with the magic of storytelling!篇4Hou Yi Shoots the SunLong ago, there were ten suns in the sky, making Earth unbearably hot. The skilled archer Hou Yi shot down nine of the suns, leaving just one to provide warmth. The suns were actually the sons of the Emperor of Heaven. For his bravery, Hou Yi was rewarded with a magic potion that could grant immortality. His greedy wife Chang'e drank it without permission and floated away to the moon. Hou Yi pined for her on Earth until the day he died. This classic Chinese myth teaches the importance of responsibility and self-control.篇5The Legend of Hou Yi Shooting Down the SunsHave you ever heard the ancient Chinese myth about the heroic archer Hou Yi shooting down the extra suns? It's one of the coolest and most exciting stories from long ago! Let me tell you all about it.Way back in ancient times, there were ten suns in the sky at once instead of just one. Can you imagine how scorching hot that would have been? It made the Earth a blazing, dry desert wasteland. Crops withered, rivers dried up, and people were suffering terribly from the intense heat and drought.That's when the brave and skilled archer named Hou Yi took action to save humanity. He was the greatest archer in the whole land. With his incredible strength, he could shoot arrows with mind-blowing force and pinpoint accuracy. People begged him, "Please Hou Yi, you have to do something about these extra suns burning us all up!"So Hou Yi decided he would use his awesome archery powers to shoot down the nine extra suns. Nine suns out of ten seems impossible, but not for the amazing Hou Yi! He grabbed his trusty bow and a quiver full of arrows crafted from sacred materials. Taking careful aim, he launched arrow after arrow into the sky.One by one, the extra suns were struck by his precise shots and went tumbling from the heavens! It must have been an unreal sight to see these massive fiery orbs falling. After shooting down eight suns, there was just one left. Hou Yi could have gotten rid of that one too, but he wisely decided to keep it to provide light and warmth. What a genius!With only the single sun left, balance was restored to the world. The land could bloom again with plant life. Humanity was saved from the scorching heat thanks to Hou Yi's courageous act! He became renowned as a hero who used his awesome skills to protect people.Some versions of the myth say Hou Yi was rewarded by being granted immortality and a life among the gods in heaven. Others say he stayed on Earth as a wise leader and brought an era of peace and prosperity to the realm. Either way, he will forever be remembered as the archery master who took on the mighty suns and won.Just imagine getting to see those breathtaking archery shots for yourself as Hou Yi launched those arrows into the sky! The winds must have swirled as each sun went soaring down from the heavens. It gives me goosebumps picturing that incrediblescene unfold. No video game or movie could ever capture the sheer epicness of it all.That's the fantastic myth of how Hou Yi's peerless archery skills delivered the world from an overabundance of scorching suns. It makes me want to take up archery and be like the legendary Hou Yi! Maybe I'll start carrying a bow and arrow set around with me everywhere just in case any extra suns appear. You never know when you might need mad archery skills to save the day!篇6The Legendary Story of Hou Yi Shooting the SunHi there! My name is Liam and I'm in 8th grade. Today, I want to tell you an awesome ancient Chinese story that I learned about recently. It's called the legend of Hou Yi shooting the sun. Get ready, because this tale is pretty wild!A long, long time ago, like way back in ancient China, there were ten suns in the sky at the same time. Can you imagine how hot and bright that must have been? The intense heat was causing droughts, wildfires, and crops to wither and die. Basically, life on Earth was becoming impossible with so many suns blazing overhead.That's when this legendary archer named Hou Yi came into the picture. Hou Yi was an amazing, skilled bowman. He could hit any target from miles away with perfect accuracy. When he heard about the terrible situation with the multiple suns, Hou Yi knew he had to do something to save humanity.After getting blessed by the gods and receiving a special bundle of mythical arrows, Hou Yi set off on his mission. With determination in his eyes and his trusty bow in hand, he took aim at the scorching suns one by one. Bullseye after bullseye, he shot down nine of the suns until only one remained. Can you picture that? Hou Yi was like a one-man sun extermination squad!Finally, with just the single sun left, the Earth's normal warmth and cycle of day and night were restored. Hou Yi had achieved balance and saved the day through his unparalleled archery talents. The people celebrated their hero and lived happily ever after, all thanks to the brave Hou Yi.But wait, there's more to this epic tale! After hissun-shooting heroics, Hou Yi was gifted with a magical pill that could make him immortal. However, he didn't want to live forever without his beautiful wife Chang'e. So, Hou Yi tried to share the immortality pill with Chang'e, but a strange turn of events occurred.Right when they were about to take the pill together, a sneaky, trickster bird snatched it away and flew out the window. Chang'e, not wanting the pill's power to fall into the wrong hands, made the ultimate sacrifice. She chased after the bird, swallowed the pill midair, and became a immortal goddess trapped on the moon for eternity. Crazy, right?Even though Hou Yi and Chang'e were separated, their deep love for each other lived on. It's said that every year during the Mid-Autumn festival, Hou Yi would gaze up at the moon to admire his wife's beauty in the night sky. He would leave offerings for her to enjoy on the lunar surface. To this day, people in China celebrate their iconic romance with lanterns, moon gazing, and delicious mooncakes. What a truly legendary love story!That's the ancient tale of Hou Yi, the godly archer who shot down nine scorching suns with his bow and arrow prowess. Between his incredible marksmanship saving humanity and his heartbreaking separation from his cherished wife Chang'e, it's one of the most epic ancient Chinese folktales there is. I hope you enjoyed hearing me recount this amazing myth from long ago. Let me know if you want to learn about any other cool legends or stories from China's rich history and culture!。
有关宇宙的文案英文短句Title: Exploring the Vast Mysteries of the UniverseIntroduction:The universe, a realm of infinite wonders and mysteries, has captivated humanity's imagination since time immemorial. Spanning countless light-years, this cosmic expanse stirs curiosity and fascination in both scientists and dreamers alike. In this article, we embark on a journey to delve into the captivating realm of the universe, a spectacle that continues to astonish us with its endless possibilities.1. Overview:1.1 The Vastness of the CosmosThe universe is a breathtaking canvas of celestial bodies,from shimmering galaxies and sparkling stars to enigmaticblack holes and dazzling nebulae. With its sheer vastness, it encompasses everything we know and yet holds countlesssecrets waiting to be unveiled.1.2 The Birth of Stars and PlanetsDeep within the cosmic abyss, stars are born. As clouds ofgas and dust collapse under gravity, they ignite to form blazing beacons scattered throughout the universe. These celestial bodies pave the way for planetary systems to emerge, potentially harboring life in the vastness of space.1.3 The Expanding UniverseThe universe is ceaselessly expanding. The famous Big Bang theory suggests that the universe originated from a singular point, rapidly expanding and giving rise to what we know today. Evidence of this expansion lies within the redshift oflight from distant galaxies, painting a vivid picture of the ever-expanding cosmos.1.4 Dark Matter and Dark EnergyDespite the tremendous advancements in astrophysics, a large portion of the universe's composition remains unknown. Dark matter and dark energy, elusive entities that cannot bedirectly observed, are believed to account for the majorityof the universe's mass and energy. Their nature continues to perplex scientists and drive research forward.2. The Quest for Extraterrestrial Life2.1 The Possibility of Habitable ExoplanetsExoplanets, planets orbiting stars outside our solar system, offer tantalizing prospects for the existence ofextraterrestrial life. Through space telescopes and other observational tools, scientists have identified numerous exoplanets within habitable zones, where liquid water – akey ingredient for life – may potentially exist.2.2 The Search for Intelligent LifeThe age-old question of whether intelligent life existsbeyond Earth remains unanswered. Initiatives such as the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) actively scan the skies, sifting through the cosmic noise in hopes of detecting signals or signs of intelligent alien civilizations. While no conclusive evidence has emerged, the searchcontinues unabated.3. Cosmic Mysteries and Unanswered Questions3.1 Black Holes and Event HorizonsBlack holes, gravitational powerhouses with such immense density that nothing, not even light, can escape their grasp, captivate both scientists and the public. Exploring their nature, behavior, and the existence of event horizons is anongoing pursuit, shedding light on the boundaries of our understanding.3.2 The Fate of the UniverseWhat lies ahead in the future of our universe? Scientists ponder over the possibilities, considering scenarios such as the Big Crunch, where the universe collapses upon itself, or the eventual heat death, where all energy is evenly distributed and extinguished. The ultimate fate of our universe is yet unknown.Conclusion:The universe, a captivating enigma, continues to beckon us to explore its vast mysteries. From the birth of stars and potential for extraterrestrial life to the enigmas of dark matter and the fate of the cosmos, the universe remains an intriguing realm awaiting further discovery. As we strive to unravel its secrets, we gain not only scientific knowledge but also a deeper appreciation for the magnificence and grandeur of the cosmos that surrounds us.。
他之所以于我们如此重要The reason that he is as important to us as I think he is是因为他是一名伟大的艺术家is because he was a good artist,他曾作为杰出的艺术家名噪一时and on his best days he was a terrific artist,他能捡拾这世上零落的光影片段and he found some way to put together those little fragments of the world 以照片的形式记录了下来in a way that transformed them into a picture.就如同In the same way that,you know,诗人和普罗大众使用着相同的字典a poet uses the same dictionaries that the rest of us do.所有词汇都排列其中All the words are in there...诗中的辞藻都按字母顺序写在字典里all the words in the poem are there, they're in alphabetical order你可以找到它们so you can find them ...撷取其中几个and it's just a matter of taking a few of them约翰·沙科夫斯基摄影师兼策展人按照恰当的顺序排列好and putting them in the right order,写诗就是如此and that's all there is to it.这就是为什么有些诗篇And so why is it that some lines of poetry,有些诗句能够抓住我们some sentences grasp us,吸引我们you know,grip us,我们觉得 "对说得对and we think,"That's,that's right,that's true,虽然不太明白whatever,I don't know quite what that means,但确实如此"but whatever it means it's true."好照片也能达到这样的效果And a good picture does something like that.安塞尔最好的几幅作品The best of Ansel's是我们记忆的一部分are part of our memory,是我们认知的一部分part of our sense照片该如何拍摄of what a picture might be made out of,拍摄怎样的风景what it might look like又有什么样的深层意义and what it might ultimately be about,这很难解释清楚which is the part we can't explain.他的一生就是一趟旅程一次探险His whole life would be a journey, and an exploration;一场对意义与秩序a search for meaning and order,美丽与救赎的探索for beauty and redemption;探寻着与更伟大更永恒事物间的联♥系♥for contact with something larger and more lasting:社会羁绊家庭for community, connection, and home.美国西进运动结束几年后Born on the far western edge of the continent他出生于遥远的西部地区in the years following the close of the American frontier,1916年夏他初遇风景如画的约塞米蒂谷he first encountered the awesome beauty of Yosemite Valley in the summer of 1916. "从那一天起" 他后来写道"From that day,"he later wrote,"我的生活因重峦叠嶂的内华达山脉"My life has been colored and modulated变得丰富多彩"by the great earth gesture of the Sierra."自那以后他穷其一生He would spend the rest of his life用胶片捕捉美洲大♥陆♥的自然之美trying to capture on film the wild majesty of the American continent,捕捉震撼人心的荒野and the sublime and humbling exaltation of wilderness. 一旦进入这里It's a place that you step into,你不知道会发生什么and you don't know what's going to happen.这里令人惊奇It's a place that can surprise you.令人感到渺小It's a place where you're small.但感到渺小不是坏事But where being small is not a bad thing,卡尔·波普山峦俱乐部成员它其实是一件美妙的事where being small is actually a wonderful thing.如果你看安塞尔的照片If you look at Ansel's photographs,摄影师无论站在哪里the photographer wherever he stands,相较于大自然的细节与光线is clearly tiny compared to都显得渺小极了the detail and the light.你能感知到太阳播撒的每一缕光线You have a sense of the entire solar system,阳光闪耀在新墨西哥州教堂顶上the sun is shining in on a church in New Mexico或是内华达的山峰上or a peak in the Sierra,摄影师的眼睛也就是相机and the eye, the camera,只是极小一部分is this small part但并非微不足道but it's not an insignificant part.正是相机为这一切赋予了意义It's the part which gives the whole thing meaning.安塞尔一生的作品之中Well,I think Ansel had a message in his art乔纳森·斯波尔丁传记作家都传达着一个信息that was consistent throughout his career.那就是世界如此之美And this is that the world is beautiful,人类只是浩繁世界中的一部分that humanity is part of this larger world.用相机记录的这一刻That the concerns of the moment也是浩繁世界不可分割的一部分are part but not separate from a larger system of forces它们将我们与万事万物联♥系♥在一起that connect us to all of creation.我无法言明照片的内在含义I can't verbalize the internal meaning of pictures whatsoever.有些朋友能拉里拉杂说一堆Some of my friends can at very mystical levels,但我更愿意说but I prefer to say that,如果我强烈地感受到了什么if I feel something strongly,我会把它拍下来I would make a photograph,照片能体现出我的所见所感that would be the equivalent of what I saw and felt...当我准备拍照的时候When I'm ready to make a photograph,我的心眼感受到的I think I quite obviously see in my mind's eye并非事物字面的浅薄含义something that is not literally there,而是这个世界的内涵in the true meaning of the word.我乐于展现的是有内在意义的事物I'm interested in expressing something which is built up from within, 而非局限于外在的东西rather than just extracted from without.当他拍摄自然风景时When he photographed the wild landscape --尤其是拍摄他的第二故乡especially in his own special home内华达山脉和约塞米蒂荒野的景色wild landscape in the High Sierra,and Yosimte.他和这些山脉产生了共鸣he felt some consonance with that material这种共鸣强烈深刻神秘that was very profound,very deep,very mystical,近乎宗教一般perhaps almost religious --尽管他会强烈反对这种说法although he would certainly object to that very strongly,因为他并非传统的宗教信徒because he was not in any conventional sense a religious person --然后要想办法and then you try to find a way to make a picture that将你感受到的共鸣呈现在照片中is consonant with your sense of your relationship to that experience.这不仅仅是一个地方It's not just a place,是一种经历尤其是...it's an experience -- especially安塞尔要拍的景色只存在于彼时彼刻in Ansel's case that has to do with that time,that moment,它们转瞬即逝that evanescent disappearing thing.安塞尔不会刻意回避个人的表达I don't think Ansel was ever self-consciously concerned with personal expression. 他想要加入一些其他的东西It's wanting to join something else...安塞尔意在理解更广袤的世界Ansel, I think, the issue was to understand并成为其中一部分and become part of something that was larger.他想通过照片向人们展示And to make a picture that demonstrated that there was some,人与自然的共通之处actually some communion going on.将近七十年For nearly seventy years,他悠游于美国西部人迹罕至的荒野he would wander the great unoccupied spaces of the American west --拍摄身边不断变化的景色photographing the landscape as the landscape itself changed all around him,拍摄美洲大♥陆♥遭到开垦and as the wild places of the continent dwindled and shrank日渐萎缩的荒野and came under attack as never before.跟本世纪其他艺术家相比More than any other artist of the century,他转变了这片荒野之于美国的意义he would help transform the meaning of wilderness in America, 也改变了人们对于自己家乡的看法and change what people thought and felt about their own land. 随着时间的推移In the course of time,他自己也改变了he himself would change --年轻时让他痴迷的美景as the rapturous visions that sustained him in his youth逐渐淡去lost their power,失去了吸引力and began to fade --人到晚年他越来越变成一位and as he came increasingly to resemble和蔼慈祥值得信任的业界前辈the avuncular, trusted elder statesman of his old age.但是在年轻时But as a young man,他曾见过内华达山脉上的景色he had seen something in the mountains of the Sierra Nevada -- 由此产生的共鸣震彻天地something that resonated far out into the landscape直达灵魂的深处and down into the deepest recesses of his soul --这种共鸣在他此后的人生中萦绕不散that would haunt him for the rest of his days,也让他穷尽一生致力去传达and that he would spend his entire life trying to convey.我认为美国历史上I can't think of any artist没有哪一位艺术家比安塞尔·亚当斯in our history who was more American更能代表美国than Ansel Adams.他成长于一座只有五十年历史的城市He grew up in a city that was only fifty years old....他的作品是最典型的美国风格his subject matter was as quintessentially American as it possibly could be. 威廉·A·特内奇安塞尔·亚当斯信托基金会我认为我们与欧洲最大的不同在于The thing that separates us from the Old World, more than anything I think, 我们拥有大♥片♥风景优美的荒野is that we have all of these extraordinary great pieces of wild land这也是安塞尔毕生致力保护的东西which Ansel of course devoted much of his life's energy to saving.美国是他创作的源动力So his cause was American.他的作品正是关于美国的His work was about America...他很古怪He was odd.安德莉亚·格蕾·斯蒂尔曼安塞尔·亚当斯的编辑没错他非常古怪Yes,he was odd.在他儿时的照片里The pictures of him as a child,他看上去就很奇怪he looks really odd.而当他长到二十出头And he was actually kind of odd-looking when he was a young man, too,依然是一个长相奇怪的年轻人in his early twenties.招风的耳朵渐秃的头发These ears stuck out and he was balding.还镶着假牙And then he did have false teeth and我认识他的时候他就有副不错的假牙by the time I knew him he had a pretty good set,可是安一副好假牙可不是一两天的事but I think it took a while to get a good set of false teeth.他身材修长出奇地瘦He was gangly and extremely, extremely thin.还留着黑胡子And then he had this black beard.在山峦俱乐部早期的远足照片里The pictures of him from the early Sierra Club hikes,其中的几张看上去几乎有些吓人he almost looks kind of scary in some of them,但他有着一种享受生活的热情but he also had this joie de vivre,他的古道热肠和幽默风趣and this sense of enthusiasm and humor会立刻使人为之倾心that just swept people off their feet --关于他独特的性格人们褒贬不一well,either you loved it or you hated it.1902年冬他出生于旧金山He was born Ansel Easton Adams in the city of San Francisco起名安塞尔·伊斯顿·亚当斯in the winter of 1902 --他家曾经富裕如今逐渐没落the only child of a once prosperous family他是家中独子on its way down in the world.他最早的记忆就是躺在婴儿车里His earliest memory was of lying in a pram看着屋顶上的雾气watching silent fingers of fog悄无声息地向东流去flowing east above his family's house --那是一栋坐落于城西一隅a lonely structure perched high above the dunes建于沙丘之上的孤独建筑beyond the western edge of town,它俯瞰着金门海峡overlooking the waters of the Golden Gate.他总说是这些早年的生活环境和体验He always said he was formed by those early landscape experiences 塑造了他的性格and where he was living.如果你曾在旧金山定居过I mean,once you've lived a while in San Francisco,你一定会体验到那种雾气悄然而至you can feel that fog kind of tiptoeing in,声音也随之改变的感觉where it changes the sounds这种感觉会浸入骨髓and kind of gets in to your bones.或者在阳光明媚的好天气里Or when there's a glorious clear day...一切都是那么美轮美奂it's just breathtakingly beautiful.这些都是安塞尔最重要的经历And that was just part and parcel of Ansel.1906年4月18日早晨On the morning of April 18th,1906,当时刚满四岁的他when he was a little more than four,被旧金山大地震的一场余震掀飞an immense aftershock of the great San Francisco earthquake 一头撞上了花♥园♥里的矮墙sent him flying head--first into a low garden wall,他的鼻子被严重撞伤severely breaking his nose --从此明显地歪向左边which forever after veered violently to the left.一年之后One year later,他祖父在木材生意中赚取的财富the fortune in timber his grandfather had assembled在淘金热之后的一年里in the years following the Gold Rush就是1907年金融危机时都化作泡影finished collapsing completely in the Panic of 1907 --这使得他的父亲面临巨大的财政困难plunging his father into a sea of financial difficulties,他的母亲因此患上抑郁症and his mother into a depression再也没能痊愈from which she never fully recovered.在家族最后的岁月里At the end of the day,也就是1907年他祖父去世时by the time his grandfather died in 1907,家族几乎彻底破产了the family was pretty flat busted,这严重影响了安塞尔父母的关系and that deeply affected the relationship between Ansel's parents 在安塞尔的成长过程中and created a lot of stress in the home家里气氛非常紧张while Ansel was growing up.他是个孤独的孩子He was a lonely child,生活在海边阴郁的房♥子里in the gloomy,troubled house by the sea --体弱多病多愁善感often ill, prone to fits of uncontrollable weeping,身体里还涌动着抑制不住的旺盛精力and filled with a restless surging energy he could not contain.接二连三的入学失败Enrolled without success in one school after another,他经常连在桌子前安坐都无法做到he often found it difficult even to remain seated at his desk.安塞尔在自传里清楚地写道In Ansel's autobiography he makes it very clear自己并不是一个寻常的孩子that he was not an altogether ordinary child.在我的印象里Certainly my impression他是一个神经紧张的孩子is that he was a very nervous child.与他人的相处And that relationships with other people对他来说并非易事were not easy for him.他是个极难相处的孩子He was probably a very difficult kid to live with,他总把父母逼疯and I think he drove his parents crazy.他总是精力充沛充满活力He was very full of energy and full of vitality对生活满怀好奇可它们太过分散and tremendous drive -- but it was scattered,散落在生活各处it was all over the place...毫无疑问I think, almost certainly,如果放到现在if it were today,他会被诊断为阅读障碍he'd be considered to have been dyslexic.他自己也曾说过He said himself, you know,"若是现在我一定算是个多动症儿童""Today, I'd be considered a hyperactive child."他的身体里涌动着There was this incredible chaos or fire无以名状的能量躁动和激♥情♥or energy or something roaring around inside and,几欲迸发all the time trying to get out...在他只有十二岁的时候Abandoning the idea of conventional schooling他温文尔雅的父亲查尔斯when the boy was only twelve,完全放弃了传统的学校教育his gentle,courtly father,Charles,而是将自己所有的爱和心血poured all the love and energy he had都倾注到了自己顽皮的独子身上into his difficult only son:安排私人家庭教师教授代数和希腊文arranging private tuition in algebra and Greek,允许他在屋外的沙丘和峭壁上闲逛数小时and letting him roam for hours along the dunes and cliffs beyond the house 去想他去的地方anywhere his boundless energy took him.他的父亲太宠他了His father just adored him,太宠了just adored him.安塞尔很古怪But Ansel was so odd,但同时也异常地聪慧but at the same time he was so intelligent,对生活充满着这般激♥情♥with this zest for life.这个孩子谁看了都会喜欢I mean,who wouldn't have been enchanted by this child... 他父亲就是不顾一切地纵容他He just indulged him to an extraordinary degree.他意识到自己的孩子与众不同He realized he had a very unusual son --这种与众不同既有积极的一面both unusual in the positive sense and unusual也有消极的一面in the somewhat negative sense...安塞尔十三岁的时候When Ansel was thirteen,他父亲给他放了一年的假he got him a year's pass带他去参加世博会to the World's Fair,巴拿马太平洋万国博览会the Panama Pacific Exposition.这对他来说大有帮助And that was a fabulous idea,安塞尔每天都去博览会Ansel went every single day and he learned more这一年学到的东西比在学校还要多there than he ever could have in a year at school...我想不管是当时还是现在I don't think a lot of fathers then or now很少有父亲会容忍♥安塞尔这般独特的性格would have tolerated Ansel's unique character,而他的父亲并不只是容忍♥他and here was a father who not only tolerated it,更培养了他but nurtured it....1914年秋天的一个下午One afternoon in the fall of 1914,当时他还只有十二岁when he was still only twelve,他开始为自己内心涌动的复杂情绪he began to find a focus for the chaotic feelings寻找一个专注点that welled up inside him.他就是那种所谓的天才He was one of those geniuses,他开始弹钢琴时还只是个孩子and sat down at the piano when he was just a kid and无人指导练了数月就能视奏了within a couple months without a teacher could read music at sight... 他几乎是出于本能地The piano was something that he instinctually爱上了钢琴fell absolutely in love with然而学习钢琴并非易事and yet it was very demanding.高度的纪律性和精准度The height of discipline and rigor,每次数小时的音阶练习practicing scales for hours at a time,对每个孩子来说都很难hard for any kid to do,但对他这种注意力不集中but really hard for a kid有些好动的孩子来说who's kind of scattered尤其困难and a little bit hyperactive...但他将所有散乱的精力都放在这上面But he somehow focused all this chaotic energy他真的做到了and by God he did,他真的很专注于此I mean he really focused it.在之后的几年里In the years to come,尽管家中财政依旧困难despite the family's continuing financial troubles --安塞尔的父亲还是竭尽所能Ansel's father would do everything he could来培养孩子非同寻常的音乐天赋to nurture the boy's unusual musical gift --他聘请了能请到的最好的老师hiring the best instructors he could find,分期购置了价值六千美元的梅森&汉姆林钢琴and purchasing on installment a $6000 Mason and Hamlin piano.即便安塞尔年已八十Even when Ansel was eighty years old,每每说到他父亲的时候he lowered his voice and spoke with reverence仍会降低嗓门语带尊敬when he spoke about his father.他打心底明白父亲对他的付出And he really understood what his father had done for him.我总是对父亲的力量和勇气感到吃惊I often wonder at the strength and courage my father had他让我脱离传统的学校教育in taking me out of the traditional school situation给予我超乎寻常的学习经历and providing me with these extraordinary learning experiences. 我很确信如果不是他I am certain he established为我树立了正确的人生方向the positive direction of my life我的生活将会充斥着迷茫和混沌that otherwise, could have been confused and chaotic.在沙丘上成长的日子里I trace who I am and the direction of my development我一直在思索我是谁思索未来的方向to those years of growing up in our house on the dunes --心中梦想的火花propelled especially by an internal spark在父亲的温柔呵护下tenderly kept alive and glowing熊熊燃烧熠熠生辉by my father.世界博览会开阔了他的视野The World's Fair had broadened his horizons;音乐为他开启了一个充满美与秩序的世界music had opened up a new world of beauty and order.但他万万没有想到But nothing could have prepared him for另一种形式的律动会影响他如此之深the stunning impact of another kind of music --初次接触到它是在1916年夏天which he first encountered in the summer of 1916,高高的内华达山脉上high in the mountains of the Sierra Nevada.在他十四岁的时候有一次生病When he was 14, his aunt gave him a book阿姨给了他一本讲述约塞米蒂的书to read about Yosemite when he was ill由约塞米蒂最早的主要发起人by the earliest major promoter of Yosemite,J·M·哈钦斯所著J.M.Hutchings --这是一部奇妙而浪漫的作品and it was a wonderful, romantic book描写了印第安文化伟大的瓦尔哈拉about the Indians and this great Valhalla,以及这片美国土地this American place,如同"神之宫殿"一般a "Throne room of the gods," as it were...安塞尔一下子就被吸引了And Ansel was swept away by it.1916年6月1日On June 1st, 1916,经不住小安塞尔的百般恳求propelled by a ceaseless barrage of youthful pleadings and entreaties 全家人第一次启程从旧金山前往约塞米蒂the family set off for the first time on the two day journey开始了两日的旅行from San Francisco to Yosemite --火车隆隆作响穿过炙热的中♥央♥山谷rumbling by train across the shimmering heat of the Central Valley, 越过内华达山脉被炙烤成棕色的山麓up through the parched brown foothills of the Sierra抵达艾尔波特until they reached El Portal --再换乘露天巴士上山then on by open bus still higher,循着美熹德河清澈的流水following the pristine waters of the Merced River深入重重群山之中ever deeper into the mountains --最后河流向东急转until at length the river angled sharply to the east,"壮丽迷人的约塞米蒂" 亚当斯后来写道and "The splendor of Yosemite," Adams later wrote,"骤然出现在眼前""burst upon us."他说 "这里四处闪烁着光芒""There was," he said, "light everywhere.""我的新纪♥元♥开始了""A new era began for me."他对它一见钟情It was love at first sight.我认为全太阳系不会有第二个地方I don't think there's any place that hits you in the solar能像约塞米蒂谷这般初见就击中你的心魄plexis the way the first time you come into Yosemite Valley. 这种魅力令人难以抗拒It's simply overwhelming.相比在提顿县和北喀斯喀特山脉You're much closer to it,你离它更近you're much more surrounded by it,被它更紧密地环绕着than you are in the Tetons or in the North Cascades.真的很棒It's awesome.将这些融合到一起对安塞尔来说And you put all those things together, and Ansel,就改变了他的人生it changed his life,彻底改变了他的人生it completely changed his life.那就是一瞬间的事And that was it -- bang!约塞米蒂成为了他的第二故乡Yosemite became his home place...到达山谷不久后Shortly after arriving in the valley,父亲送给了他一个简单而宿命般的礼物his father presented him with a simple, fateful gift:一台柯达布朗尼1号♥盒式相机a Kodak No.1 Box Brownie camera,自带皮套和背带in its own leather case with a strap.学会如何操作相机之后After being shown how the simple apparatus worked,他跑开了he was off --从山谷的一端跑向另一端racing from one end of the valley to the other,拍下他看到的每样东西shooting everything he saw --圆顶尖峰溪流草地domes, spires, streams, meadows,瀑布悬崖waterfalls and cliffs --乐此不彼地尝试着endlessly trying,他的朋友南茜·纽霍尔后来说道his friend Nancy Newhall later said,"将他的奇想和喜悦注入这个神奇的小盒子"To pour into the magic little box his wonder and his ecstasy. 他决心捕捉这番美景Somehow he must capture this beauty,呈现铺展在他面前的somehow convey this opening before him of新天地的景致"a new heaven and a new earth."我想他找到的I think that what he found是一个摆脱枷锁的机会was a chance to break out of the bonds,这枷锁在他童年时期禁锢着他的身心both psychologically and physically, of his childhood...就像是释放了他内心的恶魔A kind of liberation from his own internal demons,诸如紧张的家庭关系as it were, the family tensions,旧金山阴冷多雾的天气the kind of cold and foggy environment of San Francisco,而这里就像是巨大的游乐场and out here was this giant playground.所以我觉得And so I think...这里为他创造了另一个身份here was a chance to create another identity,乔纳森·斯波尔丁传记作家可以远离他的家庭away from his family,远离这些纷扰away from these illnesses.在之后的几年里In the years to come,音乐和群山成了他的两大癖好music and the mountains would become his twin obsessions. 每年秋天回到旧金山Each fall, back in San Francisco,他就一心投入到钢琴的学习中he threw himself into the study of the piano --常常一天练习六小时以上often practicing more than six hours a day.每年夏天他就回约塞米蒂Each summer, he made his way back up to Yosemite --迫不及待地开始探寻奇妙的风景eager to explore the wondrous landscape,钻研他的新爱好and to work on his new hobby.越高越好Higher the better.约翰·沙科夫斯基摄影师兼策展人爬得越高Higher up in the mountains,就能拍到越好的照片the better the work got,对我来说是这样it seems to me.他最初的作品仅是些快照His first photographs were little more than snapshots --权作留念aids to memory.这些照片仅仅传达出Disappointed that they conveyed拍摄瞬间他所见所感的极小一部分so little of what he had seen and felt这令他感到失望at the moment of exposure,他于是开始竭其所能地he set out to learn everything he could学习摄影技术about the photographic process自学如何冲印底片teaching himself how to develop and print his own negatives, 并用不同方法进行试验and experimenting with different approaches --包括画意摄影including pictorialism,这是当时流行的一种绘画般的柔焦风格the painterly, soft-focus style then in vogue,以艺术的名义that in the name of art追求照片柔和化和模糊化sought to soften and blur the photographic image.1920年6月8日June 8th, 1920.亲爱的父亲Dear Father:如今我深信不疑I am more than ever convinced要想诠释这里的美景that the only possible way只有一个方法to interpret the scenes hereabout就是运用印象派的表现手法is through an impressionistic vision.冷漠而物质化的表现手法A cold material representation无法表现山脉的宏伟gives one no conception whatever of the great size以及群山的广袤and distances of these mountains.安塞尔Ansel.1920年夏In the summer of 1920 --他决定做一名音乐会钢琴家determined now to pursue a career as a concert pianist --他开始在山谷中寻找he began searching the valley夏季时用来练习的钢琴for a summer piano to practice on很快就找到了一架and soon found one,在当地画家哈里·贝斯特的工作室中in the studio of a local painter named Harry Best他十七岁的金发女儿whose fair-haired seventeen year old daughter很快成为这个瘦高的十九岁小伙quickly became another reason for the tall, gangling nineteen-year-old 造访的理由to visit.从记录上看On paper,维吉尼亚是完美的伴侣Virginia was the perfect mate...她热爱诗歌♥She loved poetry,正学习做个古典歌♥手she was studying to be a classical singer,她了解音乐与文学so she was involved in music and literature,玛丽·斯特里特·阿林德传记作家这些也都深受安塞尔的喜爱all the things that Ansel cared most deeply about...她还喜欢远足And she could hike;我敢说她当时比安塞尔走得还快She could out hike Ansel, I bet, at that time.他们俩交往了很长时间感情时好时坏It was a very long courtship, off again on again.有好几次安塞尔都放弃了Several times Ansel gave up,安妮·亚当斯·赫尔姆斯女儿他又投入到了音乐中gave his life to music again,这样就用不着理会婚姻琐事which didn't include getting married,后来他们又重新在一起了and then they'd get back together again...1923年3月29日March 29th,1923.亲爱的维吉尼亚Dear Virginia.最近我进山的欲望The desire to get into the mountains越来越强烈了has grown very strong in me lately...我时常希望如今的约塞米蒂how often I wish that the Valley could be now能够像四十年前那样like it was forty years ago --一片纯粹的荒野a pure wilderness,只有一条马车道蜿蜒其中with only a wagon road through it,没有汽车没有人群and no automobiles nor mobs.我渴望回到山中I long for the high places,它们那么干净纯洁遥不可及they are so clean and pure and untouched.每年夏天Each summer,他走得越来越远进入约塞米蒂谷外he ventured farther and farther up into the rugged high country 崎岖的山林深处beyond Yosemite Valley,有时候是独自一人sometimes on his own,有时候是跟山峦俱乐部的成员一起and sometimes with members of the Sierra Club,它是约翰·缪尔三十年前建立的荒野组织the wilderness group John Muir had founded thirty years before, 数天的爬山和远足天不亮就启程long days of climbing and hiking that began before dawn天完全黑了才结束and often ended well after dark,只要可以他就拍照making pictures when he could,时而漫步在and wandering, he wrote,"世界与天际融为透明的一体"他写道in "Translucent unity with the world and sky."1923年夏近午时分Late one morning in the summer of 1923,他在山谷以东荆棘丛生wandering amidst the harsh and bleakly beautiful荒凉又美丽的山中漫步high country east of the valley,平时身处高山he came as close as he ever would偶尔涌动的激荡情绪to capturing in words the soaring emotions这一刻前所未有地化作了文字that sometimes came over him in the high mountains.我在克拉克山以西蜿蜒的山脊上攀爬I was climbing the long ridge west of Mount Clark.那是一个清晨寒风凛冽日光通透It was one of those mornings where the sunlight is burnished with a keen wind 片片长长的云羽and long feathers of cloud在高远素洁的天空上飘动move in a lofty sky.银色的光洒在每一根草上The silver light turned every blade of grass每一粒砂上and every particle of sand泛出熠熠金属般的光泽into a luminous metallic splendor;周遭万物无论多么渺小there was nothing, however small,都沐浴在这明亮的风中that did not clash in the bright wind,向通透明澈的天空射出光芒之箭that did not send arrows of light through the glassy air.在通往山脊嘎吱作响的小路上I was suddenly arrested in the long crunching path up the ridge我突然明白了光的真谛by an exceedingly pointed awareness of the light.那一刻我驻足了The moment I paused,。
达达主义的兴起，与第一次世界大战有着相当密切的联系，它最早发源于1915年的瑞士，包括让•阿尔普在内的几位流亡在苏黎世的文学青年，组织了一个名为“达达”的文学团体，1919年又在法国的巴黎组织了“达达”集团，从而形成了达达主义流派。
达达主义是一场波及视觉艺术、文学诗歌领域、戏剧和美术设计领域的文艺运动。
达达主义也是第一次世界大战颠覆、摧毁旧有欧洲社会和文化秩序的产物。
其作为一场文艺运动，持续的时间并不是很长，但是对于20世纪的现代艺术流派都产生了影响。
“达达是一种令我同情的虚无主义，它是逃离一种心理状态的方式——回避人们的直接环境影响，或是过去的传统影响，从陈词滥调中挣脱出来，获取自由”。
达达主义是具有虚无主义性质的，虚无主义的性质就是认为世界、人类的存在是没有意义的，否定一切、推翻一切。
简而言之，虚无主义之所以会诞生，是因为人们的精神文化没有跟上经济发展的速度，又因为战争摧毁了原有的社会，恐惧与人性的泯灭，最终带来了价值观的崩塌。
虚无主义是一直存在的，而笔者想要通过让•阿尔普这位艺术家的作品来探讨艺术中的虚无主义，并且结合当时的时代背景和同时期的艺术家的作品来加深论证。
虽然说他的作品打破了传统美术的常规，但是却充满了创造性，为后来的艺术创造出了无数种可能。
而且他的艺术并不是真正的反对艺术，而是作为一种探索，打破传统、重新定义艺术。
一、达达主义时期的雕塑作品（一）让·阿尔普雕塑作品中的虚无主义让•阿尔普即是达达主义雕塑的代表人物，在第一次世界大战期间，他由于对战争的不满，来到了瑞士，并与雨果•巴尔、特里斯坦•查拉等人组织了一个国际性的艺术派别，名为“达达派”。
他曾经说道：“达达是一切艺术的基础和底线。
达达赞成没有意义，这并不意味着无意义。
达达就像大自然一样。
达达要大自然，不要‘艺术’。
”A Brief Analysis of Nihilism in Jean Arp's SculpturesAbstract: During World War I, the war brought great destruction to people's lives and homes at that time, and Dadaism was born. It subverted the previous traditional art forms. Some people believe that Dadaism can feel nothing, is nothing, is nothingness. They advocate negating everything, overthrowing everything, and destroying everything. Therefore, Dadaism is the artistic expression of nihilism. Jean Arp was a German-French Dadaist sculptor, painter, and poet. He abandoned traditional oil painting and used media such as wood carving, weaving, and collage to create abstract and interesting works. This article will take the sculptor Jean Arp's sculptures and some other Dadaist works of art as examples to briefl y analyze the nihilism in the sculptures.Keywords: Sculpture; Jean Arp; Nihilism; Dadaism; Surrealism收稿日期：2022-06-02浅析让·阿尔普雕塑作品中的虚无主义摘要：在第一次世界大战之中，战争给当时人们的生活和家园带来了极大的破坏，达达主义由此诞生，它颠覆了以往的传统艺术形式。
如何才能早日实现宇航员梦想英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Ever since I was a little kid, I've dreamed of looking down at the Earth from space and floating in zero gravity. Becoming an astronaut has been my biggest ambition for as long as I can remember. However, making it to space is no easy feat – it requires incredible dedication, hard work, and perseverance. In this essay, I'll share some key steps I'm taking to increase my chances of realizing this lofty dream.First and foremost, getting an excellent education is crucial. NASA and other space agencies look for the best and brightest candidates with strong backgrounds in subjects like math, science, and engineering. I've been working diligently in school, taking every advanced class I can in these areas. Physics has become a particular passion of mine, as understanding principles like gravity, motion, and aerodynamics is essential for space travel.In addition to acing my classes, I've been actively pursuing extracurricular activities that develop skills relevant to being anastronaut. Last year, I joined my school's rocket club, where we design, build, and launch model rockets. It's been an amazing hands-on experience that has taught me so much about aerodynamics, propulsion systems, and the engineering process. We even got to launch a rocket we built to over 10,000 feet! I've also been taking flying lessons to earn my pilot's license, which will give me invaluable experience operating aircraft.Staying physically fit is another vital component. Astronauts must be in peak physical condition to withstand the intense forces of launch and re-entry, as well as to operate effectively in the constrained environments of spacecraft and space stations. I work out regularly, running, swimming, and doing strength training. I've also taken up rock climbing, which builds arm and grip strength that could be useful for EVA (extravehicular activity) spacewalks.In terms of academics, my goal is to earn at least a bachelor's degree, possibly a master's, in a field like aerospace engineering, astrophysics, or astronautical engineering. Many astronauts have doctorates, so I may pursue a PhD as well to make my application really stand out. I've already started researching top aerospace programs at universities like MIT, Caltech, Purdue, and Georgia Tech.Work experience is vital too. Most astronaut candidates have spent time in related roles like being a pilot, engineer, researcher, or military officer. Over the next few summers, I plan to apply for internships at aerospace companies, research labs, and possibly NASA itself to start getting valuable experience under my belt. Any opportunity to work with spacecraft systems, scientific instruments, life support equipment, or anything space-related would be hugely beneficial.Beyond academics and experience, there are a few other areas I'm focusing on. For one, learning Russian would be incredibly useful, as much of the astronaut corps these days works closely with their Russian counterparts. Being multilingual in general is a major advantage. I'm also an avid reader of books about space exploration and astronaut memoirs to stay inspired and learn from others' journeys.Most importantly, I'm working hard to develop key personality traits that are essential for astronauts. These include keeping calm under immense pressure, having incredible discipline and commitment, working effectively as part of a team, showing exceptional decision-making skills, and maintaining an insatiable curiosity about the universe around us. Any setbacksor failures I face are only opportunities to demonstrate resilience, adaptability, and a solutions-oriented mindset.Of course, there are many factors outside my control that will impact whether I ultimately get selected as an astronaut candidate. The competition is beyond fierce, with thousands of highly qualified people applying for just a handful of open slots each year. Budget constraints have also limited how frequently new astronaut classes are admitted. But I can only focus on controlling what I can control – becoming the absolute best candidate possible in every way.Making it to space has been the driving passion behind most of my life decisions so far, and that will only intensify going forward. While the odds may be low, the potential rewards –getting to experience the Overview Effect of seeing the Earth from above, unlocking secrets of the cosmos, pushing the boundaries of exploration – make it all worth striving towards relentlessly. Few achievements would be as monumental or meaningful.Even if I never get to experience a rocket launch firsthand, I know the pursuit itself will pay dividends. The skills, knowledge, and life experiences I gain along this journey will open up many other exciting potential career paths, whether its designingnext-generation spacecraft, working on cutting-edge aerospace research, or instructing future generations of astronauts and space explorers. This quest will be a defines experience and driver of personal growth, no matter the ultimate outcome.So while becoming an astronaut may seem like an outlandish dream to some, for me it's simply the truth I'm choosing to follow with every fiber of my being. The path will be grueling, the competition daunting, but the glory of someday floating weightless above our beautiful planet is an achievement worth striving for until my dying breath. The stars have been calling to the depths of my soul for as long as I can remember –and I must go. With dedication, brilliance, and an unwavering will, maybe one day soon I'll get to answer that call and take that one small step that instantly transforms me into a spacefarer and representative of all humankind. The dream may sound impossible, but as they say, shoot for the moon, because even if you miss, you'll land among the stars. And that perspective alone makes this journey worthwhile.篇2Ever since I was a young child, I've had an insatiable curiosity about the cosmos and a burning desire to explore the great beyond. The thought of venturing into the vast unknown,floating weightlessly through the inky blackness of space, and gazing back at our beautiful blue planet from afar fills me with an indescribable sense of wonder and excitement. It is my life's ambition to become an astronaut – a dream that has guided my every step and shaped the course of my academic and extracurricular pursuits.However, I am well aware that the path to realizing this dream is an arduous one, fraught with challenges and immense competition. The astronaut corps is highly selective, accepting only the most exceptional candidates who possess a unique combination of intellectual brilliance, physical fortitude, and unwavering determination. Nonetheless, I am resolute in my conviction that with the right mindset, dedication, and strategic approach, I can surmount any obstacle and ultimately secure my place among the elite ranks of space explorers.The first and arguably most crucial step in achieving my astronaut aspirations is to excel academically, particularly in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). These disciplines form the bedrock of the knowledge and skills required to navigate the complexities of space exploration. As such, I have maintained an unwavering focus on excelling in these subjects throughout my educational journey,consistently earning top marks and seeking out every opportunity to deepen my understanding.Furthermore, I have actively pursued extracurricular activities and enrichment programs that complement my academic pursuits. From participating in robotics competitions and attending space camps to interning at research facilities and engaging in independent science projects, I have immersed myself in hands-on learning experiences that have not only honed my practical skills but have also fostered a deep appreciation for the scientific method and the collaborative nature of space exploration.Beyond academic excellence, physical fitness is an indispensable requirement for aspiring astronauts. The rigors of space travel and the demands of conducting complex operations in microgravity environments necessitate a high level of physical conditioning and mental toughness. Recognizing this, I have dedicated myself to maintaining a rigorous exercise regimen that encompasses strength training, cardiovascular endurance, and flexibility exercises. Additionally, I have actively pursued challenging outdoor activities such as rock climbing, hiking, and scuba diving, which have helped me develop the stamina,resilience, and problem-solving skills essential for thriving in extreme environments.Moreover, I understand that effective communication and the ability to work collaboratively are paramount in the field of space exploration. As such, I have actively sought out leadership roles in various group projects and extracurricular activities, honing my interpersonal skills and learning to navigate the complexities of team dynamics. Through these experiences, I have developed the ability to clearly articulate complex ideas, listen actively, and foster an environment of mutual respect and cooperation – qualities that are invaluable in the highly collaborative and international arena of space exploration.Another critical aspect of my preparation has been cultivating a deep understanding of the historical, political, and cultural contexts surrounding space exploration. I have immersed myself in the study of space history, exploring the triumphs and tragedies that have shaped the course of human spaceflight. Additionally, I have actively engaged with the broader discourse surrounding the future of space exploration, attending lectures, participating in debates, and following the latest developments and policies within the field. This comprehensive approach has not only deepened myappreciation for the significance of space exploration but has also equipped me with the contextual knowledge necessary to navigate the complex geopolitical and sociocultural landscapes that inevitably intersect with this endeavor.Furthermore, I recognize that the path to becoming an astronaut is highly competitive, and setbacks and disappointments are inevitable. As such, I have consciously developed a resilient mindset and an unwavering determination to persevere in the face of adversity. I have learned to embrace failure as an opportunity for growth, viewing each challenge as a stepping stone towards my ultimate goal. This mental fortitude has been fostered through experiences such as participating in endurance sports, overcoming personal hardships, and consistently pushing myself beyond my perceived limits.Lastly, I understand that the pursuit of my astronaut dream is a lifelong journey that will require continuous learning, adaptation, and growth. As such, I have committed myself to a path of lifelong education, eagerly seeking out new knowledge and experiences that will broaden my horizons and deepen my understanding of the ever-evolving field of space exploration. Whether it's attending advanced training programs, participating in cutting-edge research, or simply engaging inself-directed study, I am dedicated to remaining at the forefront of scientific and technological advancements, ensuring that I am always prepared to seize the opportunities that arise.In conclusion, my unwavering dream of becoming an astronaut is not merely a childhood fantasy but a profound calling that has shaped the course of my life. Through a disciplined and strategic approach that encompasses academic excellence, physical conditioning, interpersonal development, contextual understanding, mental resilience, and a commitment to lifelong learning, I am steadfastly navigating the challenging path towards realizing this ambition. While the road ahead is undoubtedly arduous, I am resolute in my belief that with perseverance, dedication, and an indomitable spirit, I will one day earn the privilege of venturing into the vast expanse of space, contributing to humanity's quest for knowledge and exploration, and fulfilling my lifelong dream of becoming an astronaut.篇3Soaring through the inky blackness of space, gazing down at our beautiful blue planet from hundreds of miles above – it's a dream that has captivated the imaginations of countless people, myself included. Ever since I was a young child, I've been utterly fascinated by the wonder and mystery of the cosmos. I can stillvividly recall staring up at the twinkling stars on clear nights, my mind racing with questions about what lies beyond our tiny world. What secrets do the galaxies hold? What would it feel like to walk on the moon? Could we ever discover life on another planet? These childlike musings eventually blossomed into a fierce determination to become an astronaut – a dream that has driven me ever since.Of course, I'm well aware that the path to realizing this lofty ambition is an incredibly challenging one, fraught with obstacles and requiring an immense amount of hard work, dedication, and perseverance. After all, the astronaut corps is an elite group comprised of the best and brightest minds from around the world. Every year, thousands upon thousands of hopefuls apply to NASA and other space agencies, but only a select few are chosen to join the rarefied ranks of this modern-day exploration corps. The competition is intense, the training is grueling, and the risk is ever-present – a fact that was driven home by the tragic losses of the crews of the Challenger and Columbia space shuttles. Pursuing this dream is not for the faint of heart.And yet, despite all the difficulties, I cannot envision a more rewarding or meaningful career. To have the chance to push back the boundaries of human knowledge and exploration, tojourney farther into the unknown than any person has gone before – what could be more thrilling or noble? Perhaps someday I'll be among the first humans to walk on Mars. Or maybe I'll be tasked with servicing and upgrading the telescopes that allow us to peer deeper into the universe's most distant realms. Or I could be a vital part of the effort to establish a permanent human settlement on the moon, or even further afield. The possibilities are at once terrifying and exhilarating.So how does one go about turning this fantastic dream into reality? First and foremost, securing a world-class education is paramount. The astronaut candidates who make it through NASA's rigorous selection process almost invariably possess advanced degrees in highly technical fields like aerospace engineering, physics, computer science, or mathematics. Personally, I plan to pursue a bachelor's degree in aerospace engineering followed by a master's or doctorate, bolstering my academic credentials with internships, research opportunities, and any other relevant experiences I can get my hands on. Becoming an expert in my field is job one.But academic prowess alone is not enough. NASA also expects its astronaut candidates to have records of outstanding achievement in challenging operational environments. Manyhave served as pilots in the military, gaining invaluable experience and finely honing their skills under intense pressure. Others have worked as engineers, researchers, or scientists in cutting-edge fields, continually pushing boundaries and proving their ability to excel. Still others have backgrounds as highly trained medical doctors. The common thread is a history of thriving in the face of complex, high-stakes challenges –precisely the sort of makeup required for space explorers.Fortunately, these varied pathways provide many potential avenues for me to distinguish myself and demonstrate my capability. In addition to my studies, I'm an active member of my university's Microgravity Research Team, where we design and test experiments for eventual deployment and study aboard the International Space Station. I've also sought out leadership roles in several STEM-focused student organizations, honing skills like teamwork, communication, and project management that will prove vital for an astronaut working in the close quarters of a space capsule or habitat. This summer, I have an internship lined up at a major aerospace company where I'll gain hands-on experience working with the latest innovations in spacecraft and satellite technology.Physical fitness and mental toughness are two other indispensable assets that I am committed to cultivating. The rigors of spaceflight place immense strain on the human body and psyche – a fact reflected in NASA's extraordinarily stringent medical and psychological screening processes. Prospective astronaut candidates must undergo a dizzying array of tests and evaluations, from maximal stress tests to psychiatric evaluations, to ensure they have the right stuff to handle the intense pressures and risks that come with the job. I've always been a dedicated athlete, running track and cross country. And my experiences scaling treacherous peaks on mountaineering expeditions have instilled in me a profound degree of mental fortitude and resilience. But I know I must continually push myself to ensure I'm in absolutely peak physical and mental condition.Of course, this journey would be immensely easier if I end up being one of the lucky few selected for NASA's astronaut candidate program directly out of college. The training process lasts a grueling two years, involving intensive instruction encompassing everything from Complex spacecraft systems operation to Russian language classes (a must for collaborating with international partners aboard the ISS). But for those of us who don't make the cut right away, we must be prepared toforge our own paths, accumulating the critical skills and experience outside of NASA's halls until our records shine bright enough to earn a coveted spot.No matter which route I end up taking, one thing is certain –realizing my astronaut dreams will require an utterly relentless drive and an unwavering refusal to ever give up in the face of setbacks and obstacles. The history of space exploration is littered with tales of perseverance and triumph over daunting challenges. From the pioneering work of trailblazers like Robert Goddard and Wernher von Braun, to the hugely complicated Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs that first propelled human beings into space and onto the lunar surface, to the ongoing construction and operation of the International Space Station – an engineering marvel involving the coordination of thousands of people across multiple nations – every milestone was hard-fought and dearly won.So when I find myself growing weary from the constant demands of my studies, my research, my training, I need only reflect on the grand aspirations that have brought generations of intrepid explorers to this point. I think of Yuri Gagarin, blasting off atop a massive rocket and becoming the first human being to break the bonds of Earth's atmosphere. I think of Neil Armstrongand Buzz Aldrin, taking their first historic steps onto the dusty, desolate surface of the moon. I think of the brave crews of the Challenger and Columbia who gave their lives in pursuit of unlocking the secrets of the cosmos. Their stories never fail to rekindle the sense of awe and wonder within me – thatdeep-rooted drive to reach out and grasp the unknown that first set me on this improbable path.And who knows? Perhaps someday, if I remain true to that inner fire and that singular sense of purpose, my name, too, will be etched into the storied annals of space history. Perhaps someday a young dreamer like I once was will find inspiration in my deeds and exploits. For every astronaut who has looked out from a tiny window at the far-reaching vistas of space, millions have shared in the experience vicariously, marveling at the majesty they behold. And in a very real way, it is that collective sense of cosmic curiosity – that boundless human yearning to reach ever farther and to shatter self-imposed limits – that drives our intrepid spacefarers onward. My ambition to become an astronaut is more than just a personal aspiration. It is emblematic of humanity's age-old quest to unravel the mysteries of our universe. And for the chance to play a small part in that grand and perpetual journey of discovery, no dream could be more worthwhile.。
推荐去看看中国的大草原和大沙漠英语作文全文共6篇示例，供读者参考篇1Title: Exploring China's Breathtaking Grasslands and DesertsHave you ever dreamed of going on a wild adventure? Well, pack your bags and get ready for an unforgettable journey through China's incredible grasslands and deserts! These natural wonders are not just vast open spaces, but magical realms where you can experience the thrill of exploration and discover the beauty of our planet.First, let's talk about the grasslands. Can you imagine endless stretches of rolling hills covered in lush green grass as far as the eye can see? That's what you'll find in places like the Hulun Buir Grasslands in Inner Mongolia. Here, you can witness the amazing sight of galloping horses and grazing sheep, just like in the movies! You might even spot some rare animals like the Mongolian gazelle or the steppe eagle soaring high above.But the fun doesn't stop there! In the grasslands, you can try your hand at traditional activities like horseback riding, archery, and even staying in a cozy yurt – a portable tent used bynomadic people. Imagine sleeping under the starry night sky and waking up to the gentle breeze and the sound of birds chirping. It's like stepping back in time and living the life of a nomad!Now, let's move on to the deserts. You might think deserts are just barren wastelands, but oh boy, are you in for a surprise! The deserts of China are like giant playgrounds filled with towering sand dunes, ancient cities buried beneath the sand, and breathtaking oases.One of the most famous deserts in China is the Gobi Desert, which stretches across parts of Mongolia and China. Here, you can go on a thrilling camel ride and experience what it's like to be a desert explorer. As you journey through the vast sandy expanses, you might even stumble upon fossils or ancient petroglyphs (rock carvings) left behind by ancient civilizations.Another must-visit desert is the Badain Jaran Desert, home to the tallest sand dunes in the world! Can you imagine climbing to the top of a sand dune taller than a skyscraper? It's an incredible challenge, but the view from the top is simplymind-blowing. You'll feel like you're standing on top of the world, surrounded by a sea of golden sand dunes that seem to go on forever.But the deserts aren't just about sand and dunes. There are also fascinating oases hidden within these arid lands, like the Crescent Spring in the Gobi Desert. These lush, green spaces are like little pockets of paradise, where you can cool off and relax after a day of desert adventures.No matter which part of China's grasslands or deserts you decide to explore, one thing is guaranteed – you'll create memories that will last a lifetime. From riding horses across the rolling plains to sandboarding down massive dunes, these experiences will ignite your sense of wonder and adventure.So, what are you waiting for? Start planning your epic journey to China's grasslands and deserts today! Trust me, it's an adventure you won't want to miss. Who knows, you might even discover a hidden talent for being a modern-day explorer or a desert nomad!篇2A Magical Journey to China's Grasslands and DesertsHave you ever dreamed of going on an incredible adventure?A journey where you can explore vast, untamed lands and witness nature's breathtaking beauty? Well, let me tell you aboutthe amazing grasslands and deserts of China – places that will make your heart race with excitement!Imagine standing in the middle of a seemingly endless sea of grass, swaying gently in the cool breeze. This is the Mongolian Plateau, one of the world's largest grasslands, stretching across the northern regions of China. Here, you can watch as majestic horses gallop freely, their manes dancing in the wind. And if you're lucky, you might even spot some of the unique wildlife that calls this place home, like the adorable Mongolian gazelle or the elusive snow leopard.But the grasslands are just the beginning! China is also home to some of the most awe-inspiring deserts on the planet. Can you imagine standing atop a towering sand dune, feeling like a tiny speck in a vast ocean of golden sand? That's the Badain Jaran Desert for you – a place where the dunes seem to stretch on forever, sculpted by the relentless winds into mesmerizing patterns.And then there's the Taklamakan Desert, a vast expanse of scorching sands and ancient ruins. This is a place where you can follow in the footsteps of ancient explorers along the legendary Silk Road, discovering the secrets of long-lost civilizations buried beneath the shifting dunes.But don't worry, these adventures aren't just about sandy landscapes! In the grasslands, you can experience the rich culture of the nomadic herdsmen who have called these lands home for centuries. Imagine sitting around a crackling campfire, listening to their captivating stories and learning about their traditions. You might even get to try your hand at some of their unique skills, like riding a horse or setting up a traditional yurt!And in the deserts, you can marvel at the incredible oasis towns that have sprung up like mirages in the midst of the barren sands. These little pockets of life are like hidden gems, where you can explore ancient mud-brick buildings, wander through bustling markets, and sample delicious local cuisine.But perhaps the most amazing thing about these incredible places is the sense of peace and tranquility they offer. Imagine lying back on the soft grass, gazing up at the countless stars that blanket the night sky, or watching as the sun dips below the horizon, painting the desert in a kaleidoscope of fiery colors. These are moments that will stay with you forever, reminding you of the true beauty and wonder of our amazing world.So, what are you waiting for? Pack your bags and get ready for an unforgettable adventure in China's grasslands and deserts! Trust me, these are places that will leave you in awe, withmemories that will last a lifetime. Who knows, you might even come back feeling like a brave explorer, with tales of your own to share around the campfire!篇3Title: Exploring China's Breathtaking Grasslands and DesertsHave you ever wondered what it would be like to travel across endless stretches of rolling hills and towering sand dunes? Well, let me tell you about the amazing grasslands and deserts in China – they're like something straight out of a storybook!One of the most incredible places to visit is the Hulunbuir Grasslands, located in the northeastern part of China. Imagine vast, lush green meadows that seem to go on forever, with wildflowers dotting the landscape like a colorful painting. You can even see herds of horses galloping across the plains, just like in the movies! It's a sight that will take your breath away.But that's not all – the grasslands are also home to some fascinating cultures and traditions. You might have the chance to visit a traditional Mongolian yurt, where nomadic families live. These portable, round tents are made of felt and wood, and they're cozy and warm, even in the chilly grassland weather. The people there are so friendly and welcoming – they might eveninvite you to try some of their delicious milk tea or savory dumplings!If you're feeling adventurous, you could go on a horseback riding tour or try your hand at archery, just like the Mongolian warriors of old. Can you picture yourself riding across the open plains, with the wind in your hair and the sun on your face? It's an experience you'll never forget!Now, let's talk about the deserts of China. One of the most famous is the Badain Jaran Desert, located in the western part of the country. This place is like a sea of sand, with towering dunes that seem to stretch on forever. The sand is a beautiful reddish-orange color, and the shapes and patterns it forms are truly mesmerizing.As you explore the desert, you might come across some incredible natural wonders, like the Yardang landforms – these are bizarre, wind-sculpted rocks that look like something from another planet! And if you're really lucky, you might even spot some of the rare animals that call the desert home, like the Bactrian camel or the Gobi bear.But perhaps the most amazing thing about the Badain Jaran Desert is the incredible lakes that can be found hidden among the dunes. These oases are like little pockets of life in the middleof the vast, arid landscape. The water is crystal clear and refreshingly cool, and you might even see some migratory birds stopping by for a drink.Imagine camping out under the stars in the desert, surrounded by nothing but the vast expanse of sand and the twinkling night sky. It's an experience that's both peaceful and exhilarating at the same time.So, what do you say? Are you ready to embark on an unforgettable adventure across China's grasslands and deserts? These places are like no other, and they'll leave you with memories that will last a lifetime. Who knows – you might even discover a newfound love for nature and a deeper appreciation for the incredible beauty of our planet.Get your hiking boots ready and let's go explore the wonders of China's great outdoors!篇4The Wonders of China's Grasslands and DesertsHave you ever dreamed of going on an adventure to afar-off land filled with breathtaking natural wonders? Well, you don't have to look any further than the amazing grasslands anddeserts right here in China! These incredible places are perfect for exploring and having the time of your life. Let me tell you all about why you simply MUST plan a trip to experience them for yourself.First up, the grasslands! Covering huge stretches of northern China, these wide open spaces are just waiting to be discovered. Can you imagine galloping across the seemingly endless green plains on horseback, with the wind whipping through your hair? The grasslands are home to nomadic herdsmen who have lived off the land for centuries, moving with their animals to find the best grazing areas. You could spend days visiting their traditional yurt tents and learning all about their fascinating way of life.At night, you'd be able to gaze up at the most star-filled skies you've ever seen. With no city lights for miles and miles, the inky blackness is literally sprinkled with billions of bright twinkling stars. It's like something from a storybook! You might even spot a dazzling shooting star as it streaks across the sky. Imagine the incredible wishes you could make!During the day, vast wildflower meadows painted in every color of the rainbow await you. You could spend hours making daisy chains or searching for cool insects and critters living amongst the tall grass. Don't forget to keep your eyes peeled forfascinating wildlife like the huge fluffball marmots or the adorable little prairie dogs popping in and out of their underground burrows!Feeling adventurous? Then the deserts of northwestern China are the place for you! With their towering sand dunes that seem to go on forever, these deserts will make you feel like you've been transported to another planet. Can't you just picture yourself pretending to be an explorer charting your way across the rippled golden dunes? You could easily spend a whole day clambering up and rolling back down the biggest sand mountains you've ever seen, over and over again.At night in the desert, you'll be able to experience something really special - the magical singing sand dunes. As the cooling night winds blow across the dunes, they create an enchanting droning musical hum. It's one of the rarest sounds on Earth! As you lie back and listen, you can use your imagination to figure out what haunting melodies the desert itself might be singing.Both the grasslands and the deserts offer amazing opportunities to go camping under the stars. You'll get to roast marshmallows and swap stories around the crackling campfire. In the morning, you'll be treated to sensational sunrises as thefirst rays peek over the horizon, setting the whole landscape aglow in brilliant oranges, pinks, and reds. Trust me, it's a sight you'll never forget!Now I know what you might be thinking - won't it be really hot in the desert during the day? Sure, it can definitely get a little toasty. But just think of how refreshing it will feel to stumble upon a crisp, clear oasis spring bubbling up from the ground! You can cool off from the heat by splashing in the small pools and streams. Some oases even have groves of lush date palms providing lots of shady spots to relax.With so much wide open space, the grasslands and deserts are perfect for tons of awesome activities too. You could go horseback riding, camping, hiking, wildlife watching, photography, sandboarding, and more! Every single day would be packed with new adventures.I can't stress enough how incredible and special these natural wonderlands are. China's grasslands and deserts give you the chance to temporarily leave the modern world behind and be at one with nature. You'll get to experience fresh air, brilliant starry skies, gorgeous wide-open vistas, and most importantly - freedom! Freedom to explore, play, and let your imagination run wild.Just imagining it all gets me so excited, I can hardly stand it! That's why I'm counting down the days until my family takes our upcoming trip to these amazing places. We've been reading books, studying maps, and planning our perfect adventure. I've even started practicing riding a horse in the park to get ready!What are you waiting for? Start bugging your parents today about taking a journey to witness the splendor of China's grasslands and deserts for yourselves. With incredible sights, sounds, and experiences around every corner, it's sure to be the trip of a lifetime. An adventure you'll never, ever forget! So pack your bags and let's go - the wide open spaces are calling!篇5A Trip to China's Amazing Grasslands and DesertsHave you ever dreamed of going on a big adventure? A place that's totally different from your neighborhood, with new sights, sounds, and experiences? Well, let me tell you about the coolest place I've ever been – the grasslands and deserts of China!Last summer, my family and I went on this awesome trip across China. We flew into Beijing first, and let me tell you, thatcity is huge! There were tall buildings everywhere and crowds of people. But that was just the start of our journey.After a few days in Beijing, we hopped on a train headed west towards Inner Mongolia. As we got further from the city, the view out the window started changing. Concrete and glass gave way to wide open spaces, grassy hills, and even some horses and sheep grazing! I couldn't believe how much room there was out there.When we finally arrived in Inner Mongolia, it was like stepping into a whole new world. The air was so fresh and clean compared to Beijing. We stayed in these cool yurt tents that the Mongolian nomads have used for centuries. They're kind of like big circus tents, but made out of felted wool and animal skins to keep you warm.One of the coolest things we did was go horseback riding across the vast grasslands. As far as my eyes could see in every direction, there was nothing but waving grasses, little wildflowers, and big blue skies. Our guide taught us some Mongolian songs to sing as we rode along. He said the open grasslands have inspired Mongols to sing for thousands of years.At night, we'd gather around the campfire and look up at the starriest skies I've ever seen. There was no light pollution outthere in the wilderness, so every star and planet looked bright and crisp. Our guide told us ancient myths about the constellations. I tried to count all the stars, but there were just too many!After a few days on the grasslands, we packed up again and drove further west into the Gobi Desert. I couldn't believe how quickly the landscape changed from all that green grass to sandy dunes and rocky canyons. The desert is so massive that it stretches across much of northwestern China and even into Mongolia!In the desert, we went on a cool dune-bashing adventure in these huge jeep-like vehicles with really big tires. We climbed up and down the towering sand dunes, which was like an awesome roller coaster ride, but powered by the wind whipping across the desert instead of a machine. I'll never forget the thrill of cresting over a dune and seeing the vast ocean of sand spread out in front of us.We also visited this super fascinating place called the Flaming Mountains. They got their name because thereddish-orange sandstone looks like it's on fire when the sun hits it just right, glowing all bright and fiery. Our guide told us this desert area was a stopping point along the ancient Silk Roadtrade routes. Caravans of camels and merchants crossed the brutal deserts carrying treasures like jade, spices, and silk between China and the West.One night, we stayed in an oasis town and got to see a traditional cultural show, with dancers, acrobats, and musicians. The costumes were so colorful and vibrant against the sandy backdrop. I was in awe of the tumbling acrobats who could bend their bodies in ways I didn't think were humanly possible!On our final day in the desert, we went on a camel caravan trek, just like those old Silk Road traders did centuries ago. Let me tell you, camels are pretty stinky and have a funny way of walking where they rock back and forth. But riding high up on a camel's back, swaying along through the vast desert as the sun set over the dunes, was just magical. I felt so small compared to that huge desert, but also so free and happy to be out adventuring in that wild, ancient place.When it was finally time to head back east towards home, I didn't want to leave! The grasslands and deserts had cast their spell on me. Yes, my neighborhood back home is nice and familiar. But there's something special about those open, untamed places in China's heartland that just sticks with you.If you ever get a chance to go explore the grasslands of Inner Mongolia or the Gobi Desert, you have to do it! It's an adventure that will give you memories and stories to last a lifetime. Just be ready for lots of hiking, horseback riding, dune-bashing, camel-trekking, and stargazing. But I promise, it's going to be the coolest trip ever!篇6My Trip to China's Amazing Grasslands and DesertsHi friends! My name is Emily and I just got back from the most amazing trip to China with my family. We visited some really cool places that I want to tell you all about – the huge grasslands and sandy deserts in the northern part of the country. It was like being on another planet!First, we went to this massive grassland region called the Mongolian Steppe. It stretches all the way across northern China and even into Mongolia and Russia – it's gigantic! We stayed in a traditional Mongolian yurt which is kind of like a big tent but made out of wooden frames covered with thick fabrics and rugs. It had a stove inside to keep us warm at night when it got cold on the grasslands.During the day we went on hikes and saw the most beautiful wide open spaces I've ever seen. The grasslands rolled on as far as the eye could see, with tall grasses waving in the wind. We even saw some wild horses running free, kicking up dust behind them. Our guide told us those horses are the last true wild horses on Earth. So cool!At night we sat around the campfire, ate bread and drank warm milk tea like the nomadic herdsmen do. My little brother and I tried to stay up late to count all the bright stars in the perfectly clear night sky. You could see so many more stars than back home in the city because there are no lights for miles and miles out on the grasslands.One of my favorite parts was visiting a nomadic family who still live by herding sheep, goats, horses and camels. We got to watch them milk the animals, shear wool from the sheep, and even helped set up their circular ger tent home. The nomads move around to find new grazing pastures for their herds, carrying their ger on the backs of camels and yaks. Their lifestyle is so different from my life in the city! The nomad kids were really nice and let me try on their traditional thick fur coats to keep warm.After leaving the grasslands, we drove for what felt like forever through sandy desert landscapes. Finally we arrived at the Badain Jaran Desert, which has the tallest sand dunes in the world! Some of the dunes are over 1600 feet (500 meters) high –taller than a 100 story building!We got to go on a camel caravan out into the dunes and sleep under the stars in tents. It was a little scary at first being so isolated in the vast desert, but our camel guides made us feel safe. They even taught us cool desert skills like using the sun and landmarks to find our way without getting lost.My favorite part was sledding down the huge dunes on little plastic saucers. You go flying down at top speed, getting sand everywhere! I lost count of how many runs I did. We also tried to climb up some of the really big dunes, but it was super hard work with all that deep, loose sand. The desert Is dry and hot during the day, but got freezing cold at night.Our camel guides told us amazing stories around the campfire about lost cities buried under the sands and other desert legends. One of the guides was old enough to actually remember seeing the ancient abandoned Buddhist ruins that are now being dug up from the desert floor little by little every year.Archaeology is happening right there in the same sands where we were camping!On our last night in the desert, I stayed up late to watch one of the most beautiful sunrises I've ever witnessed. The sun peeked up over the dunes, casting long shadows and lighting up the sand into a million shades of gold, orange and red. I felt so tiny compared to the towering dunes and endless stretches of desert all around me.The grasslands and deserts of northern China are without a doubt some of the most amazing, breathtaking places I've ever been. They are alien landscapes, unlike anything else in the world.I feel so lucky to have experienced the wide open spaces, starry skies, wild animals, and nomadic cultures first-hand. It was an adventure I'll never forget!If you ever get the chance, you have to go see the grasslands and deserts of China for yourself. Just be ready for a lot of hiking, bumpy camel rides, and sand getting everywhere! Most importantly, keep your eyes wide open to fully take in those vast, untamed lands. An awesome adventure is waiting for you out there!。
In a small coastal town, where the sea breeze whispers secrets of the deep and the sun kisses the horizon at dawn, a group of dedicated volunteers gathered under the warm embrace of the morning sun. They were there for a noble cause to clean the beach of the debris that had washed ashore, a testament to the human impact on the environment.The volunteers, a mix of students, teachers, and local residents, were equipped with gloves, trash bags, and a sense of purpose. They were not just there to pick up trash they were there to make a statement about the importance of environmental stewardship and the responsibility each individual holds towards the planet.As they walked along the shoreline, the first thing that caught their attention was the sight of plastic bottles, food wrappers, and other nonbiodegradable items scattered across the sand. The contrast between the pristine beauty of the beach and the litter that marred its surface was stark and disheartening. It was a visual reminder of the careless habits that often go unchecked in our daily lives.One of the volunteers, a middle school student named Emily, was particularly moved by the sight. She had grown up near the sea and had always been fascinated by its vastness and the life it supported. Seeing the trash on the beach was a wakeup call for her. She realized that the ocean, which she loved so dearly, was in danger due to the actions of humans.With determination in her eyes, Emily led the group in picking up the trash. They worked tirelessly, bending down to retrieve every piece of litter theycould find. The sun climbed higher in the sky, and the heat intensified, but the volunteers did not falter. They were fueled by the satisfaction of making a difference, one piece of trash at a time.As the morning turned into afternoon, the beach began to look cleaner. The volunteers had filled dozens of trash bags, and the oncelittered sand was now free of the debris that had marred its beauty. The sense of accomplishment was palpable among the group. They had not only cleaned the beach but had also sparked a conversation about the importance of protecting the environment.The experience was an eyeopener for many of the volunteers, especially for the younger ones. They learned that even small actions, like picking up trash, could have a significant impact. They also realized the importance of reducing, reusing, and recycling to minimize waste and protect the environment.The beach cleanup was not just a onetime event. It was the beginning of a movement, a commitment to preserving the natural beauty of the coastal town. The volunteers vowed to continue their efforts and to spread awareness about the importance of environmental conservation.In the end, the beach cleanup was more than just a community service activity. It was a lesson in responsibility, a call to action, and a testament to the power of collective effort. It showed that even the smallest actions can make a difference and that everyone has a role to play in protecting our planet.As the sun began to set, casting a golden glow over the nowpristine beach, the volunteers gathered for a group photo. Their faces were tired but radiant with pride and hope. They knew that they had made a difference that day, and they were inspired to continue their efforts in the future.The beach cleanup was a reminder that every individual has the power to make a positive impact on the environment. It was a call to action for everyone to take responsibility for their actions and to work together to protect the planet we all call home. And as the volunteers left the beach that day, they carried with them a renewed sense of purpose and a commitment to making the world a cleaner, healthier place for generations to come.。
沉浸在骑鹅旅行记英语作文英文回答：Embarking on a Quixotic Odyssey: A Journey Astride Quills and Parchment.In the hallowed halls of literature, where flights of fancy take wing, there exists a tale that transcends the boundaries of time and imagination. It is the story of a knight-errant, Don Quixote, whose delusions of grandeur propelled him on a whimsical adventure astride his loyal steed, Rocinante. But what if, instead of a noble charger, Don Quixote had embarked on his quixotic quest perched upon a humble goose?This outlandish notion forms the comedic and poignant core of "The Goose Travels South," an unpublished masterpiece that weaves together the threads of adventure, absurdity, and a profound meditation on the nature of existence. The novel's protagonist, a modern-day DonQuixote named Ignatius McCracken, sets off on a journey across Europe, accompanied not by a burly squire, but by an unlikely companion: a garrulous and opinionated goose named Henrietta.Through their misadventures, Ignatius and Henrietta encounter a kaleidoscope of unforgettable characters and situations. There's a beautiful damsel in distress, a pompous literary critic, a wise-cracking witch, and a host of eccentric individuals who add depth and humor to their extraordinary voyage.As Ignatius and Henrietta negotiate the trials and tribulations of their goose-propelled odyssey, they embark on a parallel journey of self-discovery. Ignatius grapples with the complex nature of human existence, grappling with questions of identity, meaning, and the elusive nature of happiness. Henrietta, with her unconventional wisdom and unyielding loyalty, provides a unique and often irreverent perspective on life's absurdities and complexities.In an unexpected twist, Ignatius's feathered companionbecomes more than just a mere means of transportation. Henrietta transforms into a symbol of resilience, adaptability, and the boundless possibilities that lie hidden within the most unassuming of creatures. As the novel reaches its poignant climax, Ignatius and Henrietta find themselves at a crossroads, facing a choice that will forever alter the course of their lives."The Goose Travels South" is a literary tour de force that seamlessly blends comedy, adventure, and philosophical introspection. It is a story that asks us to embrace our own eccentricities, to cherish the bonds we forge, and to never cease seeking out the unexpected wonders that life has to offer.中文回答：沉浸在骑鹅旅行记中。
a rXiv:as tr o-ph/73213v19Mar27To appear in The Astrophysical JournalDust Masses,PAH Abundances,and Starlight Intensities in the SINGS Galaxy Sample B.T.Draine 1,D.A.Dale 2,G.Bendo 3,K.D.Gordon 4,J.D.T.Smith 4,L.Armus 5,C.W.Engelbracht 4,G.Helou 6,R.C.Kennicutt 4,7,A.Li 8,H.Roussel 9,F.Walter 9,D.Calzetti 10,J.Moustakas 4,11,E.J.Murphy 12,G.H.Rieke 4,C.Bot 6,D.J.Hollenbach 13,K.Sheth 6,and H.I.Teplitz 5ABSTRACT Physical dust models are presented for 65galaxies in the SINGS survey that are strongly detected in the four IRAC bands and three MIPS bands.For each galaxy we estimate (1)the total dust mass,(2)the fraction of the dust mass contributed by PAHs,and (3)the intensity of the starlight heating the dust grains.We find that spiral galaxies have dust properties resembling the dust in the local region of the Milky Way,with similar dust-to-gas ratio,and similar PAH abundance.The observed SEDs,including galaxies with SCUBA photometry,can be reproduced by dust models that do not require “cold”(T 10K)dust.The dust-to-gas ratio is observed to be dependent on metallicity.In the interstel-lar media of galaxies with A O ≡12+log 10(O /H)>8.1,grains contain a substantialfraction of interstellar Mg,Si and Fe.Galaxies with A O<8.1and extended H I en-velopes in some cases appear to have global dust-to-gas ratios that are low for theirmeasured oxygen abundance,but the dust-to-gas ratio in the regions where infraredemission is detected generally appears to be consistent with a substantial fraction ofinterstellar Mg,Si,and Fe being contained in dust.The PAH index q PAH–the frac-tion of the dust mass in the form of PAHs–correlates with metallicity.The ninegalaxies in our sample with A O<8.1have a median q PAH=1.0%,whereas galaxieswith A O>8.1have a median q PAH=3.55%.The derived dust masses favor a valueX CO≈4×1020cm−2(K km s−1)−1for the CO to H2conversion factor.Except for somestarbursting systems(Mrk33,Tolo89,NGC3049),dust in the diffuse ISM dominatesthe IR power.Subject headings:ISM:dust,extinction—ISM:general—galaxies:abundances—galaxies:general—galaxies:ISM—infrared:galaxies1.IntroductionInterstellar dust affects the appearance of galaxies,by attenuating short wavelength radiation from stars and ionized gas,and contributing infrared(IR),far-infrared(FIR),submm,mm,and microwave emission[for a recent review,see Draine(2003)].Dust also is an important agent in the fluid dynamics,chemistry,heating,cooling,and even ionization balance in some interstellar regions, with a major role in the process of star formation.Despite the importance of dust,determination of the physical properties of interstellar dust grains has been a challenging task–even the overall amount of dust in other galaxies has often been very uncertain.The SINGS galaxy sample(Kennicutt et al.2003)comprises75galaxies with a wide range of morphological types,all at distances allowing the galaxies to be resolved even at160µm.Ob-servations of this sample with all instruments on Spitzer Space Telescope(Werner et al.2004)are providing a new perspective on the dust abundances and dust properties in a diverse set of galaxies.For67of the SINGS galaxies we have positive detections in the4bands of the Infrared Array Camera(IRAC;Fazio et al.(2004))and the three bands of the Multiband Imaging Photometer for Spitzer(MIPS;Rieke et al.(2004)),spanning wavelengths from3.6µm to160µm,the wavelength range within which dust radiates most of its power,including the PAH emission features that are prominent in many galaxies;65of these galaxies are used in the present study.For11galaxies we have globalfluxes measured with the IRS16µm peak-upfilter.For17of the65galaxies,global 850µmflux measurements are also available from the SCUBA camera on the JCMT.The IR emission from dust depends not only on the amount of dust present,but also on the rate at which it is heated by starlight.We develop a technique for estimation of dust masses and starlight intensities in galaxies,and apply it to estimate the total dust mass M dust in each of the65galaxies in this study.For61galaxies we are also able to estimate a“PAH index”q PAH–definedhere to be the mass fraction of the dust that is contributed by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon(PAH)particles containing<103C atoms.In addition,we obtain information on the starlightintensity distribution–the mean starlight intensity scale factor U ,and the fraction of the dustheating that takes place in regions of high starlight intensities,including photodissociation regions.The paper is organized as follows.The sample selection and observational data are summarizedin§2,the physical dust models that are used are described in§3,and the model-fitting procedureis given in§4.In order to validate the model-fitting procedure,wefirst limit attention to thesubset of SINGS galaxies for which SCUBA data are available(we will refer to these as the SINGS-SCUBA galaxies).In§5we demonstrate that the dust modeling procedure works well for mostof the SINGS-SCUBA galaxies,and we present dust masses,dust-to-gas mass ratios,PAH indexvalues,and starlight intensity parameters obtained from these modelfits.For the SINGS-SCUBAgalaxies,our models do not require any contribution from the very cold(<10K)dust that has beenreported by Krugel et al.(1998)for the spiral galaxies NGC6156and NGC6918,or the5–9Kdust that Galliano et al.(2003,2005)reported for low metallicity dwarf galaxies,or the4–6K dustthat Dumke et al.(2004)reported for the edge-on-spiral NGC4631.The global SEDs do not showevidence for the submillimeter excess seen in the faint outer regions of NGC4631(Bendo et al.2006b).Submillimeter measurements are valuable to help constrain the dust models,but are unfor-tunately not available for most galaxies.In§6we use the SINGS-SCUBA galaxies to develop a“restricted”fitting procedure that can be applied to galaxies for which submillimeterfluxes are un-available.For the17galaxies with global850µmfluxes from SCUBA,we show that the restrictedfitting procedure,without employing SCUBA data,recovers dust masses and starlight intensitiesthat are usually within a factor of two of the values obtained when the SCUBA data are used.The restrictedfitting technique is then applied to the remaining48galaxies to estimate dustmasses and starlight intensities.Dust-to-gas mass ratios for the overall sample are presented in§7.1,where it is found that some of the SINGS galaxies have very low dust-to-gas ratios,and that the dust-to-gas ratios are correlated with both gas-phase metallicity and galaxy type.Thedust-to-gas ratios depend on the assumed value of X CO,the ratio of H2column density to COline intensity;in§9.4we argue that the distribution of derived dust-to-gas ratios supports X CO≈4×1020cm−2(K km s−1)−1.Values of the PAH index q PAH are estimated for61galaxies in§7.4.Many galaxies are foundto have low values of q PAH,and q PAH is found to be strongly correlated with gas-phase metallicity.The starlight parameters for the65galaxy sample are presented and discussed in§8.The resultsare discussed in§9,and summarized in§10.2.Data2.1.IRAC and MIPSSpitzer Space Telescope was used to observe all75galaxies in the SINGS sample,following the observing strategy described in Kennicutt et al.(2003).The observations in the4IRAC bands(3.6, 4.5,5.7,7.9µm)and3MIPS bands(24,71,160µm)have been reduced following the procedures described in Dale et al.(2005).The extended source aperture corrections found in Reach et al. (2005)were applied to the IRAC data.Global IRAC and MIPS photometry for these galaxies is taken from Dale et al.(2007),which included(usually modest)corrections for aperture size and nonlinearity of the71µm detectors.Ten of the SINGS galaxies were excluded from the present study:•NGC584(E4)may be contaminated by a background source,and also has low surface brightness in the MIPS bands compared to the foreground cirrus.•NGC3034=M82(I0,starburst):Saturation of the bright core of this galaxy precludes global photometry.•NGC1404(E1):An off-center IR source contributes a significant fraction of the MIPSflux, but it is not known whether or not it is a foreground/background object.•NGC4552(E0)has low surface brightness compared to the foreground cirrus emission,and the MIPS160µm photometry is very uncertain.•The dwarf galaxies M81dwA and Ho IX are not detected atλ≥5.8µm.•The dwarf galaxies DDO154and DDO165are only marginally(<3σ)detected at71and 160µm,and M81dwB is a<2σdetection at160µm.•The dwarf starburst galaxy NGC1377shows strong silicate absorption at9.8µm and18µm (Roussel et al.2006).The objective of the present study is to model the IR spectra using a simple model that assumes the galaxy to be optically-thin atλ>3.5µm;because NGC1377 is clearly not optically thin,it has been removed from the sample.The sample studied here therefore consists of65galaxies.MIPS71µm photometry for NGC7552 is not usable because of detector saturation,but NGC7552is retained in the sample because it is well-observed at other wavelengths and with other instruments.Most of the dust mass in galaxies is relatively cool,radiating primarily at wavelengths in the MIPS71µm and160µm bands.Dust grains that are warmer,either because they are in regions with intense starlight,or because they are very small grains immediately following absorption of a stellar photon,may radiate strongly in the MIPS24µm band and shortward.The variety of dustFig. 1.—MIPS color-color plot for the65galaxies.The blue shaded area shows the region sampled by the17 galaxies for which global SCUBAfluxes are known(plotted as blue solid symbols)–these only partially cover the color-color space populated by the SINGS sample(green shaded area).Galaxies without SCUBAfluxes are shown in red.Galaxies with relatively extremeflux ratios are labelled.conditions found in the SINGS sample is evident from the distribution of the64galaxies in MIPS color-color space,shown in Figure1: νFν 71µm/ νFν 160µm varies by over a factor of10within our sample,and νFν 24µm/ νFν 71µm varies by a factor of8.These variations in MIPS colors presumably reflect galaxy-to-galaxy differences in the intensity of the starlight heating the dust grains,although galaxy-to-galaxy differences in dust composition may also play a role.It is evident from the scatter in Figure1that the MIPS24/71color is not simply a function of the71/160color: the MIPS colors cannot be described by a one-parameter sequence of,e.g.,“dust temperature”. Realistic dust models will therefore need to vary at least two parameters to account for the range in observed MIPS colors.The SINGS sample does not include any powerful AGN,and in all SINGS galaxies the global flux in the IRAC3.6µm band is starlight-dominated.Neglecting extinction,we can estimate the “nonstellar”flux in longer-wavelength bands by subtracting the estimated stellar contribution, assuming a5000K blackbody.For IRAC band4,the IRS16µm Peakup band(see§2.2below)andthe MIPS24µm band,the nonstellarfluxes are:F nsν 7.9= Fν 7.9−0.260 Fν 3.6,(1)F nsν 16= Fν 16−0.0693 Fν 3.6,(2)F nsν 24= Fν 24−0.0326 Fν 3.6.(3) The coefficients0.260and0.0326in eq.(1)and(3)are close to the values0.232and0.032estimated by Helou et al.(2004).Some stars(e.g.,cool red giants,and AGB stars)have circumstellar dust that is in many cases warm enough to radiate strongly at wavelengths from8-30µm.If such stars are sufficiently numerous,the result will be a“stellar”contribution to the8,16,and24µmfluxes that will be larger than assumed in eq.(1–3).In the absence of extinction at3.6µm,equations (1–3)will therefore overestimate theflux contributed by interstellar dust.2.2.IRS16µmIn addition to IRAC and MIPS photometry,nine of the SINGS galaxies have been imaged using the IRS“blue peak-up”detector array,with nominal wavelengthλ=16µm.The IRS blue peak-up observations were taken as part of the IRS instrument calibration program and consist of a grid of peakup images covering the full extent of each galaxy.The reduced images,processed by IRS pipeline version S14,were mosaicked using the MOPEX program(ver.030106)to remove cosmic rays after subtraction of a custom dark image.This custom dark image was created using images taken beyond the visible extent of the galaxy.In some cases,the best dark subtraction was found to require allowing the dark image to vary with time.“Sky”(zodiacal light and Galactic cirrus)contributions were also removed by this custom dark subtraction step.The total16µmflux was measured using the same methods used for the IRAC and MIPSfluxes(Dale et al.2005).The measured globalfluxes were then scaled down by∼15%,to account for a recent SSC calibration update(∼10%),and the appropriate aperture correction factor(∼5%).Fluxes for these11galaxies at16µm and24µm are given in Table1.Theflux density ratio Fν 16/ Fν 24varies considerably among these galaxies,from a low of0.376±0.033for NGC7552to a high of1.21±0.12for NGC3190.Figure2a shows P16≡ νF nsν 16/( νFν 71+ νFν 160)vs.P24≡ νF nsν 24/( νFν 71+ νFν 160) for the ten galaxies for which we have16,24,71,and160µm photometry,where F nsνis the nonstellar contribution from eq.(1-3).Theflux ratio P16remains essentially constant at P16≈0.112±0.017 while P24varies by almost a factor of3,from0.06to0.18.This suggests that the16µmflux is not emitted by the same grains as the24µmflux.In the dust model of Draine&Li(2007, hereafter DL07),a minimum level of24µm emission is produced by single-photon heating of PAHs or ultrasmall grains(with νLν 24/L TIR≈0.03−0.06,depending on q PAH–see Fig.15of DL07), but P24increases as the starlight intensity increases.Figure2a suggests that the16µm emission may be dominated by single-photon heating of PAHs,remaining relatively constant even as P24 rises due to increased starlight heating.This is supported by Figure2b,which shows that the ratioFig.2.—(a)P16≡ νF nsν 16/( νFν 71+ νFν 160)versus P24≡ νF nsν 24/( νFν 71+ νFν 160)for the10galaxies imaged with the IRS16µm peak-upfilter for which we also have global MIPSfluxes(NGC7552is excluded).(b) νF nsν 7.9/ νF nsν 16vs P24,Both the ratio of nonstellar16µm emission to total IR power and the ratio of nonstellar 7.9µm emission to nonstellar16µm emission remain constant to within∼15%,even as P24varies by a factor of3. of7.9µm emission to16µm emission is nearly constant for this sample,varying by only∼±15% over the eight galaxies,consistent with the idea that both are primarily the result of single-photon heating of PAHs.This is consistent with thefinding by F¨o rster Schreiber et al.(2004)that,when averaged over disks of spiral galaxies,the15µm continuum intensity is proportional to the PAH intensity in the5–8µm region.Table1.Global Fluxes(Jy)in IRS16µm Peak-Up Bandgalaxy Fν 16 Fν 24 Fν 16/ Fν 24Jy Jy2.3.SCUBAThe dust properties in a galaxy will be best determined if submillimeter photometry is availableto constrain the quantity of cool dust present.SCUBA observations at450µm and/or850µm areavailable for26of the65galaxies,1but not all of these are usable in the present study:1.NGC4254,NGC4579,NGC5194,and NGC6946were scan-mapped,and the data processingremoves an unknown amount of extended emission.Thus global850µm(or450µm)fluxesare not available for these galaxies.We restrict ourselves to data obtained in“jiggle map”mode,except for the scan-map observations of NGC5195,for which background subtractionis thought to be more reliable because of the smaller angular extent of NGC5195.2.For some galaxies the SCUBA map did not fully cover the region where160µm emission isdetected.Dale et al.(2005)multiplied the observed SCUBAfluxes by a correction factorbased on the fraction of the160µm emission coming from the region mapped by SCUBA.Because the850µm/160µmflux ratio may be spatially variable,we choose here to not usethe850µmflux estimates for galaxies where the corrrection factor exceeds1.6(NGC1097,NGC4321,NGC4736,and NGC5033).3.For the Sombrero galaxy,NGC4594,the850µmflux is dominated by the AGN(Bendo et al.2006a),and the extranuclear850µmflux is not reliably measured,so we cannot use theSCUBA data to constrain the dust model for this galaxy.We thus have17galaxies where the dust models are constrained by850µm SCUBA data(with450µmfluxes for3of the17)in addition to IRAC and MIPS data.The globalfluxes F obs,b and1-σuncertainties for each band b are taken from Dale et al.(2007).The162galaxies for which we have global SCUBA and MIPS photometry are indicated inFigure1.While the galaxies with SCUBA photometry span a considerable portion of the populatedregion in MIPS color-color space,a number of the SINGS galaxies have MIPS colors that are outsideof the range seen among the galaxies for which SCUBA data are available.For example,NGC4725or NGC5408,with νFν 71µm/ νFν 160µm=0.33and3.1,respectively,fall outside the range0.6–2.4observed for this ratio among the SINGS-SCUBA galaxies.The dust models discussed beloware able to reproduce the IRAC and MIPSfluxes for all of the SINGS galaxies.Galaxies such asNGC4725or NGC2841,with the lowest values of νFν 71µm/ νFν 160µm,require cooler dust(i.e., lower starlight intensities)than any of the SINGS-SCUBA galaxies.NCG5408,with a very high value of νFν 71µm/ νFν 160µm,requires hotter dust(higher starlight intensities).Submillimeter observations would be of great value to test the predicted submmfluxes from these extreme cases.2.4.IRAS and ISOIRAS photometry is obtained from the latest SCANPI data for most SINGS sources,and from HiReS maps for the largest SINGS targets(optical diameters 10′),except in some bands(e.g., no IRAS12µmflux for NGC0024).A20%calibration uncertainty estimate was applied.In the case of NGC5195(=M51b),the proximity of NCG5194(=M51a)madeflux determination more difficult,and50%uncertainty estimates were adopted.Ths IRAS25µmflux densities are not used,as they are superseded by the MIPS24µm pho-tometry at essentially the same wavelength,but we employ the IRAS12µm,60µm,and100µm photometry in our model-fitting.When available,we show ISOCAM6.75µm and15µm photometry in thefigures showing the spectral energy distributions(SEDs),but they are not used in the model-fitting.3.Physical Dust ModelsA direct estimate for the dust-to-hydrogen mass ratio M dust/M H in the local Milky Way can be obtained from the difference between total interstellar abundances–taken to be equal to current estimates for solar abundances–and observed gas phase abundances in diffuse interstellar clouds, where the intensively studied diffuse cloud on the line-of-sight toζOph is taken to be representative. Using current estimates of solar abundances,this mass inventory results in M dust/M H≈0.0073 (see Table2).We will apply(and thereby also test)the dust models developed by Weingartner&Draine (2001a,hereafter WD01)and Li&Draine(2001,hereafter LD01),and updated by DL07.These dust models consist of specified mixtures of carbonaceous grains and amorphous silicate grains,with the smallest carbonaceous grains having the physical properties of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)particles;the size distributions are chosen to reproduce the observed wavelength-dependent extinction in the local Milky Way,in the Large Magellanic Cloud,and the Small Magellanic Cloud bar region(Weingartner&Draine2001a).Li&Draine(2001,2002)showed that these grain models appeared to be consistent with the observed IR emission from diffuse clouds in the Milky Way and the Small Magellanic Cloud.The DL07dust models used here adopt PAH optical properties that are slightly different from those adopted by LD01.As discussed by DL07,the changes are in part to better conform to recent theoretical estimates for band strengths,and in part to improve agreement with band profiles determined observationally by Smith et al.(2007).The PAH emission features at3.3µm,6.2µm,7.7µm,8.6µm,11.3µm,12.0µm,12.7µm,16.4µm, and17µm are prominent in many galaxy spectra,and the dust models considered here include various abundances of PAHs;in each model the PAHs have a wide range of sizes.Because PAHTable2.Dust Mass per H from Milky Way Abundances X(N X/N H)⊙(ppm)a(N X/N H)gas/(N X/N H)⊙a M X,dust/M Htotal0.0073Table3.Physical Dust ModelsA V/N Hj M Model q PAH M dust/M a,bH%mag cm2/H000.470.01005.3×10−22 2MW3.120 1.770.01015.3×10−224MW3.140 3.190.01025.3×10−226MW3.160 4.580.01045.3×10−228LMC205 1.510.003441.2×10−2210LMC2a M H≡M(H I+H2)b M dust/M gas=[M dust/M H]/1.36emission is mainly the result of single-photon heating,the PAH emission spectrum depends on the size(heat capacity)of the PAH.The prominent6.2µm,7.7µm,and8.6µm emission features are primarily due to PAHs with 103C atoms[see Fig.7of Draine&Li(2007)].Following DL07, we characterize the PAH abundance by a“PAH index”q PAH,defined to be the percentage of the total grain mass contributed by PAHs containing less than103C atoms:q PAH≡M(PAHs with N C<103)starlight in such regions implies that the dust grains located there radiate only a very small fraction of the total IR power.As will be seen below,an ice-free dust model appears to be satisfactory for modeling the IR emission from normal galaxies.4.Constraining the Dust Model and Starlight IntensitiesIn addition to choosing a physical dust mixture(relative numbers of carbonaceous grains and silicate grains of different sizes,including the fraction q PAH of the dust mass that is in PAHs), we must specify the intensity of the radiation that is heating the dust grains.Almost all of the heating of dust grains in a normal galaxy is from absorption of hν<13.6eV photons.In a normal star-forming galaxy a significant(but sub-dominant)fraction of the stellar luminosity may be at hν>13.6eV,but most of these photons end up photoionizing hydrogen or helium rather than being absorbed by dust.The hν<13.6eV recombination radiation–especially Lymanα–may be largely absorbed by dust.However,the total power in ionizing photons is a minor fraction of the total stellar luminosity in a galaxy with a more-or-less steady rate of star formation.Only in galaxies that have undergone an extreme burst of star formation within the last∼107yrs will the dust heating be dominated by Lymanαand Lyman continuum radiation.Only in rare cases,e.g., NGC1377(Roussel et al.2006),where the massive stars formed in a starburst are surrounded by dense,dusty H II regions,will the dust grains directly absorb a major fraction of the hν>13.6eV radiation.The IR emission from dust is relatively insensitive to the detailed spectrum of the hν<13.6eV photons,and the DL07models simply adopt the spectrum of the local interstellar radiationfield as a reasonable representation for the average spectrum of the interstellar radiation in a normal spiral galaxy.The specific energy density of starlight is therefore taken to be,(5)uν=U×u(MMP83)νwhere u(MMP83)νis the specific energy density estimated by Mathis et al.(1983)(hereafter MMP83) for the local Galactic interstellar radiationfield,and U is a dimensionless scale factor.The intensity of interstellar UV radiation is often characterized by G0,the ratio of the6–13.6eV energy density relative to the value5.288×10−14ergs cm−3for the radiationfield estimated by Habing(1968). The MMP83ISRF has u(0−13.6eV starlight)=8.65×10−13ergs cm−3,and u(6−13.6eV)= 6.01××10−14ergs cm−3.Thus U=0.88G0.Dust at different locations in the galaxy will be exposed to different radiation intensities.A physically correct model would specify the locations of the stellar sources and the absorbing dust, and would solve the radiative transfer problem[e.g.,Tuffs et al.(2004)],but this would require many uncertain assumptions about the relative distributions of stars and dust,as well as massive numerical computations.Following DL07,we suppose that a large fraction of the dust in a galaxy is located in thediffuse interstellar medium,exposed to starlight with an intensity that does not vary much withinthe galaxy.This“diffuse ISM”dust is idealized as being heated by a single radiationfield,withintensity factor U=U min.In addition,DL07suppose that a small fraction of the dust is locatedin regions where the radiationfield is more intense,with a wide range of intensities ranging fromU=U min to U=U max≫U min.This would include dust in photodissociation regions,so we refer to this as the“PDR”component,and we use the power-law distribution function used by DL07.Although this“PDR”component contains only a small fraction of the total dust mass,in somegalaxies it contributes a substantial fraction of the total power radiated by the dust.The modelsdo not include a component corresponding to cold dust in dark clouds;as discussed in§9.1,suchcold dust appears to account for a minor fraction of the dust mass,and a very small fraction of thetotal dust luminosity.Thus,following DL07,we take the dust mass dM dust exposed to radiationintensities in[U,U+dU]to be a combination of aδfunction and a power-law,dM dustU1−αmin−U1−αmax U−αfor U min≤U≤U max,α=1(6)whereδis the Diracδfunction.This distribution function hasfive parameters:the total dust mass M dust,the fractionγof the dust mass that is associated with the power-law part of the starlight intensity distribution,and3parameters(U min,U max,α)characterizing the distribution of starlight intensities in the high intensity regions.Theδ–function term represents the fraction (1−γ)of the dust that is heated by a general diffuse interstellar radiationfield with approximately uniform intensity∼U min.The power-law part of the distribution function,introduced by Dale et al. (2001)and used by Li&Draine(2002),represents the fractionγof the dust mass that is close to OB associations and is exposed to radiation with intensity U>U min;this includes the dust in“photodissociation regions”(PDRs),where radiation intensities can be orders of magnitude higher than the“average”dust grain is exposed to.Equation(6)is a very simplistic description of the distribution of dust grain environments;it neglects the possibility that the dust properties (composition,size distribution)might be variable and correlated with U,and also neglects regional variations in the spectrum of the starlight irradiating the dust.Despite its simplicity,we will see here that eq.(6)appears to capture the essential elements of the distribution of starlight intensities found in galaxies,yielding models with SEDs that approximate what is observed.Very small particles cool almost completely between photon absorptions,and therefore the shape of the emission spectrum from these grains is almost independent of U.The larger grains, that account for more than half of the total absorption of starlight in the Milky Way,do not cool significantly between photon absorptions,and their temperature depends on the intensity U. The observed FIR emission spectrum is sensitive to the temperature of these larger grains,and therefore allows us to constrain the distribution function for U.While Spitzer Space Telescope provides unprecedented sensitivity to FIR emission,the spectral coverage is somewhat sparse,witha factor of3gap in wavelength between IRAC7.9µm and the MIPS24µm bands,and a factor of2.9gap between the MIPS24µm and71µm bands.The IRS“Peak-Up”mode observations can be used for imaging at16µm and26µm,but these observations are not generally available.The large。
