basicprinciplesoflandscapedesign

第1篇一、面试题目1. 请简述您对风景园林专业的理解，以及您选择该专业的原因。

2. 您在本科学习过程中，有哪些课程或项目让您对风景园林设计有了更深入的认识？3. 请结合具体案例，谈谈您在风景园林设计中对生态、人文、美学等方面的考虑。

4. 在您参与的风景园林项目中，有哪些环节让您印象深刻？请简要描述您在该环节中的角色和贡献。

5. 风景园林设计在现代社会中扮演着怎样的角色？您认为未来风景园林设计将面临哪些挑战？6. 请分析一下我国当前风景园林行业的发展现状，以及您认为如何提高我国风景园林设计的水平。

7. 在风景园林设计中，如何处理好生态保护与景观建设之间的关系？8. 请谈谈您在团队协作中遇到的问题及解决方法，以及您在团队中的角色。

9. 在风景园林设计中，如何结合地方特色和历史文化，打造具有独特魅力的景观？10. 请结合实际案例，分析一下您在风景园林设计中如何运用现代科技手段。

11. 在风景园林设计中，如何平衡经济效益、社会效益和环境效益？12. 请谈谈您在风景园林设计中对可持续发展的理解，以及如何在设计中体现可持续发展理念。

13. 在风景园林设计中，如何处理与当地政府、居民、企业等利益相关方的沟通与合作？14. 请分析一下您在风景园林设计中所学到的专业知识在实际工作中的应用。

15. 在您未来的职业生涯中，您希望在风景园林设计领域取得怎样的成就？二、解析1. 这道题目考察考生对风景园林专业的理解程度，以及对选择该专业的原因的思考。

考生可以从专业内涵、就业前景、个人兴趣等方面进行回答。

2. 这道题目考察考生在本科阶段对风景园林专业的学习成果。

考生可以结合具体课程或项目，展示自己在专业领域的知识储备和实践能力。

3. 这道题目考察考生在风景园林设计中对生态、人文、美学等方面的综合考虑。

考生可以结合具体案例，阐述自己在设计过程中的思考和实践。

4. 这道题目考察考生在团队协作中的角色和贡献。

考生可以简要描述自己在项目中的角色，以及如何与其他成员合作，共同完成任务。

生态景观设计的原则Principles of Ecological LandscapeDesign学部（院）：建筑与艺术学院专业：艺术设计（环境艺术设计）学生姓名：学号：指导教师：完成日期：4ComplexCreations:Designing and ManagingEcosystemsA dragonflyflitsoverthesun-mirroredsurfaceofapond,snappingathatchingmosquitoesbeforecom- ing to rest on an overhanging rush. This is an ecosystem: animals, plants, and theirphysicalenviron- mentlinked together in the exchange of energy and materials. If this were our pond,ourecosystem,wewouldhaveitall:abeautifullandscapefeature,enlivenedbycreaturesweneve rhadto carefor,andhassle-freepestcontrol.Ecosystemslikethisponddoquiet,crucialwork,keepingalivethebiosphereofwhichweareapart.W heresuchanaturalpond,oraforestorfloodplain,exists,itbehoovesustoprotectit.Whereonehasbeen degraded,wewouldbewellservedtorestoreit(seechap.10).Butwheresuchecosystemshavebeenplo wedunderorpavedover,wecanendeavortoreplacethembyfillingthebuiltenvironmentnot justwithlaw nsandplazasandfountainsbutwithecosystems.Anecosystemconsistsofallofthelivingorganismsinanareaalongwiththeirphysicalenviron-ment,anditspropertiesarisefromtheinteractionsbetweenthesecomponents.Anoceanbayisanecos ystem,asisanalpinemeadoworagreenroof.Perhapsbecauseoftheirclearboundaries,lakes andstreams wereimportantobjectsofstudyinthedevelopmentofecosystemecology.Wherebound- ariesarelessdistinct,thelimitsofanecosystemcanbe defined,evenarbitrarily,basedonthequestionanecol ogistisstudyingortheboundariesofa designer’s site.Designedlandscapesalreadybringtogetheramanipulatedphysicalenvironmentandlivingor-ganisms.Theydonotnecessarilyfunctionasnaturalecosystemsdo,however.Theyaredisconnect-ed,toooftenwastefulanddemanding,orelsetheysimplyfailtothrive.Whenwesucceedincreat-ingintegratedecosystems,theresultscanberemarkable.Lifecanspringforth,almostunbidden.Waste scanbetransformedintoresources.Thevariousmembersofalivingcommunitycanreacha tentativebalance.Thebuiltenvironmentcanpurifywater,protectusfromfloods,andstrengthenour sense ofwell-being.T.Beck,PrinciplesofEcologicalLandscapeDesign,DOI10.5822/978-1-61091-199-3_4,©2013TravisBeckComplex Creations: Designing and ManagingTHE ECOSYSTEMCONCEPTTheideathatplantsandanimalsandtheirenvironmentformanintegratedwholeisattherootofthedi sciplineofecology,althoughittookdecadestoarticulateinitsmodernform.In1887,inanaddresstothe Peoria ScientificAssociation,StephenForbesdescribedthelakeas“amicrocosm.”In orderforascientisttounderstandanyonespecies,heargued,Hemustevidentlystudyalsothespeciesuponwhichitdependsforitsexistence,andthevariouscondi tions upon which these depend. He must likewise study the species with which it comesincompetition,andtheentiresystemofconditionsaffectingtheirprosperity;andbythetimehe has studiedallthese sufficiently hewillfindthathehasrunthroughthewholecomplicatedmechanismofthe aquaticlifeofthelocality,bothanimalandvegetable,ofwhichhisspeciesformsbutasingleelement. (Forbes 1887:537)Theterm microcosm didnotenterintowiderecologicaluse.However,theideaofmanyorganisms formi ngalargerentitygainedexpressionintheturn-of-the-centuryconceptoftheclimaxcommu-nity(seechap.2).ThisconceptwassingledoutbyBritishecologistArthurTansleyina1935articleprovoca tively titled“TheUseandAbuseof VegetationalConceptsand Terms.”Theabusetowhichhereferredwas theinsistenceofClementsandotherecologistsonapplyingtheterm organism tothe climaxcommunity.“Thereisnoneedtowear ythe reader,”hewrote,“withalistofthepointsinwhichthebiotic communitydoes n ot resemblethesingleanimal orplant”(Tansley1935:290).However,hedidnot holdbackfrommentioningtha ta community’sprocessofdevelopmentisverydifferentfromthelife cycle of animals and plants. At best, Tansley offered, vegetation might resemble a“quasi-organism,”thoughonenotnearlysowellintegratedasahumansocietyorahiveofbees.Thisacceptance ofa quasi-organismalstatusforcommunitiesdifferentiatesTansley’s criticismofClementsianecology fromGleason’s purelyindividualisticfocus.Thereisacertaintruthtotheideaoftheclimaxcommunitybeing wellintegrateda ndself-regulating,Tansleyargued,butitcouldbestatedmoreaccuratelyanotherway.Tansleypreferredtothinkintermsofintegratedsystems.Hisnotionofsystemswasborrowedfrom thephysical sciences.“These ecosystems,aswemaycall them,”hewrote,“areofthemost variouskinds andsizes.Theyformonecategoryofthemultitudinousphysicalsystemsoftheuniverse,whichrange from the universe as a whole down to the atom” (Tansley1935: 299). An essential partof T ansley’sdescriptionoftheecosystemisthatheincludedinitnotonlyalloftheplantsandanimalsandoth erlivingthingsinagiven“weboflife”butalsothe entiretyofthephysicalcomponentsoftheir environmen t,suchassoil,sunlight,andwater.CREATEECOSYSTEMSBuiltlandscapesalsohavephysicalandbiologicalcomponents:crudely,inindustryterms, hardscapeandsoftscape.Toooften,thesecomponentsarefarfromintegrated.Thehardscapeissetin respo nse to programmatic needs, and plants are tucked into the remaining spaces. If thephysicalenvironmentisnotrightforthebiologicalcomponents,thenitisaltered,byprovidingirrigati on,forinstance (seechap.1).Complex Creations: Designing and Managing Consideratypicallandscapepond.Anestateownermightpayacontractortoclearanarea,ex-cavateahole,lineit,fillitfullofwaterfromawell,andtrimthewholesetupneatlywithrocksorlawnandpe rhapsafewaquaticplantsonaplantingshelf.Aswaterevaporatesfromtheunshadedpond,thewellpum pkicksinandtopsoffthepond.Evensuburbanhomeownerswanttheirownpondsandwaterfalls,fullofmunicipalwaterandlinedwithdwarfconifersorJapaneseiris(Irisensata)sittinglike rockyp uzzlepiecesontheirlawns.Thesesystemsare fullyartificial,rely onsupplementalwater,and often require filtration or even sterilization to remain aesthetically acceptable. Physical andbiological elements are divorced from each other and from theirsurroundings.Bycontrast,apondthatisconceivedofasanecosystemfusesphysicalandbiologicalelements intoawholethatintegrateswith,ratherthansitsapartfrom,ndscapearchitectsAndropogonAssociatescreatedsuchapondonapropertyinGreenwich,Co nnecticut.Naturally,throughout NewEngland’s forests,inthespringsmalldepressionsintheland-scapefillwithwater,which infiltrates asgroundwaterlevelsdropinthesummer.Thesevernalpoolsprovid eimportanthabitatforamphibianssuchassalamandersandfrogs.Onthispropertysuchadepressionexi sted,setagainstagraniticoutcrop,onlyithadlongbeenfilledwithbranches,leaves,andothergreenwast ebygenerationsofgardeners.WhenColinFranklin,foundingprincipalatAndro-pogon,discoveredtherockydellandthesmallspringatitsbase,hesawanopportunity.AndropogonAssoci ates’design philosophy haslongbeentobuild“d ynamic,holisticsystems,”thatis,ecosystems.Franklin’s approachwastolinethecenterofthedepressioninordertomaintainaminimumwaterlevelbutleavethe edgesunlined.Waterfromthespringiscollectedinasumpbeneaththepondandpumpedviaaslenderw aterfallofftherockoutcropandintothepond.Inspringthepond overflows,recharginggroundwaterinthe area(fig.4.1).Themarginsareplantedwithtreesandotherplantsthatareadaptedtothisseasonalflooding.Betweentheopenwater,theplantedwetlandatthepond’sedge,a ndtheseasonalwetlandbeyond,thedesignprovidesdiversehabitat(seechap.7).When waterlevelsdroptotheleveloftheliner,thewettedmarginsdry,mimickingthecycleofvernalpools.Ifwa terlevelsdropfurther,thesumppumpandwaterfallcanmakeupthedifferencefromthe rechargedgroundwater.Becausethepondisintheforest,however,evaporationandthe needformakeupwaterareminimal.Thisforestedpondisnowahuboflifeandthecenteroftheentirelandscape.Ratherthancreatea sterilewaterfeatureofdissociatedelements,Andropogoncreatedanecosystem,withnaturalphysicalcycle sandplantsandanimalsadaptedtothem. ECOSYSTEMSARECOMPLEXADAPTIVESYSTEMSEcologists’ understanding of the multitudinous systems of the universe has evolved since Tansleywrote hiscritiqueofClementsin1935.Mostrecently,ecosystemshavebeenregardedascomplex adap-tivesystems.SimonLevin(1998,1999),abiologistatPrinceton,isachiefproponentofthisview.Incompl exadaptivesystems,asexplainedbyLevin,heterogeneousindividualagentsinteractlocallytocreatelar gerpatterns,andtheoutcomeofthoselocalinteractionsaffectsthefurtherdevelopmentofthesystem(fig.4.2).Itiseasytoseehowthisappliestoecosystems.Theplantsandanimals,rocks andwateranddetrit usthatmakeupapondarealldifferent,yettheyinteracttocreatearecognizableComplex Creations: Designing and ManagingFigure4.1SchematicdesignoftheAndropogon-designedpondecosystem.Duringnormaldryweatherconditions(a)alinerandgroundwaterpumpmaintainaper manentwaterlevel.Duringnormalwetseasonconditions (b) overflow enters peripheral seasonal wetlands and recharges groundwater. (Drawing byColinFranklin.)systemwithpropertiesofitsown.Ifaplantthatproducesmorebiomasscompetitivelyexcludesothe rs alongthe pond’s margins,thentheaccumulationofdetritusinthepond,thepopulationsof bottomfeeders,andotherecosystempropertieswillallbeaffected.Levinfurtherdescribedfourcharacteristicsofcomplexadaptivesystems.Theyarediverse,ag-gregated,nonlinear,andconnected byflows.Ecosystemsincludeindividualorganismswithdiversechar acteristics.Throughtheirinteractions,theindividualagentsinanecosystembecomegrouped intolargerorganizationalentities.Forexample,populationsaregroupsofinteractingindividualsofthe sames pecies(seechap.2).Themostaccuratewaytoviewaggregationisthroughthecompositionofahierarchy (seechap.9).Nonlinearitymeansthatsmallchangesinanecosystemcanleadtooutsizedeffects.Remov alofasinglekeystonespecies,forinstance,canchangethecompositionofanentire community(seechap.7).Nonlinearityalsoreferstothefactthatecosystemsareaffectedbyhistoryas muchasbypresentconditio ns.Finally,asweshallseeinthefollowingsections,ecosystemsclearly exhibitflowsofenergyandmaterial sthatconnectalltheirindividualparts.LET CONSTRUCTED ECOSYSTEMSSELF-DESIGNIf ecosystems are complex adaptive systems that develop from the interaction oftheir componentsandtheeventsofhistory,thensuccessfulecosystemsareunlikelytospringforthfromour headsfullyformedbutshouldemergeinsteadthroughaprocesswemightcallself-design.Complex Creations: Designing and ManagingFigure4.2Turingpatterns,likethisone,areanexampleofacomplexsystemformedfromlocalinteractions.Inthisc ase,each pixel’s colorisdeterminedbythecolorofthesurroundingpixelsaccordingtoacomputer algorithm.Startingfromarandomi nitialstate,thepatterncontinuestoevolve.(ImagebyJonathanMcCabe,underCreativeCommons2.0GenericLicense.) BillMitschandhiscolleaguesexploredself-designattheWilmaH.SchiermeierOlentangyRiver WetlandResearchParkinColumbus,Ohio(Mitschetal.1998).Theyintentionallyleftoneoftwobasinsintheir newlycreatedexperimentaloxbowunvegetated.Theyknewthatwind,water,andanimalswould bringinne wplantssoonenough,andtheywantedtoseehowcloselytheunplantedwetlandwouldresembletheon etheyplanted.Within3years,thetwowetlandswereremarkablysimilarintermsofvegetativecover,dive rsityofplants,waterchemistry,andseveralothermeasuresofecologicalfunc-tion(fig.4.3).Thiscongruenceresultsnotsimplyfromtheunplantedwetlandcomingtoresemblethepla ntedonebutfrombothwetlandschangingto reflect siteconditionsandmigrations.Ofthethirteenorigin alspeciesintheplantedwetland,fourdiedoff.Thesurvivingspecieswerejoinedbyanaddi-tionalfifty-twounplantedspecies.BecausethewetlandswereconnectedhydrologicallytothenearbyOlentangyRi ver,thenatural inflow ofspecieshadamuchgreater influence onthemakeupoftheplant communitiesinthetwowetlandsthandidtheinitialplantingofonebasin.Thesuccessofthetwobasinsasself-designedecosystemsisindicatedbytheOlentangyRiver Wetland’s designation under the RamsarConvention as a Wetland of International Importance.Complex Creations: Designing and ManagingFigure4.3AerialviewofthetwoOlentangyRiverWetlands.(CourtesyofWilliamJ.Mitsch,WilmaH.Schierm eierOlentangy River Wetland ResearchPark.)ECOSYSTEMSAREORGANIZEDINTROPHICLEVELSAs complex adaptive systems, ecosystems are animated by the interactions betweentheirconstituentpartsandtheflowsthatconnectthem.Inthe1940sayoungAmericanecologi st,RaymondLindeman, suggestedawayofanalyzingecosystemsintermsofenergyflow.AswithForbesbeforehim,Linde-man’s focuswasonlakes.After5yearsoffieldworkonthesmallCedarBogLakeneartheUniversityofMin nesota,LindemansignedupforapostdoctoralyearatYaleUniversitywithG.EvelynHutchinson (wholateradvisedRobertMacArthuronhisstudyofresourcepartitioninginwarblers)(seechap.3).Duri ngthatyearheandHutchinsonworkedonthearticlethatwas tobecome“The Trophic–DynamicAspectof Ecology”(Lindeman1942).Tragically,Lindemandiedattheageof27,afewmonthsbe forehisarticle,whichwasinitiallyrejectedasbeingtootheoretical,wasfinallypublishedintheflagshipj ournaloftheEcologicalSocietyofAmerica.Theideasheputforthhavehadalastingimpactonthefieldofecosystemecology.Lindeman’s focus was on the trophic, or “energ y-availing,” relationships within an ecosystem.Bor- rowingfromGermanlimnologistAugustThienemann,heabstractedthefamiliarfoodwebsthatnatural-istsandecologistshadproducedforlakesandothersystemsintotrophiclevels:Producersareorgan-ismssuchasplantsandphytoplanktonthatobtaintheirenergyfromthesun,consumersareorganisms suchaszooplanktonandfishthatobtaintheirenergyfromeatingproducers,anddecomposersarethe bacteriaandfungithatobtaintheirenergyfrombreakingdowntheorganicsubstancesinthewastes and remainsofotherorganisms.Byabstractinganecosystemtotrophiclevels,Lindeman sacrificed aComplex Creations: Designing and Managingcertainamountofbiologicalreality.Healsocreatedtheproblemofhowtoclassifyorganismsthateat both producers and consumers. There can be several levels of consumers in anecosystem,although earlier ecologists had noted that rarely are there more than five trophic levels intotal.Lindeman’s analysisexplainedthisphenomenon.Unlikethechemicalelements,whichcan cycleindefinitely inanecosystem(seechap.6),energy flow sthroughanecosysteminonedirectiononly:fromthesuntoproducerstoconsumerstosecond-aryconsumerstodecomposers.Ateachtransferofenergybetweentrophiclevels,Lindemannoted,a certainamountislost (fig.4.4).Primaryconsumerssuchasbrowsingsnailsexpendacertainamountofenergyjustlivingand findingproducerstoeat.Someofthemdiebeforetheyareeatenbybenthic predat ors.SomeoftheenergycontainedinthebodiesofthosethatareeatenistiedupintissuessuchFigure4.4Lindeman’s diagramofthefoodwebanddifferenttrophiclevelsinageneralizedlake.Energyandnu trientsenterthesystemfromtheoutside.Thesearecapturedandtransformedbybothmicroscopicand macrosco pic producers (phytoplanktersand pondweeds, A 1). Primary consumers (zooplankters and browsers, A 2)eattheproducersandinturnareeatenbysecondaryconsumers(planktonpredatorsandbenthicpre dators,A 3).Tertiaryconsumers(planktonpredatorsandbenthicpredators,A 4)areatthetopofthe foodchain.Alltheorganicmatterinthesystemultimatelycyclesthroughthebacterialdecomposersintheoozeatthebottomofthelake,whichinturnfeedszooplanktersandbrowsers.(FromLindeman,R.L.Copyright©1942,Ecolo gicalSocietyofAmerica.Thetrophic –dynamicaspectofecology.Ecology 23:399–417.WithpermissionfromtheEcologicalSocietyofAmerica.)Complex Creations: Designing and Managingλasshellsthatare difficult todigestandwhoseenergyisnotpassedalong.Theavailableenergyineacht rophiclevel,then,islessthanthatintheprecedinglevel.Lindemanexpressedthisrelationship usingthep roductivitysymbollambda(λ):0 >λ1 >λ2 . . . >λn .Aswemovetohigherandhighertrophiclevels,lessandlessenergyisavailable.Becausehigher-orderconsumersalsoneedever-greaterlevelsofenergytoseekouttheirprey,atsomepointin everyecosystem,thereisnolonger sufficientenergy tosupportanothertrophiclevel.Lindemancalculatedtheproductivityand efficiency ofenergytransferbetweentrophiclevelsforse verallakesforwhichhehaddataanddrewsomepreliminaryconclusions.This prefigured themore precisemodelingofecosystemsthatwastocomeinthenextphaseofecosystemecology.INTEGRATEPRODUCERS,CONSUMERS,ANDDECOMPOSERSAllecosystemsaregovernedbytherulesofenergy flowthatLindemanoutlined.Aswemanageexisti ngecosystemsandstrivetocreatefunctioningecosystemsofourown,weneedtobesurethedifferenttr ophiclevelsarerepresentedintheirproperratios.Ifalevelismissingortherearetoofeworganismsattha tlevel,energy,intheformoforganicmatter,willaccumulateaswaste,orundesirableorganismsmaytakea dvantageofthebounty.Iftherearetoomanylevelsortoomanyorganisms,theywill need supplemental inputs to survive, or else they will die or move away. Using anecosystemapproach,wecancreateamorebalanceddesignedlandscapeinwhichvariouscomponen tssupport eachotherandproducelittlewaste.AtElMonteSagrado,anecologicallymindedluxuryresortinTaos,NewMexico,alinkedseriesofcaref ullydesignedaquaticecosystemsprovidewastewatertreatmentandanessentialpartofthelandscape.The systems’ability to filterwaterdependsontheintegrationofdifferenttrophiclevels.Attheheartofth ewastewater filtrationprocessisaLivingMachine.LivingMachineswereoriginallydeveloped by ecological designer John Todd in the 1970s and 1980s (Todd and Todd 1993).Theyhavesincebeen refined andarenowdesignedandsoldbyLivingMachineSystems.Inthewor dsofgeneralmanagerEricLohan,oneofthedesignersofthesystematElMonteSagrado,theyworkby tak ingnaturalecosystemprocessesand “turbo -charging”them.Inthewastewater system,muchoftheinitialenergycomesnotfromsunlightbutfromthewa steproductsthemselves,whichareconsumedby bacterialdecomposers.Thusfartheprocessresembles aconventionalsepticsystem,inwhichexcessbacterialbiomasssettlesoutassludgethateventuallyhast oberemoved.IntheLivingMachine,the bacteriathatperformtheinitialdecompositionarecentraltoanen tireecosystem(justasbacteriaarein Lindeman’s diagramofalakeecosystem),inwhichtheyareconsumed byprotozoans,microcrusta-ceans,andsnails.Plants floatingabovethewastewaterasitistreatedtakeupaportionofthenewly availa blenutrientsandprovideintheirrootsalivingsubstrateforthisdiversecommunity.Afterdisinfectionand finalpolishinginanoutdoorwetland,thenowclearwaterentersindoordis-playpondsandanotheraquaticecosystem.Hereproducersincludeavarietyoftropicalplants,phyto-plankton,andalgae,and fishplaytheroleofconsumers.Resortguestsalsoserveasconsumerswhen they enjoystarfruit(Averrhoacarambola )andkumquatfromtheplantsthatareirrigatedbythetreatedwastewa ter.Byincludingallthetrophiclevels,thissystemfullyusestheenergyandnutrientspresentComplex Creations: Designing and Managing inthewastewatergeneratedbyresortguests,resultinginclearwaterandvaluableendproductsrath erthanmurkygraywaterandsewagesludge.Ontopofthis,thankstothe efficient reuseofwater thatthea quaticecosystemsallowandtheircentralitytotheoveralldesignoftheresort,eveninthehigh desertElMont eSagradohasalushambiencethatinvitesgueststorelaxandfeelthemselvesapartof living processes (fig.4.5).Figure4.5TreatedwaterfromtheLivingMachineentersanindoordisplaypondatElMonteSagrado resortinTao s,NewMexico.(PhotocourtesyofWorrellWaterTechnologies.)NEGATIVEFEEDBACKLOOPSHELPECOSYSTEMSMAINTAINSTABILITYOne of the aspects of ecosystems that fascinated the early ecologists who studied themwas that ecosystems can demonstrate, in Arthur Tansley’swords, a “relatively stabledynamic equilibrium.”Fifteenyears afterthepublicationofLindeman’sarticleontrophic dynamics,HowardOdum(1957)am assedlargeamountsofdataintoamuchmoreexactpictureofthesurgingdynamics behind such apparentstability.TheecosystemOdumstudiedwastheheadwatersofSilverSprings,Florida.Sincethenineteenth cen turySilverSpringshasbeenatouristattractiontowhichvisitorsflocktoadmirethecrystalclearwa-ter,schoolsoffish,andwavingfreshwatereelgrass(Sagittariasubulata)(fig.4.6).Theglass-bottomed boatwasinventedatSilverSprings,infact,andtothisdayonecantakeaboatridearoundthethr ee quartermilesofwateryattractionswithfolksynamessuchasFishReceptionHall.SilverSpringsmadeComplex Creations: Designing and ManagingFigure4.6ResearchdiversinmainboilofSilverSpringsholdherbivorousturtlesamidalgae-coveredeelgrass.(FromOdum,H.T.Copyright©1957,EcologicalSocietyofAmerica.Trophicstructureandproducti vityofSilver Springs,Florida.EcologicalMonographs27:55–112.WithpermissionfromtheEcologicalSocietyofAmerica.)an excellent natural laboratory for Odum because of the constancy of its flow, temperature,and chemi-calproperties.Odumnotedthatthesprings’“hydrographicclimate”wasata steadystateand thatalong-standingclimaxcommunityhadresulted.Odumandhisteamofresearcherswenttoremarkablelengthstocapturedataoneveryaspectofthe SilverSpringsecosystem.Bendingoverthebowofamotoringboat,theymeasuredthetempera-turechangesinwaterasitflowedoutofthemainboilanddownstream.Byharvestingandweighingsampl esofeelgrassandthealgaethatcoveredit,theydeterminedthebiomassoftheseproducers.Theygrews nailsincagesonthebottomofthestreamandmeasuredtheirincreaseinweight.Theysnuckuponquadr atsmarkedintheeelgrassandpartedtheleavestocountatypeof sunfishcalled stumpknockers(Lepomisp unctatus)wheretheyhid.Cleverly,Odumandhisteamwereabletomeasuretheoverallmetabolismofthecommunitybycomparingoxygen levels in the water during the day and at night. The regular flow of SilverSprings carried all the “waste products” of the ecosystem past the measuring station three quarters of amiledownstreamfromtheboil.Atnightalltheorganismsinthecommunityrespired,loweringoxygenlevelsto apoint that reflected their cumulative metabolism. During the day, respiration continued, butthe photosyntheticproducersalsogaveoffoxygen.Thedifferencebetweendaytimeandnighttimeoxygenlevel s,multipliedbythevolumeofthecurrent,thereforeprovidedameasureofthedifferencebetweenphotosynthesisand respiration, which is the ecosystem’s net primaryproduction.Combiningallthesemeasurements,Odumwasabletocreateadetaileddescriptionoftheflowofenergyin the entire ecosystem. This analysis also allowed him to explain how Silver Springs maintained itself inaseeminglyunchangingstate.Basedontheratioofcommunityproductivitytostandingbio-mass,Odum estimatedthattheentirecommunityturnedover(diedandwasreplaced)eighttimesperyear.Clearly,smaller organi smsturnedovermanytimesmorethantheaverageandlargerlonger-livedorganismsless.Becauseofthedifferentamountofsunlightreachingtheprimaryproducersinwinterands ummer,therewasanaturalpulseinproductioninthesystem.Onemightexpectthisburstofproductivitytober eflected inaflushofnewgrowthintheeelgrassoranincreaseinthepopulationofprimaryconsumers.Infact,sta ndingbiomassandpopulationlevelswerestablethroughouttheyear.Odumevenreportedanoldboatcaptain askinghim whethertheeelgrassevergrew.Seasonalspikesinconsumer reproduction seemedto betimedto matchtheincreasedproductivity,andtheextrayounginonetrophiclevelwerequicklyeatenbytheextrayounginthenext,so thatalthoughmoreenergymayhavebeenflowingthrough,standingbiomassintheecosystemremained const ant.Negativefeedbackloopssuchasanincreaseinconsumptionthatabsorbsanincreaseinproduction helpecosystemsre-mainstable.Wherenegativefeedbackloopsmeetaconstantenvironment,asatSilver Springs,overall stabilitycanbemaintainedforanextendedperiod.第4章复杂的作品:生态景观设计的原则Principles of Ecological LandscapeDesign设计和管理生态系统一只蜻蜓掠过波光粼粼的池塘表面,抓住孵化后的蚊子之前在一个悬臂冲旁休息。

建筑景观设计的艺术和实践（英文中文双语版优质文档）Landscape design is a highly comprehensive discipline, which involves many disciplines such as architecture, horticulture, art, psychology, and ecology. As a landscape architect, I deeply feel the challenges and joys brought by this discipline.1. Art and AestheticsThe primary goal of landscape design is to create beautiful spaces, so art and aesthetics are indispensable elements of landscape design. Art is a way of expressing and conveying emotions, thoughts and ideas, and it can create a landscape with beauty and uniqueness through color, shape, material and space.Aesthetics is the study and understanding of beauty, which discusses the essence of beauty, the standard of beauty and the value of beauty. Landscape design needs to follow aesthetic principles, such as symmetry, proportion, rhythm, repetition, change, etc., to create an aesthetically harmonious space.2. Function and practicalityLandscape design should not only pay attention to art and aesthetics, but also consider function and practicality. Landscape architects need to understand the needs and behaviors of users, rationally arrange and design spaces to improve the efficiency and convenience of space use.For example, in the design of parks and squares, it is necessary to take into account the rest and entertainment needs of tourists, and set up rest areas, children's play facilities, and cultural display areas. In the design of residential quarters, it is necessary to consider the living and living needs of residents, and set up green belts, social spaces and fitness facilities.3. Ecological and environmental protectionLandscape design also needs to take into account ecological and environmental protection issues. Today, with the continuous advancement of urbanization and the continuous enhancement of people's awareness of environmental protection, landscape design must also keep up with the trend of the times and pay attention to ecological and environmental protection.Landscape architects need to understand issues such as land use, ecosystems, and biodiversity, and adopt sustainable design and management methods so that the landscape is environmentally friendly and ecologically valuable while maintaining its beauty.4. Humanization and Cultural InheritanceLandscape design also needs to take into account the issues of humanization and cultural heritage. As a part of human society, landscape design needs to meet human needs and cultural traditions, and provide people with safe, convenient and comfortable spaces.Landscape architects need to understand local cultural traditions and human history, and integrate local cultural characteristics and spiritual connotations into the design. For example, in urban planning and landscape design, local traditional architectural styles, folk culture, historical relics and other elements need to be fully considered to create landscapes with local characteristics.At the same time, landscape design also needs to focus on humanized design, taking into account the physical and psychological needs of users, and providing spaces suitable for people of all ages. For example, in the design of parks, it is necessary to set up barrier-free passages and humanized facilities to facilitate the travel and activities of the elderly and disabled people.5. Technology and Innovationneeds to combine various techniques and tools to realize design concepts and goals. For example, CAD, SketchUp and other software can help designers design and draw, and plant selection and green management also need to involve horticultural technology and botanical knowledge.Innovation is also an indispensable element in landscape design. It can create unique and forward-looking landscape design works by combining new technologies, new materials and new ideas.epilogueneeds to comprehensively consider factors such as art, practicality, ecology, humanization and innovation. In the design process, landscape architects need to comprehensively use various knowledge and technologies to provide users with aesthetic and practical spaces, pay attention to environmental protection and cultural heritage, and create unique and forward-looking landscape design works.景观设计是一门综合性很强的学科，它涉及到建筑、园艺、艺术、心理学、生态学等众多学科领域。

Landscape design is a multidisciplinary field that combines elements of art, architecture,horticulture,and environmental science to create outdoor spaces that are both functional and aesthetically pleasing.It involves the careful planning and arrangement of natural and manmade features to create a cohesive and harmonious environment.Here are some key aspects to consider when writing an essay on landscape design:1.Introduction to Landscape Design:Begin your essay by defining landscape design and explaining its importance in creating livable and sustainable environments.Discuss the role of landscape design in urban planning,environmental conservation,and enhancing the quality of life for communities.2.Historical Context:Provide a brief history of landscape design,tracing its evolution from ancient gardens and parks to modern urban landscapes.Mention key figures and movements that have influenced the field,such as the English landscape movement,the Olmsted Brothers,and contemporary landscape architects like Peter Walker and Martha Schwartz.3.Principles of Design:Discuss the fundamental principles that guide landscape design, such as unity,balance,contrast,rhythm,and scale.Explain how these principles are applied to create visually appealing and functional outdoor spaces.4.Types of Landscape Design:Describe different types of landscape design,including residential,commercial,institutional,and public spaces.Discuss the unique challenges and considerations for each type,such as the need for privacy in residential landscapes or the emphasis on accessibility in public spaces.5.Elements of Landscape Design:Detail the various elements that make up a landscape design,such as plants,hardscape e.g.,paths,patios,walls,water features,lighting,and outdoor furniture.Explain how these elements are selected and arranged to create a cohesive design.6.Ecological Considerations:Address the importance of ecological sustainability in landscape design.Discuss how landscape architects can incorporate native plants,reduce water consumption,and create habitats for wildlife while also meeting the needs of the human users of the space.7.Innovations in Landscape Design:Highlight recent innovations and trends in the field, such as green roofs,urban agriculture,and the use of technology in landscape design. Discuss how these innovations are reshaping the way we think about and interact withoutdoor spaces.8.Case Studies:Include examples of notable landscape design projects to illustrate the concepts discussed in your essay.Analyze the design process,the challenges faced,and the outcomes achieved in each case.9.Future of Landscape Design:Conclude your essay by speculating on the future of landscape design.Consider how emerging technologies,changing environmental conditions,and evolving societal values might influence the field.10.Conclusion:Summarize the key points of your essay and reiterate the importance of landscape design in creating beautiful,functional,and sustainable outdoor environments.Remember to use clear and concise language,provide specific examples,and cite your sources to support your arguments.A wellstructured essay on landscape design can not only inform but also inspire readers to appreciate the art and science behind creating outdoor spaces.。

文明实践志愿服务主题公园景观设计英文翻译 Title: Translation of Civilized Practice Volunteer Service Theme Park Landscape DesignIntroduction: The translation provided here focuses on the design aspects of a theme park related to the promotion of civilized practice volunteer service. This document aims to provide a detailed analysis of the landscape design, with step-by-step reasoning and examples to ensure a clear understanding. I. Purpose of Civilized Practice Volunteer Service Theme Park The Civilized Practice Volunteer Service Theme Park aims to create a space that educates, inspires, and promotes volunteerism in a civilized manner. This park serves as a platform for individuals to contribute to their communities through volunteering activities while promoting and preserving cultural and environmental values. II. Principles for Landscape Design in the Theme Park 1. Integration of Natural and Cultural Elements: The landscape design should seamlessly blend natural elements such as trees, flowers, and water bodies with cultural elements like sculptures, installations, and architectural components. The purpose is to create a harmonious environment that inspires visitors to appreciate the beauty of nature and cultural heritage while actively engaging in volunteer activities. 2. Accessibility and Inclusiveness: The park design must prioritize accessibility, catering to visitors of all ages, abilities, and backgrounds. This includes providing barrier-free pathways, wheelchair-friendly facilities, and adequate signage. Additionally, spaces for group activities and individual contemplation should be considered in order to accommodate various preferences and needs. III. Detailed Landscape Design Components1. Entrance Area: The entrance area should feature a striking combination of cultural symbols and natural elements, showcasing the theme of volunteerism and the importance of nature. For example, a sculpture depicting volunteers engaged inactivities surrounded by trees and flowers would be an appropriate choice.2. Volunteer Activity Zones: These zones should be strategically placed throughout the park, designed to accommodate various types of volunteer activities. For instance, one area could be dedicated to gardening activities, equipped with tools, composting areas, and designated plant beds. Another area could be designed for educational activities, featuring information boards and interactive displays. 3. Rest and Relaxation Areas: Rest areas, including benches, picnic spots, and shaded spaces, should be thoughtfully placed throughout the park. By providing comfortable seating options, visitors can relax and reflect on their volunteer experiences while enjoying the surrounding natural landscapes. 4. Interactive Exhibition Spaces: Designated exhibition spaces can be used to educate visitors about the importance of volunteerism. These spaces should be interactive and engaging, incorporating multimedia elements such as touch screens, audio guides, and visual displays to enhance the learning experience. For example, a virtual reality exhibit could simulate volunteer activities, making it both informative and entertaining. 5. Environmental Preservation Zones: To promote environmental awareness, specific areas within the park can be designated for preserving local flora and fauna. Signage and information boards can educate visitors about the importance of biodiversity and conservation efforts. This zone can serve as a living classroom, providing opportunities for guided tours and hands-on educational activities.IV. Conclusion The design of a Civilized Practice Volunteer Service Theme Park should prioritize the integration of natural and cultural components while remaining accessible and inclusive for visitors from all walks of life. By carefully planning the park's entrance, volunteer activity zones, rest areas, interactive exhibitions, and environmental preservation zones, the overall park experience can be transformed into an inspiring and impactful journey for both volunteers and visitors alike.。

LANDSCAPE DESIGNINGThe term landscaping has many different meaning to different people, some picture a business that grows and installs plants.园林这个名词对于不同的人有不同的意义，有些人把它描述成是一种与植物种植和配植相关的职业。

Others seem landscapers sitting before large drawing boards planning beautiful gardens.其他一些人认为风景园林师是坐在大大画板前设计美丽的公园。

Still others see landscapers as those who mow lawns, prune shrubs, build patios, and erect fences; these and other tasks are a part of landscaping.又有一些人，在他们眼中，园林工作者就是那些割草坪、修灌木、建庭院、筑篱笆的人。

而这些和其他一些工作只是园林工作者的一部分。

For learning purposes, landscaping will be presented in three categories: design, installation, and maintenance.为了学习用的园林设计将被分成3个部分：设计、配植和养护。

There is a need for professional landscape designing at all levels of modern society yet someone who is interested in working with home properties and other small sites may not be interested or trained to work with large parks, urban plazas or large geographic regions.在当代社会的所有阶层中都需要专业园林设计者，因为对于一个善于设计花园住宅和其他小场地的人来说，他不一定擅长或受过训练去处理大型的公园、广场或是大型的地理区域。

1. PrefaceLandscape design is an integral part of urban design, but also the face of a city, one of the decisive factors. Landscape design is quite extensive, including a deal with the city space, the use of the characteristics of the original site, and contact between the surrounding environment, plaza, pedestrian street layout, street short as well as settings such as municipal facilities, both with regard to function, it also involves the visual and psychological problems. The concept of traditional landscape design to green-oriented, with the city's modernization and the urban population of the substantial increase in the functional requirements of the landscape is becoming more prominent, at the same time also called for a more aesthetic enrichment and diversification of town so large-scale use of hard landscape, in order to effectively solve the problem.Article in the city constitute a hard on the basic elements of landscape, such as paving, steps, sculpture pieces and so on, through a detailed theoretical introduction, description of specific characteristics of these elements, the use of, and constitute the role of the urban landscape, image, vivid rich and instructive reference for now to carry out large-scale construction of the city has a positive meaning.2. The constituent elements of the urban landscape2.1 SURFACESNatural environment from the ground, in the city the ground is always the need to do deal with rigid pavement. In addition to meet the required high-frequency, high-intensity use of functions, but also because the pavement is the creation of a city, one of the basic elements of landscape. Through the use of different pavement materials, can be divided into different uses of the ground to define the different characteristics of the space, you can identify the way forward, suggesting that the speed and rhythm of tour, at the same time through the pavement design changes, but also to create visual interest, constitute a space personality.Designed to do the ground pavement at the time, need to consider the following factors: First of all, should be guided by the principle of a unified whole. Whether it is the choice of pavement materials, pavement design, or design, and other landscape elements should be considered simultaneously in order to ensure that the pavement on the ground in terms of vision or function have been unified into a whole. Change random pavement materials and designs, will only add to the chaotic sense of space, so a specific purpose inthe absence of circumstances, can not transform the pavement adjacent to the form of materials and color. The second is security. Function should ensure that pavement strength requirements necessary to ensure surfacing both in dry or wet conditions are the same anti-skid and avoid the risk of pedestrian happen. The third is the appearance, including color, scale and texture. Colors do not want to do is bore neither bleak nor clear to the tacky. Change the color or texture, as long as the function to reflect the difference can be used at. Scale considerations will affect the choice of color and texture, as well as the design of拼缝. Road block size, color and texture and so on, and the venue should have the right relationship between scale, which is an important point.A lot of ground surfacing materials, primarily asphalt, concrete, tile, natural stone, gravel, etc., can be made in accordance with the requirements of the different selection. Asphalt surface and low cost, easy construction, commonly used in the driveway, sidewalks, road pavement parking. Color of the use of asphalt pavement can also change the monotony of the landscape. Concrete pavement due to its low cost and applicability of a strong and widely used. Cast-in-place concrete paving settings attention should be paid to expansion joints, and concrete block pavement is more flexible. The colorful tile surface, pattern and shape of the degree of freedom, and easy to create a cheerful, gorgeous atmosphere. Commonly used in public facilities in the entrance plaza, walkways, shopping malls and other places of the road pavement. Natural stone materials, especially granite paving, can often create a solemn, calm atmosphere, most important for the city lots. In order to avoid large-scale rigid pavement caused by environmental problems, at the possible conditions, can also be combined with green, forming grass pavement inlay.2.2 level, and curb rampSpace in urban environment, natural causes or because of the various functions required, usually to change the floor height changes, and changes in floor height also tend to produce a rich and beautiful landscape of the city. One of changing the floor there is a high level of landscape design, and geo-stone ramp.Steps and the main function of the ramp is to make pedestrians from a high floor to another floor height, but at the same time the site has highlighted the great potential of environmental characteristics. When the level is designed to narrow and touches the heart, sometimes there is a wide sense of grandeur can be closed and mysterious, you can open and continuous. They will gradually spectacular, dramatic way to induce perception of pedestrian arrival means an excellent climax.Stone is a kind of geopolitical ensure the safety of pedestrians, traffic guidance, soil and water, the protection of plant, as well as the distinction between road pavement and set boundaries in the driveway and sidewalk, the road and the green boundaries, the different pavement surface, such as the location of the boundary structures. Stone road, many different types of fate, there is pre-cast concrete, brick, natural stone and so on, modeling is also very rich.2.3 Sculpture PiecesSculpture is an important element of the urban landscape, which with its rich modeling language, to convey thoughts and feelings are unique. Sculpture and the urban environment of the geographic landscape, garden landscape and the landscape architecture of mutual infiltration and often constitute the characteristics of the city or community signs. The type of town a lot of sculpture, which belong to a class of short-type sculptures, most of its subject matter to people's lifestyles and animal and plant-based, pay attention to reflect the characteristics of folk customs and places. Sculpture in order to achieve harmony with the environment should be in the planning, design, production and other aspects of serious consideration. The first is the layout: the location of sculpture and architecture with the surrounding natural environment is in harmony, composition at the landscape in which the status of the location of sculpture and the relationship between road traffic. The second is modeling: modeling how sculpture occupies space appropriate and what form "language" to attract passers-visual and psychological impact of their viewing. Third, body mass scale: in particular types of small-scale sculpture, with the view to maintain cordial relations.The form of sculpture is usually divided into two categories, as with the abstract. Because of the sculpture as a direct acceptance for people, they are often more than an abstract sculpture, but many excellent image of an abstract sculpture sculpture as more than an image, more generally, a more concise, more typical, and, therefore, more interesting, people lost in hair. Traditional sculpture in stone, copper-based materials, but the development of modern science and technology for the sculpture provides a means to enrich the model with a dynamic arts, as the magic arts, electronic art, art lighting and sound performance of the novel art sculpture better meet the needs of people at different levels to enjoy the arts.3. ConclusionDesigned in a modern urban landscape of the course, it is necessary to fully from a scientific point of view of the status of the urban environment. Want acomprehensive understanding of the scientific landscape design elements of city property and other characteristics of natural and urban ecological balance mechanism, the use of modern art theory and creative way to create a higher than that derived from the natural landscape of the city to meet the aesthetic needs of people.However, a lot of cities in the modern landscape design similar to a very serious situation, and there is also a city is not in accordance with the natural conditions of the original city, other cities can emulate the style of the building. This is a very serious question, on the one hand it reflects the weak sense of innovation throughout society, will create a lot of rubbish building.One of the reasons, first, the urban landscape was designed by the government officials decided that the pursuit of its political achievements, it is rarely considered the reasonableness of the landscape design; On the other hand, because a lot of landscape designers is not happy under the site, at least lack of initiative, and a lack of communication with construction personnel, and ultimately the design of the outcome of a lot of regret on the left. Thus, the city from the basic elements of landscape design to start, government officials, designers and construction personnel to fully communicate, to create a character and reflect the city has the characteristics of the urban landscape.。

Basic principles of cartographic design Makram Murad-al-shaikhM.S. CartographyEsri education delivery team•Cartography defined•The communication channel-Why maps fail•Objectives & limitations affecting design •Cartographic design issues•Abuse of GIS cartographyArt Science TechnologyMaking mapsPresentationUseThe geographic environmentCompileRecognize Select Classify Simplify SymbolizeReadAnalyze InterpretImagineMapMapCartographerRealityReality?Map userComplex task (unlimited options)Highly creativemental activityUse concepts of communicationThink invisual terms Useful mapBeauty is NOT the MAIN objective•The WHY?•The HOW?Mapobjectives•Convey information•Highlight spatial relationships•Illustrate analysis results•Easier comprehension of complex eventsDesignobjectives•Fulfill map objectives•Assign meaningful symbology•Ensure truthful depiction of reality•Fulfill communication objectivesPopulationSoilsFocused information Importance can vary Symbols can dominateVariety of information Equal importance Subtle symbologyGeneral mapThematic map•More than 4000 •No perfect projection •All have distortionsCylindricalConicalAzimuthal DirectionDistance Shape AreaDisplace?Aggregate?Omit?Simplify? Collapse?Typify?Exaggerate?Classify?Refine?C EBC2C3 E1 B1 E5 C5 B4ColorShapeTexture / PatternGraytone value SizeDimensionsR G B YHue20 30 50 85%Value100 70 40 10% SaturationMaximum 12 colorsMaximum 7 – 8 shadesTexturevibrationOpticalillusions Orientation exerts direction•Only for areas•Qualitative symbology •Consider effects of reduction•Size of symbol •Distance of viewing•Perfect vision?Differentiation Relative importanceForm ColorStyle QualitativeSizeRedlands San DiegoValue ColorRIVER FormQuantitativeRedlandsSan DiegoAvoid•Readability issues53 16 02 4•Ambiguity issues•Faster reading issues•Convenience issuesDesigned by Makram 2014x h (5%) h Visual GeometricA 2 1 CBA BA BNNMollweide projectionAre these dog houses? Must be visually easy to readIs it correct? Is it easy to use?Necessary?••Avoid-------•ORAlwaysThinkof theUserQuestions?。