Chapter5 Semantics
1. Definition
1.命名论The naming theory
Proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.(缺点：仅限于名词)
2.意念论The conceptualist view Ogden and Richards
It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
3.语境论Conceptualism
It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Here are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.
4.行为主义论Behaviorism
It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.
2. Lexical meaning:
Sense: it is concerned with inherent meaning of linguistic form; it is the
collection of all features of linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
Reference: it means the linguistic form refers to the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
3. Main sense relations
1.同义词Synonymy
It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.
(1)Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects（方
言）
British America
autumn fall
flat apartment
(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style（文体）
Old man daddy father male parent
(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning（情感）Collaborator VS Accomplice
(4)Collocational synonyms（搭配）
Accuse VS Charge（accuse…of; charge…with）
Rotten tomatoes VS Addled eggs
(5)Semantically different synonyms（语义）
Amaze VS Astound
2.多义词Polysemy
It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning; the same one word may have more than one meaning.
Ball: 1. an round object used in game.
2. a large formal social event at which people dance.
3.同音(形)异义Homonymy
It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, ., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
1). Homophones同音异义
It refers to two words are identical in sound. . rain/reign.
2).Homographs同形异义
It refers to two words are identical in form. . tear v. /tear n.
3). Complete homonyms同形同音
It refers to words that are both identical in sound and spelling. . tear v. /tear n.
4.上下义关系Hyponymy
It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Superordinate: animal
Subordinate: cat, dog, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fox, bear,
5.反义词Antonymy
It is the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.
a) gradable:等级反义词old-young
b) complementary：互补反义词male-female
c) relational:关系反义词father-son buy-sell
4. Sentence sense relations:
1）.X is synonymous with Y（同义）
. He is a bachelor all his life.
He never married all his life.
2）. X is inconsistent with Y（不一致/反义）
. John is married
John is a bachelor.
3）.X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)（包含于）
. He has been to France.
He has been to Europe.
4）. X presuppose Y（Y是X的先决条件）
. John’s bike needs repairing.
John has a bike.
5）. X is a contradiction（X是一个矛盾句）
. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
6). X is semantically anomalous.（语义异常）
. The table has bad intensions.
5. Analysis of meaning
1. Componential Analysis成分分析法----分析词汇抽象意义
It’s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. This approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
. Man=Adult +Male+ Animate+ Human
2. Predication Analysis述谓结构分析(由British Linguist 提出)
It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands etc. (通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.)
3.先设前提Presupposition
It’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.
4.蕴涵Entailment
Entailment can be illustrated by the following two sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.
A: Mark married a blonde heiress.
B: Mark married a blonde.
第6章pragmatics
本章要点：
1. speech act theory言语行为的理论
2. cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则
an theory of conventional implicature格莱斯会话含义理论
本章考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行事行为和取效行为）；合作原则。实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。
本章内容索引：
1．Pragmatics Definition Pragmatics & semantics Context
Sentence meaning vs utterance meaning
2．Speech act theory
Austin’s model of speech acts
Searl’s classification of speech acts
Indirect speech acts
3．Principle of conversion
Cooperative principle and its maxims Violation of the maxims 4．Conversational implicature
Definition: Characteristics of conversational implicative Calculability Cancellability Non-detachability Non-conventionality
5．Cross-cultural pragmatics failure
1．Pragmatics
Definition：It is the study of speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
Pragmatics & semantics
If the context was taken into the study of meaning, then the study calls pragmatics.
Context
A: Definition: It is generally considered as the knowledge that shared by the speaker and hearer.
B: Significance: It determines the speaker’s use of language and the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him. With context, the communication would achieve satisfactory result.
Sentence meaning vs Utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义Sentence meaning: abstract and de-contextualized.
Utterance meaning: concrete and context dependent, and based on sentence meaning.
2．Speech act theory
Austin’s model of speech acts为)：
A: an act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. Literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
B: An illocutionary act(言外行为)：an act of expressing the speaker’s intention.
C: An perlocutionary act(言后行为)：an act of performed by or
resulting from saying something; the consequence or change brought about by the utterance;
Searl’s(瑟尔) classification of speech acts
A: Representatives(阐述类): stating or describing, saying something what the speaker believes to be true. 陈述，相信，发誓Eg: I swear
I have never seen the man before.
B: directive(指令类)：Trying to get the hearer to do something. advise，ask，beseech，command，demand，order，request，tell，：open the door!
C: Commissives(承诺类)：committing the speaker himself to some future course of action. commit，consent，guarantee，offer，pledge，promise，refuse，threaten. .：I promise to come!
D: Expressives(表达类)：expressing the feeling or attitude towards an existing state. apologize，boast，congratulate，deplore，regret，thank，welcome Eg：I am sorry for the mess I have made.
about immediate change by saying something.
E: Declarations(宣告类)：bring about immediate change by saying something. appoint，bless，christen，declare，name，nominate，resign. .: I fire you.
Indirect speech acts (developed by Searl)
Two speech acts:
The primary: speaker’s goal of communication
The second: means by which he achieves his goal.
3．Principle of conversion
Cooperative principle and its maxims (Paul Grice)
A: the maxim of quantity量的准则: (you are what you say)
Make your contribution informative as required, not more informative than required.
B: the maxim of quality质的准则: Tautologies(意思重复)
Do not say something you believe is false, or something is lake of evidence.
C: the maxim of relation关系准则:
Be relevant.
D: the maxim of manner方式准则:
Avoid obscurity, ambiguity, be brief and orderly.
Violation of the maxims 通过实例分析违反准则。
4．Conversational implicature
Definition: Characteristics of conversational implicative
●Cancellability/defeasibility
This means that an implicature can be cancelled. The feature allows the speaker to imply something and then deny that implicature.
A: Let's have a drink.
B: It's not one o'clock yet. (Implying we can drink after one o'clock)
A: I didn't say that you could drink after one o'clock. I said that you
couldn't drink before. (the implicature disappears)
●Non-detachability
This means that an implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to linguistic form. Therefore implicatures cannot be detached from an utterance simply by changing the words for synonyms or in other words by relexicalization or reformulation.
For example, if everyone knows that Bob is an idiot, saying "Bob is a genius" to convey the opposite meaning "Bob is terribly foolish, he can choose any of the following synonymous expressions to maintain the same implicature:
a) Bob is a mental prodigy.
b) Bob is an exceptionally clever human being.
c) Bob is an enormous intellect.
d) Bob is a big brain.
●Calculability/derivability
This means that an implicature is calculable, that is to say, it can be worked out from the literal meaning or the sense of the utterance on the one hand, and the Cooperative Principle and its maxims on the other hand.
●Non-conventionality
This is to say that conversational implicatures are not conventional, that is, not part of the conventional meaning of linguistic expressions.
But we should notice that what begins as a conversational implicature may become the meaning of a lexical item or linguistic expression. For example:
"Go to the bathroom" originally meant Going to WC as an euphemism, but now has become conventionalized. We don’t have to derive the implicature by the CP but by convention.
5．Cross-cultural pragmatics failure
第7章language changes 语言变化
本章要点：
1．Phonological change 音系变化
2．Morphological and syntactic change 形态和句法变化3．Lexical and semantic change词汇和语义变化
本章考点：新词的增加：创新词，缩略词，紧缩词，词首字母缩略词，逆构词法；词义的变化：词义扩大，缩小，意义的转换。
of historical linguistics 历史语言学的定义
A branch of linguistics. It concerned with the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over the time.
2. Phonological change
Phonological change tends to be systematic. It is possible to see a regular pattern of pronunciation changes throughout the history of English language.
3. Morphological and syntactic change Addition of affixes 词汇的增加
In English many affixes are borrowed. Eg the suffix –ment in French.
Lost of affixes
Some affixes fade out of use
Changes for word order
Case marking lost, subject-object-verb fixed.
Change in negation rule Eg. I love thee not.
>I do not love thee.
4 lexical and semantic change
(1)Addition of new words 新词的增加
A: coinage/invention
A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose. Eg: walkman, Kodak, Ford
B: clipped words
Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrase. Eg gym-gymnasium Expo-exposition Memo-memorandum Disco-discotheque
C: blending
A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words. Eg smog = smoke+fog Motel
Brunch = breakfast+ lunch
D: Acronyms
Acronyms are word derived from the initials of several words. Eg BBC
VOA
E: Back-formation Deleting the affixes.
. to automate 自动化←automation to legislate 立法←legislation
F: Functional shift
Word-class shift from one to another. Eg noun-verb love
G：Borrowing 借词法
(2)Loss of words 词汇的废弃Eg beseem –to be suitable Wot –to know Gyve –a fetter
(3) change in the meaning of words Semantic broadening 词义扩大Holiday 原形是holy day 神圣的宗教节日，现在指不用上班的时间。Semantic narrowing 词义的缩小
Hound 曾经用来指Dog 的总称，现在缩小为指某一种特殊的狗。Semantic shift 词义转换
Inn 原本指小旅馆小酒吧，现在指非常有名的好旅馆。
5 Some recent trends
A: moving to greater informality. Ain’t can’t didn’t’t 出现在文章中。B: the influence of American English
随着政治经济文化的发张，美国的影视，报纸，杂志，广播和电视对世界文化造成很大的影响。
C: the influence of technology and science 新的技术科技的发展创造出新的词汇和表达
D: Space travel
Space suit, heat-shield splash-down
E: computer and internet language Program input output
F: Ecology 生态学环境保护和资源保护。
6 causes of language change 语言变化的原因经济政治文化发展。
第8章sociolinguistics
1 the scope of sociolinguistics
The definition of sociolinguistics定义: It is a branch of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and social structures in which the users of language live.
The relatedness between the language and society 相关性
The main function of language is communication, but it also use to establish and maintain social relationship.
Users of the same language may speak differently because their different social background.
Speech community and speech variety 言语团体与言语变体
Speech community: the social special study.
Speech variety: any distinguishable form of language used by a speaker or a group of speakers. Speech features can be found at the lexical, the phonological, morphological, or the syntactical level of the language. Two approaches to sociolinguistics studies
Macro-sociolinguistics or the sociology of language :宏观社会语言学或
者语言社会学View the society as a whole and consider how language function s in it andhow it reflect the social differentiations.
Micro-sociolinguistics or sociolinguistics proper: 微观社会语言学或严格意义的社会语言学：point of view of an individual member within it.
2 varieties of language: Dialectal varieties Regional dialect Definition: refers to the language used by people living in the same geographical region. Features:
(1) Regional dialect boundaries are often coinciding with geographical boundaries.
(2) In most cases, the regional dialect in two neighboring area are mutually
intelligible to a great extent, and the change from one dialect to another is gradual.
(3) Reasons: The geographic barriers; loyalty to the one’s native speech; physical and psychological resistance to the change.
Sociolect
(1) Definition: social-class dialect refers to the characteristics of a particular social class.
(2) Features: two people from the same geographic may speak differently because of their socialfactors, such as background influence which influence linguistic form.
(3): Ascent is an important maker of sociolect.
Language and gender(标准，语调，词汇，礼貌)
a) The language of woman is more standard than that of man.
b) Woman has wider range of intonation.
c) Woman tend to use adjectives of evaluation d) Woman tends to be more polite than man. Language and age (词汇差异)
A) the language used by the old generation and the younger generation is different, especially in the lexical level.Idiolect (个人语言)
Refers to personal dialect that was decided by his social background, gender, age and so on.
Ethnic dialect
It is usually used by the underprivileged population that has experienced some form of racial discrimination and segregation.
Features of black English (非
1. mainly used by the non-middle-class Blacks
2. the simplification of the consonant clusters.(语音上)
3. deletion of ―be‖（句法上）
4. the use of double negation structure：he don’t know nothing. Register 语域
选择与情景类型相适应的语言类型就是语域
The type of language selected that is appropriate to the situation is a register.
a) field语场：refers to what is going on. The operation of the language
activity
b) Tenor 语旨：refers to the relationship in the situation in question.
c) Mode 语式：refers to the means of communication.
Eg: a lecture on biology in a college could be identified as:
Field: scientific (biology)
Tenor: teacher and students (formal and polite)
Mode: oral (academic lecture) Degree of formality
Language used on different occasions differs in different degree of formality, which is determined by the social variables.
Intimate casual consultative formal frozen.
3 standard dialect
Definition: the standard variety is particularly prestigious and superimposed dialect of a language. 通常为政府，媒体，教育行业所使用。
Nature: 标准方言是语言变体的一种特殊变体，因为它不与任何特定语言使用者群体都无关。而是一个语言社团的任何成员都可能使用的变体，无论其社会和地理背景。性别年龄如何。
Features: selected variety of a language, which used by the nation’s political.
4 pidgin and Creole Pidgin：
Definition: is a language variety that mixes different language for the special use, like trading.
Origin: 起源于几种不同语言的使用。
特点：词汇有限，语法结构非常简单，没有曲折变化，词性和格的消失。
Creole：克里奥耳语
Definition：当洋泾滨语成为某一特殊团体使用时，就成为了洋泾滨语。Features: 洋泾滨语的结构得以拓展；词汇量被极大的丰富。
5 choosing a code
Dislossia 双语变体：A situation where two varieties of a language exits side by side throughout the community. used by Ferguson in 1959. Features: 两种语言变体功能的具体化。
Bilingualism and multilingualism 双语现象和多语现象Bilingualism: a situation where two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play. 例如：加拿大魁北（英语和法语）Code-switching 语码转换
A change made by speaker or writer from one language or language variety to another one.
a)the situational Code-switching: speak one language in situation and
another in a different one.
6. linguistic taboos and euphemisms
第九章language and culture
本章要点：The relationship between language and culture 语言和文化得关系Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃尔夫的假说Linguistic
evidence of cultural differences 文化差异的语言证据
1. the definition of culture 名词解释
广义上：total way of life of a people, including belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques and language characterize the life of human community.
狭义上：refers to the specific practice , customs, or beliefs, which can be found in folk culture, or food culture.
2.语言和文化之间的关系分析异同点
A：对个人而言：Language permeates his thinking and viewing, it also expresses and embodies its cultural reality.
B: 对社会而言：language helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language reflects the changes in culture.
3. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: language helps to shape our ways of thinking, and consequently language reveals our unique ways of understanding the world.
The strong version: (linguistic determination): 语言决定论Language determines our thinking patterns.
The weak version: (linguistic relativity):语言相对主义Similarity between languages is relative. For two languages, the greater the structural differentiations are, the more diverse the conceptualization will be. Different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is known as linguistic
relativity
4. 文化差异的语言证据：
Any linguistic sign consists of three layers of meaning:
A: denotative meaning: the meaning given in a dictionary B: connotative meaning：the associative meaning C: iconic meaning: the images or icon invoked to people.
(1) greetings and terms of address
there are a dozen different greetings in English for people tochoose. (2): gratitude and compliments
例如相对于中国人，西方人tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliment and tend to accept thanks and compliments more frankly and directly.
(3): colour words:
不同的语言含有不同的与色彩相关的联想。
(4) privacy and taboos
西方人及其看中隐私，像年龄，家庭背景，薪水等。
(5) rounding off numbers: 数字处理西方人不喜欢数字13
(6) Words and cultural-specific connotations Semantic deffernce:
A: 一门语言中的语言术语在另一门语言中可能找不到想对应的counterpart。
(7) 与文化相关的idioms, proverbs and metaphors. Lucky dog: a lucky person