‘Stress Accent’ without Phonetic Stress:Accent Type and Distribution in Bininj Gun-wok
Judith Bishop
Department of Linguistics and Applied Linguistics
University of Melbourne, Australia
judithbb_attach@https://www.doczj.com/doc/23866888.html,
Abstract
Intonational typology has recently begun to scrutinize the
typology of accent beyond the common binary distinction of
‘stress accent’ and ‘pitch accent’ (or ‘non-stress’ accent).Contributing to this research, this study considers the phonetic correlates of accent and its patterns of distribution in the Kuninjku dialect of Bininj Gun-wok (BGW), a polysynthetic language spoken in Northern Australia. In BGW, postlexical accents (H*, L+H*) are attracted to metrically strong syllables,a defining feature of ‘stress accent’ languages. However,contrary to many stress accent languages described in the literature, pitch is the single consistent correlate of accent. In BGW, increased syllable duration is a weakly significant correlate of accent only on the penultimate syllable of an intonational phrase and intensity is not a consistent correlate.BGW accent type may be more accurately described as ‘metrical accent’, a term which captures the attraction of accent to metrical strength without the correlative assumption of phonetic stress. Accent in BGW has a clear metrical-prominence-enhancing function, but it may also perform a delimitative function at the level of the phonological word.While more than one accent can associate to a phonological word, in the Kuninjku dialect, a single accent will almost invariably align with the leftmost metrical head in the word.
1.Intro d uction
BGW exemplifies a language in which the distribution of postlexical pitch accents is conditioned by metrical structure,but in which pitch accent also constitutes the primary empirical evidence for metrical structure, in the absence of strong phonetic stress (e.g. increased syllable duration,intensity or more distinct vowel quality). In this respect, BGW resembles Bengali, in which the systematicity of accent placement evinces metrical structure [9, 10]. There are no lexically specified accents in BGW, and preliminary investigations suggest that vowel quality is not affected by metrical structure.
Metrical constituency in BGW corresponds closely to morphological constituency. Halle and Vergnaud propose a model for computing metrical structure which is well suited to describing BGW [8]. Their algorithm for determining the metrical structure of ‘simple inputs’ (those without lexically specified accents) ‘takes the already existing natural bracketing as input and merely interprets it as a “metrical bracketing”’ ([8], p.115). The edges of morphemes constitute instances of ‘natural bracketing’.
In BGW, the construction of metrical constituents makes reference to the left edge of a morpheme, which is constrained to align with the left edge of a foot [6]. This constraint is
rarely violated. Feet are trochaic and unbounded in all dialects of BGW.
This paper presents a preliminary analysis of accented and unaccented words and syllables in three field recordings of narratives (spontaneous monologues) by a male speaker of the Kuninjku dialect of Bininj Gun-wok. It provides evidence that syllable duration and intensity are not consistently greater in accented syllables. It also gives evidence for a default single accent position in polypedal phonological words, such that accent effectively delimits the left edge of the phonological word.
2.Phonetic correlates of accent
2.1.
Aims and method
Polypedal words in BGW frequently bear more than one accent, which means that there are relatively few tokens of metrically strong but unaccented syllables in the labelled corpus. Therefore, only metrically strong, accented syllables and metrically weak, unaccented syllables are compared in the present study.
The three texts analyzed comprise a total duration of approximately 29 minutes, and were labelled for intonation using Waves+ on a Sun workstation. The duration of syllables was determined from wideband spectrograms in conjunction with auditory analysis. Periods of voicelessness between a voiceless coda and a voiceless (or, more usually, partially voiced) onset were evenly divided between the respective syllables, as were geminate nasal consonants with the same place of articulation.
To control for possible effects of word position on syllable durations, two sets of feet were differentiated in the data.Accented initial syllables and unaccented second syllables in word-initial, bi- and trisyllabic feet were labelled distinctly from accented and unaccented syllables in word-final, bi- and trisyllabic feet. Word-final syllables are generally unaccentable, so word-penultimate and antepenultimate accented and unaccented syllables were examined. The final feet in words were also examined for word-final and phrase-final lengthening effects, both of which have been observed in stress accent languages including English [12] and Jordanian Arabic [5].
Syllables in all positions in the word were also labelled according to foot structure. Syllables in monosyllabic and polysyllabic feet were labelled distinctly. A syllable may be longer when it alone constitutes a foot-level unit [12, 13]. If this was the case in Kuninjku, including such feet would introduce a bias into the data, since monosyllabic feet occur more frequently in certain word positions (especially word-initial and antepenultimate position) than others. The monosyllabic feet are, however, omitted from the present data
analysis, due to a lack of sufficient tokens for all categories in the analysis.
With regard to RMS amplitude, measurements were taken manually from RMS traces derived in xwaves?.Measurements were taken at the RMS peak (which frequently coincided with the F0 peak), or, if no peak was discernible in the RMS trace, at a steady level in the vicinity of the mid-point of the vowel.
An ANOVA was carried out on four of the five phonemic Kuninjku vowels to determine whether there are paradigmatic differences in mean peak RMS amplitude level between accented and unaccented vowels. There were insufficient unaccented tokens of the back mid-open vowel /?/ in the labelled data set to allow a statistical comparison of accented and unaccented tokens of that vowel. The four vowels analysed were therefore the central open vowel /a /; /?/, which ranges from a mid-close to a mid-open front vowel; /I /, a lax,close front vowel; and /U /, a lax, close back vowel. There are no alternations which would suggest that [I ] and [U ] are reduced allophones of underlyingly tense phonemes /i/ and /u/.2.2.
Results
The results indicate that accent in and of itself does not increase syllable duration in Kuninjku. Figure 1 shows the durations of accented and unaccented syllables in intonation phrase-medial words (to avoid confounding effects of phrase-final lengthening). There is no significant difference between the mean duration of accented and unaccented CV syllables in either word-initial or word-final feet (penultimate syllable)(Wilcoxon rank-sum t-test: p>0.05 in both cases). There were insufficient tokens of closed syllables in word-initial feet;
therefore, only results for CV syllables are reported.
Figure 1: The effect of accent on syllable duration in word-initial and word-penultimate CV syllables (intonation phrase-medial position)
Interestingly, there is a significant difference in duration between accented word-initial and word-penultimate syllables,on the one hand, and unaccented syllables in each position, on the other (difference between the means of accented syllables in the two positions = 32ms (103ms, s.d. 28ms vs 135ms, s.d.
47ms), Z = 3.35, p<0.0001, and difference between the means
Figure 2: The effect of phrase-final position on the duration of antepenultimate and penultimate accented CV syllables of unaccented syllables = 22ms (125ms, s.d. 35ms vs 103ms,s.d. 28ms), Z = 3.073, p <0.05, respectively). Both accented and unaccented syllables are slightly lengthened when late in the word, relative to syllables early in the word – or, possibly,word-initial syllables are slightly shortened. The effect of word position is of about the same magnitude for both accented and unaccented syllables. This small, but significant,difference in the duration of accented and unaccented syllables depending on word position demonstrates the need to control for this factor when examining duration as a correlate of accent in polypedal words.
Although it is problematic to extrapolate from differences between statistical mean durations to the perception of actual differences in duration between tokens – especially given the variation about the mean evident in the standard deviations reported above – differences of this magnitude (32ms/22ms)may be large enough to be perceptible in syllables with the mean durations observed above (between 103 and 135 ms).For a reference duration of 110ms the JND ratio is 0.196. This means the JND threshold is a 22ms difference in duration ([11]; ratios as calculated in Henry 1948).
Figure 2 above compares the mean durations of accented antepenultimate and penultimate CV syllables in intonation phrase-final and non-final conditions. A strong effect of phrase-final lengthening upon the duration of the accented penultimate syllable is evident, while there is no significant effect of phrase-final lengthening on the accented antepenultimate syllable. There is also no significant difference between the duration of antepenultimate and penultimate syllables in non-phrase-final position (120ms (s.d.34.1) vs 135ms (s.d. 46.9), p >0.05; number of tokens = 31and 35, respectively).
The difference between the mean duration of penultimate accented syllables in non-phrase-final position vs phrase-final position is 53 ms (135ms (s.d. 46.9) vs 188ms (s.d.42.2)). A difference of this size is above the JND threshold for reference durations of this magnitude. For a reference duration of 175ms the JND ratio is 0.188. This means the JND threshold is a 32.9ms difference in duration [11].
Figure 3:Increased duration of intonation phrase-final accented penultimate syllables relative to unaccented syllables Phrase-final lengthening significantly affects both accented and unaccented penultimate syllables (see Figure 3: for the latter, non-phrase-final mean = 125ms (s.d. 34.8) vs phrase-final mean = 156 ms (s.d.38.8), Z =4.1881, p=0). However, accented syllables are disproportionately affected by final lengthening. There is a weak but significant difference (32 ms) between the means of penultimate accented and unaccented syllables in phrase-final position (188ms (s.d. 42.2) vs156 (s.d. 38.8), Z = 3.8254, p<0.0001), such that the accented syllables are longer. (32 ms is close to the perceptual threshold for differences in duration in syllables with a reference duration of 175ms; accented penults may therefore not always be perceptibly lengthened relative to unaccented tokens.) There is no significant difference between the mean durations of penultimate accented and unaccented syllables in non-phrase-final position (p>0.05).
The results for RMS amplitude show a significant difference in mean amplitude (dB) in accented and unaccented conditions (F = 25.86, Pr (F) < 0.001) for the set of four vowels examined. However, post-hoc pairwise tests (Wilcoxon Rank Sum tests) indicate that the significant difference is contributed by only one of the four vowels, the central open vowel /a/ (p < 0.001) (see Figure 4). None of the remaining three vowels shows an absolute mean difference in peak RMS levels between accented and unaccented tokens, although the results for /I/ and /U/ are close to significance at p <0.05 level (p = 0.051 and 0.052 respectively).
An interesting aspect of this result is that the difference in mean peak RMS amplitude between the vowels /E/ /I/ and /U/ and the vowel /a/ emerges only under accent. An ANOVA carried out on the unaccented vowels showed no significant difference in peak RMS between the four phonemes (Pr (F) > 0.05).
The only significant difference in RMS amplitude between the accented and unaccented conditions thus corresponds to the most open accented vowel, /a/, with lesser differences between the more closed, less sonorous vowels. This might suggest a 'hyperarticulation' effect of accentuation, of the kind observed in English by Beckman, Edwards and Fletcher [1], whereby the intensity of open (highly sonorous) vowels is enhanced under accentuation, possibly by increased jaw opening. This difference in the RMS of /a/ (4.6dB) may be perceptible. Under experimental conditions, a difference
of Figure 4: Peak RMS amplitude in accented and unaccented vowels (box plots show the median (white line) and quartile ranges of amplitude values for each accented and unaccented vowel)
approximately 1dB was found to be just noticeable [11].
However, from these findings it is clear that intensity – at least as measured by peak RMS amplitude – is not a consistent correlate of accent in Kuninjku.
3.Distribution of accent in Kuninjku
phonological words
The distribution of accents within the phonological word was determined for polypedal, verbal and nominal words in the three Kuninjku narrative texts. The frequency counts given in Tables 1 and 2 below are for the entire texts, excluding a small number of tokens left unlabelled for intonation in the corpus. Comparing the first two columns of Table 1, it can be seen that the number of single accents which align with the leftmost foot in a polypedal verb is almost six times the number which align with the rightmost foot. ('Rightmost' refers to the rightmost accentable foot; the final monosyllabic morpheme is generally unaccentable.) In nominal words (Table 2), the pattern is even more pronounced: in 50 words which bear a single accent, the accent never falls on the rightmost foot. Thus, there is a very strong trend in favour of aligning an accent with the leftmost foot in the phonological word. This default accent alignment may be attributed to an intonational ‘End Rule Left’, which constrains but does not rigidly determine the pattern of accentuation in the phonological word:
End Rule (Left)
Place a single accent on the leftmost metrically strong syllable in the phonological word.
Tables 1 and 2 also show that if a second accent is present, it will usually be placed on the other peripheral foot in the word, the rightmost foot.
Discussion
Two questions are important in the classification of postlexical accent type: what constitutes the potential for accent, and on what basis are accents actually distributed in a given word or phrase. The data presented in section 3 indicates that accent distribution in BGW responds not only to metrical strength,
Table 1: Accent position in verbal phonological words in Kuninjku
Text/ Position of accent Left-most foot only Right-most foot
only Both left- & right-
most feet
Left-most &
medial feet
Right-most & medial
feet
Medial foot only
CUCKOO Text311045311 BILLABONG Text35259123 NAMALADJ Text15136270 TOTALS8113140684 % of accents32556232 Table 2: Accent position in nominal phonological words in Kuninjku
Text/ Position of accent Left-most foot only Right-most foot
only Both left- & right-
most feet
Left-most &
medial feet
Right-most & medial
feet
Medial foot only
CUCKOO Text1906001 BILLABONG Text21016001 NAMALADJ Text8011200 TOTALS48038202 % of accents56039 2.50 2.5
but also a word-delimitative function. A single accent is generally attracted to the leftmost foot in words from the two major word classes, nominals and verbs, while in both word classes, a second accent will generally be placed on the rightmost foot. This suggests that word class is not a factor in the distribution of accent. While there is a stronger tendency for verbal words to bear a second peripheral accent, this may relate to the fact that verbal words are often longer – have a larger number of feet – than nominal words. In those words in the data set which bear a medial accent, another constraint appears to have overridden the peripheral accent constraint: namely, that when a light word-initial foot (CV) is followed by a heavy foot (CVC or CVCC), the heavy foot should preferentially bear the accent.
Conclusions
Metrical strength in BGW is best described as the potential to bear accent. The cues most commonly associated with phonetic stress do not appear to be paradigmatic correlates of metrical strength in BGW: no significant differences in duration or intensity were consistently found between unaccented, metrically weak syllables and accented, metrically strong syllables. Typologically, then, BGW appears to belong to a category of language which Ladd [10] characterises as 'non-stress accent/ postlexical pitch only'. Further research is needed in order to determine the principles governing the assignment of a single vs two (or very occasionally, three) accents in the word. It seems likely that dialogue data, in which the pragmatic function of words is deducible (e.g. their information structure) will reveal further patterns in the assignment of single vs multiple accents.
References
[1]Beckman, M.; Edwards, J.; Fletcher, J., 1992. Prosodic
structure and tempo in a sonority model of articulatory
dynamics. In Papers in Laboratory Phonology II, G.
Doherty, D. Ladd, eds. Cambridge: C.U.P., 68-86.
[2]Beckman, M., 1986. Stress and Non-stress Accent.
Dordrecht: Foris Publications.
[3]Bishop, J., 2002. Intonation and prosody in two dialects
of Bininj Gun-wok: an autosegmental-metrical analysis, PhD dissertation, University of Melbourne.
[4]Bishop, J.; Fletcher, J., in press. Intonation in six dialects
of Bininj Gun-wok. Prosodic Typology and Transcription: A Unified Approach. Oxford: O.U.P. [5]De Jong, K.; Zawaydeh, B., 1999. Stress, duration, and
intonation in Arabic word-level prosody. Journal of Phonetics, 27, 3-22.
[6]Evans, N., in press. Bininj Gun-wok. A Pan-dialectal
Grammar of Mayali, Kunwinjku and Kune. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
[7]Fletcher, J.; Evans, N., 2000. Intonational downtrends in
Mayali. Australian Journal of Linguistics, 20(1), 23-38. [8]Halle, M.; Vergnaud, J.-R., 1987. An essay on stress,
Cambridge: M.I.T. Press.
[9]Hayes, B.; Lahiri, A., 1991. Bengali intonational
phonology. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, 9, 47-96.
[10]Ladd, D.R., 1996. Intonational Phonology. Cambridge:
C.U.P.
[11]Lehiste, I., 1970. Suprasegmentals. Cambridge: M.I.T.
Press.
[12] Nakatani, L.; O’Connor, K.; Aston, C., 1981. Prosodic
aspects of American English speech rhythm. Phonetica, 38, 84-106.
[13]Turk, A.; White, L., 1999. Structural effects on accentual
lengthening in English. Journal of Phonetics, 27, 171-206.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to Murray Garde for use of the recordings of the three Kuninjku texts.
1. with+宾语+形容词。比如：. The boy wore a shirt with the neck open, showing his bare chest. 那男孩儿穿着一件衬衫，颈部敞开，露出光光的胸膛。Don’t talk with your mouth full. 嘴里有食物时不要讲话。 2. with+宾语+副词。比如：She followed the guide with her head down. 她低着头，跟在导游之后。 What a lonely world it will be with you away. 你不在，多没劲儿呀！ 3. with+宾语+过去分词。比如：He was listening to the music with his eyes half closed. 他眼睛半闭着听音乐。She sat with her head bent. 她低着头坐着。 4. with+宾语+现在分词。比如：With winter coming, it’s time to buy warm clothes. 冬天到了，该买些保暖的衣服了。 He soon fell asleep with the light still burning. 他很快就睡着了，（可）灯还亮着。 5. with+宾语+介词短语。比如：He was asleep with his head on his arms. 他的头枕在臂膀上睡着了。 The young lady came in, with her two- year-old son in her arms. 那位年轻的女士进来了，怀里抱着两岁的孩子。 6. with+宾语+动词不定式。比如： With nothing to do in the afternoon, I went to see a film. 下午无事可做，我就去看了场电影。Sorry, I can’t go out with all these dishes to wash. 很抱歉，有这么多盘子要洗，我不能出去。 7. with+宾语+名词。比如： He died with his daughter yet a school-girl.他去逝时，女儿还是个小学生。 He lived a luxurious life, with his old father a beggar . 他过着奢侈的生活，而他的老父亲却沿街乞讨。(8)With so much work to do ,I can't go swimming with you. (9)She stood at the door,with her back towards us. (10)He entered the room,with his nose red with cold. with复合结构与分词做状语有啥区别 [ 标签：with, 复合结构, 分词状语] Ciro Ferrara 2009-10-18 16:17 主要是分词形式与主语的关系 满意答案好评率：100%
with复合结构专项练习（二） 一请选择最佳答案 1）With nothing_______to burn，the fire became weak and finally died out. A.leaving B.left C.leave D.to leave 2）The girl sat there quite silent and still with her eyes_______on the wall. A.fixing B.fixed C.to be fixing D.to be fixed 3）I live in the house with its door_________to the south.（这里with结构作定语） A.facing B.faces C.faced D.being faced 4）They pretended to be working hard all night with their lights____. A.burn B.burnt C.burning D.to burn 二：用with复合结构完成下列句子 1）_____________（有很多工作要做），I couldn't go to see the doctor. 2）She sat__________（低着头）。 3）The day was bright_____.（微风吹拂） 4）_________________________，（心存梦想）he went to Hollywood. 三把下列句子中的划线部分改写成with复合结构。 1）Because our lessons were over，we went to play football. _____________________________. 2）The children came running towards us and held some flowers in their hands. _____________________________. 3）My mother is ill，so I won't be able to go on holiday. _____________________________. 4）An exam will be held tomorrow，so I couldn't go to the cinema tonight. _____________________________.
基本用法 它是由介词with或without+复合结构构成，复合结构作介词with或without的复合宾语，复合宾语中第一部分宾语由名词或代词充当，第二部分补足语由形容词、副词、介词短语或非谓语动词充当 一、with或without+名词/代词+形容词 例句:1.I like to sleep with the windows open. 我喜欢把窗户开着睡觉。(伴随情况) 2.With the weather so close and stuffy, ten to one it'll rain presently. 大气这样闷，十之八九要下雨(原因状语) 二、with或without+名词/代词+副词 例句:1.She left the room with all the lights on. 她离开了房间，灯还亮着。(伴随情况) 2.The boy stood there with his head down. 这个男孩低头站在那儿。(伴随情况) 三、with或without+名词/代词+介词短语 例句:1.He walked into the dark street with a stick in his hand. 他走进黑暗的街道时手里拿着根棍子。(伴随情况) 2. With the children at school, we can't take our vacation when we want to. 由于孩子们在上学，所以当我们想度假时而不能去度假。(原因状语) 四、with或without+名词/代词+非谓语动词 1、with或without+名词/代词+动词不定式，此时，不定式表示将发生的动作。 例句: 1.With no one to talk to, John felt miserable. 由于没人可以说话的人，约翰感到很悲哀。(原因状语)
小学英语课堂教学活动设计的有效性 在小学英语教学中,活动是实施课堂教学的主要形式，而课堂教学又是在教学活动中得以体现的。因此，作为一名小学英语教师就应在课前精心设计有针对性、实效性的课堂教学活动。教师在课堂教学中应努力引导学生通过活动去体验、感悟、发现和探究,创设贴近学生实际的活动,组织并开展活动教学,提高学生运用英语的能力。因此如何加强小学英语教学有效性，不断提高教学质量，是每一位小学英语教师急需解决的问题。听了这次晋江市举行的研讨课及结合自己的教学实践，我就课堂教学活动设计的有效性谈几点体会。 一、教学目标是教学活动的出发点和回归点 一堂好课必须有一个恰当、实际的教学目标。新课程改革背景下，教师在表述教学目标时，不仅要做到意思明确，还要符合课改的精神和要求；不仅要涉及知识目标，还要涉及能力、情感和价值观。科学、合理的教学目标的设计才能使课堂教学活动更具有方向性、针对性和有效性。因此，教师对课堂教学设计和安排的各个环节的教学活动都必须有明确的目的,每个活动都应以达成教学目标为导向。教师要思考和明确设计活动的目的和意图是什么,通过活动是否能达成教学目标,活动与教学主题和教学目标是否相关,活动是否必要,活动是否体现了教育价值等。在活动实施过程中生成的新目标也应以预设的教学目标为基础。因此,活动从设计到实施都应在教学目标的调控下进行。 二、培养兴趣是有效教学活动的出发点 小学生在刚接触英语时，有新颖感出于好奇，兴趣盎然。但随着学习时间的增加，年级的升高，内容难度的加大，学习的兴趣就会逐渐降低，有的甚至会产生畏惧感。因而，教师在设计小学英语课堂教学活动时应注意以下几点：1、活动要符合小学生的年龄特征小学生具有好动、对新鲜事物易感兴趣。因此，设计教学活动时应形式多样，如对话、唱歌、叙述、演示、游戏、小制作、全身反应法、chant等，让学生的眼、耳、口和四肢都参与到活动中来。2、新课程标准明确指出,要重视从学生的日常生活出发,培养学生实际运用语言的能力。因此活动设计要贴近学生的生活。实践表明,学生对源于自己生活的活动特别感兴趣,并有强烈的参与欲望。教师要关注来自学生生活的各种信息,在设计活动时要以学生的生活为基础,选择符合学生生活经验和认知水平的活动,力图真实地反映学生的生活。让学生融入到学习活动中去，同时让学生享受在用中学英语和在学中用英语的喜悦。如在教学《A new house》一课后，我让学生设计了自己的理想之家，画室内房间图，然后用英语标出图中物品的名称，并用英语作简单的介绍，课后写成小短文。由于活动内容和形式十分贴近学生的生活经历。又富有挑战性，学生兴趣盎然，积极参与，他们发挥了丰富的想像力，设计出的房子五花
With的用法全解 with结构是许多英语复合结构中最常用的一种。学好它对学好复合宾语结构、不定式复合结构、动名词复合结构和独立主格结构均能起很重要的作用。本文就此的构成、特点及用法等作一较全面阐述，以帮助同学们掌握这一重要的语法知识。 一、 with结构的构成 它是由介词with或without+复合结构构成，复合结构作介词with或without的复合宾语，复合宾语中第一部分宾语由名词或代词充当，第二部分补足语由形容词、副词、介词短语、动词不定式或分词充当，分词可以是现在分词，也可以是过去分词。With结构构成方式如下： 1. with或without-名词/代词+形容词； 2. with或without-名词/代词+副词； 3. with或without-名词/代词+介词短语； 4. with或without-名词/代词 +动词不定式； 5. with或without-名词/代词 +分词。 下面分别举例： 1、 She came into the room，with her nose red because of cold.（with+名词+形容词，作伴随状语）
2、 With the meal over ， we all went home.（with+名词+副词，作时间状语） 3、The master was walking up and down with the ruler under his arm。（with+名词+介词短语，作伴随状语。） The teacher entered the classroom with a book in his hand. 4、He lay in the dark empty house，with not a man ，woman or child to say he was kind to me.（with+名词+不定式，作伴随状语）He could not finish it without me to help him.（without+代词 +不定式，作条件状语） 5、She fell asleep with the light burning.（with+名词+现在分词，作伴随状语） Without anything left in the with结构是许多英 语复合结构中最常用的一种。学好它对学好复合宾语结构、不定式复合结构、动名词复合结构和独立主格结构均能起很重要的作用。本文就此的构成、特点及用法等作一较全面阐述，以帮助同学们掌握这一重要的语法知识。 二、with结构的用法 with是介词，其意义颇多，一时难掌握。为帮助大家理清头绪，以教材中的句子为例，进行分类，并配以简单的解释。在句子中with结构多数充当状语，表示行为方式，伴随情况、时间、原因或条件（详见上述例句）。 1.带着，牵着…… (表动作特征)。如： Run with the kite like this.
With的复合结构 介词with without +宾语+宾语的补足语可以构成独立主格结构，上面讨论过的独立主格结构的几种情况在此结构中都能体现。 1. with+名词代词+形容词 He doesn’t like to sleep with the windows open. = He doesn’t like to sleep when the windows are open. He stood in the rain, with his clothes wet. = He stood in the rain, and his clothes were wet. With his father well-known, the boy didn’t want to study. 2. with+名词代词+副词 Our school looks even more beautiful with all the lights on. = Our school looks even more beautiful if when all the lights are on. The boy was walking, with his father ahead. = The boy was walking and his father was ahead. 3. with+名词代词+介词短语 He stood at the door, with a computer in his hand. He stood at the door, computer in hand. = He stood at the door, and a computer was in his hand. Vincent sat at the desk, with a pen in his mouth. Vincent sat at the desk, pen in mouth. = Vincent sat at the desk, and he had a pen in his mouth. 4. with+名词代词+动词的-ed形式 With his homework done, Peter went out to play. = When his homework was done, Peter went out to play. With the signal given, the train started. = After the signal was given, the train started. I wouldn’t dare go home without the job finished. = I wouldn’t dare go home because the job was not finish ed. 5. with+名词代词+动词的-ing形式 The girl hid her box without anyone knowing where it was. = The girl hid her box and no one knew where it was. Without anyone noticing, he slipped through the window. = When no one was noticing, he slipped through the window. 6. with+名词代词+动词不定式 The little boy looks sad, with so much homework to do. = The little boy looks sad because he has so much homework to do. with the window closed with the light on with a book in her hand with a cat lying in her arms with the problem solved with the new term to begin
如何提高小学英语课堂教学的有效性 -----浅析小学英语趣味教学爱因斯坦说过：“兴趣是最好的老师。”为了激发学生的学习兴趣，一个成功的英语教师会创造和谐融洽的师生关系和轻松愉快的学习环境，采用灵活多变的教学方法，让学生在做中学，学中用，学得主动，提高效率。在教学中有意识的培养学生对英语的持久兴趣，激励学生不断处于较佳的学习状态之中，使他们对英语乐学、善学、会学，学而忘我，乐此不疲；还要通过多种手段激发学生实践的热情，加强学生对英语的兴趣，完成新课程标准要求的任务。 一、融洽的师生关系，营造良好的学习氛围 作为一名21世纪的英语教师，要懂得尊重和热爱自己的学生，同他们建立起一种新型、平等、合作的师生关系。教育是充满情感和爱的事业，教师应多于学生进行情感方面的交流，做学生的知心朋友，让学生觉得老师是最值得信任的人，跟老师无话不说、无事不谈，达到师生关系的最佳状态。这就要求教师要深入学生，了解学生的兴趣、爱好、喜怒哀乐情绪的变化，要时时处处关心学生，爱护学生，尊重学生，有的放矢的帮助学生。老师在学生眼中不仅是可敬的师长，更是他们可亲可近的亲密朋友，用爱来激发学生学习英语的兴趣。 二、创设英语教学环境，调动多种感官参与活动 好的开始是成功的一半。在课堂教学中，教师首先要特别注意利用上课前的十分钟创造出一个良好的课堂气氛（Warming up）。比如唱一些英语歌曲，开展如“Let me guess.”或“Follow me.”等有趣的复习知识型游戏，活跃课堂气氛，增加英语课堂的趣味性，引发学生的求知欲。
其次，创造一个轻松愉快的学习环境，教师要以蛮强的热情，全心地投入课堂教学，仪表要洒脱；精神要饱满；表情要轻松愉快；目光要亲切；态度要和蔼；举止要大方、文雅；言吐简洁；语言要纯正、地道、流利；书法要规范、漂亮；版面设计要合理、醒目等。 再次，调动学生多种感官参与学习，学生单靠视觉回忆能再现原内容的70%，而视觉并用能再现原内容的86.5%，所以应该让学生尽可能多的处于英语环境中，并调动多种感官参与活动，让学生从多个角度接受信息。多种感官的运用有益于学生对知识的理解，记忆的加深。它能激发学习兴趣，使学生全面发展。教学中让学生动嘴说、用眼看、用耳听、用笔画、手脑并用，同时可以加强学生对所学语言国家文化的了解。 三、不断更新教学方法，以此获趣 教学不仅是一门技巧，更是一门艺术。教师必须在教学中尽量让学生感到有趣、新奇，这就要求教师顺应时代的发展，与时俱进，充分运用现代教育技术手段，通过模型、图片、幻灯、录像、投影、多媒体课件等，激发学生的想象能力，变抽象为具体，使教学活动变得生动，使学生学得轻松、练得扎实。在教学中教师要善于用各种方法。如“表演法”、“竞赛法”、“游戏法”等。 1.当“小老师”、“模仿秀” 比如“talk about it”这一模块中，我们就可以鼓励学生大胆地模仿，带表情说句子。还可以鼓励学生上讲台当“小老师”，领读句子。让他们模仿教师平时上课时的表情、动作，鼓励他们学者使用课堂用语。 2.把身体语言带入课堂 在教单词或句子时，我们可以带领学生做动作，甚至做夸张的动作或
复合材料结构设计的特点 (1) 复合材料既是一种材料又是一种结构 (2) 复合材料具有可设计性 (3) 复合材料结构设计包含材料设计 复合材料区别于传统材料的根本特点之一可设计性好（设计人员可根据所需制品对力学及其它性能的要求，对结构设计的同时对材料本身进行设计） 具体体现在两个方面1力学设计——给制品一定的强度和刚度、2功能设计——给制品除力学性能外的其他性能 复合材料力学性能的特点 (1) 各向异性性能材料弹性主方向：模量较大的一个主方向称为纵向，用字母L表示，与其垂直的另一主方向称为横向，用字母T表示。通常的各向同性材料中，表达材料弹 )和ν(泊松比)或剪切弹性模量G。 对于复合材料中的每个单层，纵向弹性模量E L、横向弹性模量E T、纵向泊松比νL (或横向泊松比νT)、面内剪切弹性模量G LT。 耦合现象：拉剪耦合与剪拉耦合、弯扭耦合与扭弯耦合 (2) 非均质性 耦合变形：层合结构复合材料在一种外力作用下，除了引起本身的基本变形外，还可能引起其他基本变形。 (3)层间强度低 在结构设计时，应尽量减小层间应力，或采取某些构造措施，以避免层间分层破坏。 研究复合材料的刚度和强度时，基本假设： (1) 假设层合板是连续的。由于连续性假设，使数学分析中的一些连续性概念、极限概念以及微积分等数学工具都能应用于力学分析中。 (2）假设单向层合板是均匀的，多向层合板是分段均匀的。 (3) 假设限于单向层合板是正交各向异性的：即认为单向层合板具有两个相互垂直的弹性对称面。 (4) 假设限于层合板是线弹性的：即认为层合板在外力作用下产生的变形与外力成正比关系，且当外力移去后，层合板能够完全恢复其原来形状。 (5) 假设层合板的变形是很小的。 上述五个基本假设，只有多向层合板的分段均匀性假设和单向层合板的正交各向异性假设，与材料力学中的均匀性假设和各向同性假设有区别。 平面应力状态与平面应变状态 平面应力状态：单元体有一对平面上的应力等于0。（σz＝0，τzx＝0，τzy ＝0） 平面应变状态（平面位移）：εz＝0（即ω＝0），τzx＝0(γ31＝0)，τzy ＝0(γ32＝0 )， σz一般不等于0。 复合材料连接方式 复合材料连接方式主要分为两大类：胶接连接与机械连接。胶接连接：受力不大的薄壁结构，尤其是复合材料结构；机械连接：连接构件较厚、受力大的结构。
with+复合宾语的用法 一、with的复合结构的构成 二、所谓"with的复合结构”即是"with+复合宾语”也即"with +宾语+宾语补足语” 的结构。其中的宾语一般由名词充当（有时也可由代词充当）；而宾语补足语则是根据 具体的需要由形容词，副词、介词短语，分词短语（包括现在分词和过去分词）及不定式短语充当。下面结合例句就这一结构加以具体的说明。 三、1、with +宾语+形容词作宾补 四、①He slept well with all the windows open.（82 年高考题） 上面句子中形容词open作with的宾词all the windows的补足语， ②It' s impolite to talk with your mouth full of food. 形容词短语full of food 作宾补。Don't sleep with the window ope n in win ter 2、with+宾语+副词作宾补 with Joh n away, we have got more room. He was lying in bed with all his clothes on. ③Her baby is used to sleeping with the light on.句中的on 是副词，作宾语the light 的补足语。 ④The boy can t play with his father in.句中的副词in 作宾补。 3、with+宾语+介词短语。 we sat on the grass with our backs to the wall. his wife came dow n the stairs,with her baby in her arms. They stood with their arms round each other. With tears of joy in her eyes ,she saw her daughter married. ⑤She saw a brook with red flowers and green grass on both sides. 句中介词短语on both sides 作宾语red flowersandgreen grass 的宾补， ⑥There were rows of white houses with trees in front of them.，介词短语in front of them 作宾补。 4、with+宾词+分词（短语 这一结构中作宾补用的分词有两种，一是现在分词，二是过去分词，一般来说，当分词所表 示的动作跟其前面的宾语之间存在主动关系则用现在分词，若是被动关系，则用过去分词。 ⑦In parts of Asia you must not sit with your feet pointing at another person.（高一第十课），句中用现在分词pointing at…作宾语your feet的补足语，是因它们之间存在主动关系，或者说point 这一动作是your feet发出的。 All the after noon he worked with the door locked. She sat with her head bent. She did not an swer, with her eyes still fixed on the wall. The day was bright,with a fresh breeze（微风）blowing. I won't be able to go on holiday with my mother being ill. With win ter coming on ,it is time to buy warm clothes. He soon fell asleep with the light still bur ning. ⑧From space the earth looks like ahuge water covered globe,with a few patches of land stuk ing out above the water而在下面句子中因with的宾语跟其宾补之间存在被动关系，故用过去分词作宾补：
小学英语教学的有效性 发表时间：2011-05-10T09:13:26.643Z 来源：《少年智力开发报》（小学英语）2011年第27期供稿作者：宋晓云[导读] 在小学英语教学中，创设情境让学生感知语言，在真实情境中运用语言会收到意想不到的效果。 河北平泉县榆树林子学区宋晓云 英语教师作为实施新课程标准的主体，应学会如何巧妙自然地寓英语学习于生活体验之中，把新理念推向课堂班级层面，变理想的课程为现实的课程，从而改变学生的学习和思维方式，释放学生的创造潜能。为此在教学中我进行了一些尝试，做到了以下几点，也从中感受到了新课改的实效。 一、采用任务型教学模式 对于一年级的小学英语课堂来讲，“任务型”的课堂教学就是在英语学科的教学目标确定之后，教师需要分析和设计具体任务，完成任务所需要的其他前提知识以及需要采用的教学方法和技巧等，旨在将每一个教学目标拓展为教学活动中可用的具体内容。由于在我的课堂上采用了任务型的教学模式，学生在课堂上都有事可做，并且在做事的过程中体验到了英语的乐趣，英语课也变得丰富多彩，学生从中也体验到了成功的喜悦。 二、创设英语的教学情境 在小学英语教学中，创设情境让学生感知语言，在真实情境中运用语言会收到意想不到的效果。在课堂中我经常利用多媒体设备来突破教学重点和难点，把文字、声音、图像等融为一体，创设学生主动参与语言交际活动的情境，让学生走入情境、理解情境、表演情境以此突破语言关。学生在真实的情境中更容易进入角色，课堂气氛也异常活跃。 三、运用现代教育技术 在小学英语课堂教学上，教师恰当运用现代教育技术，利用多媒体的优势，可以最大限度地激发学生学习的积极性，帮助他们提高学习英语的兴趣。在小学英语课堂中运用现代教育技术，创设教学情景，可以优化课堂教学，有效地培养学生初步运用英语进行交际的能力，激活儿童的思维，促进学生综合能力的提高。 四、使用合理的评价手段 评价也是一门艺术，好的评价手段不仅可以满足学生的成功感，而且可以激励学生产生不断向上的精神。学习评价可采用多种形式：形式性评价与终结性评价相结合，个人评与他人、小组评组合、等级与评语相结合，在教学中要灵活地使用。这样，对学生的评价才是全面的、合理的。 总之，通过教学中的这些尝试，我的英语课堂气氛异常活跃，学生学习积极主动，听说能力大大提高，合作意识和交往能力也大大增强，学生学习英语的兴趣空前高涨。作为教师，我由衷地感到高兴，也切身体会到了新课改所带来的欣慰和喜悦。但这只是一个开端，我们要做的还有很多，还需要不断学习新课改的有关理论，并运用到教学实践中去，不断充实我们的小学英语课堂！
with复合结构 一. with复合结构的常见形式 1.“with+名词/代词+介词短语”。 The man was walking on the street, with a book under his arm. 那人在街上走着，腋下夹着一本书。 2. “with+名词/代词+形容词”。 With the weather so close and stuffy, ten to one it’ll rain presently. 天气这么闷热，十之八九要下雨。 3. “with+名词/代词+副词”。 The square looks more beautiful than even with all the light on. 所有的灯亮起来，广场看起来更美。 4. “with+名词/代词+名词”。 He left home, with his wife a hopeless soul. 他走了，妻子十分伤心。 5. “with+名词/代词+done”。此结构过去分词和宾语是被动关系，表示动作已经完成。 With this problem solved, neomycin 1 is now in regular production. 随着这个问题的解决，新霉素一号现在已经正式产生。 6. “with+名词/代词+-ing分词”。此结构强调名词是-ing分词的动作的发出者或某动作、状态正在进行。 He felt more uneasy with the whole class staring at him. 全班同学看着他，他感到更不自然了。 7. “with+宾语+to do”。此结构中，不定式和宾语是被动关系，表示尚未发生的动作。 So in the afternoon, with nothing to do, I went on a round of the bookshops. 由于下午无事可做，我就去书店转了转。 二. with复合结构的句法功能 1. with 复合结构，在句中表状态或说明背景情况，常做伴随、方式、原因、条件等状语。With machinery to do all the work, they will soon have got in the crops. 由于所有的工作都是由机器进行，他们将很快收完庄稼。（原因状语） The boy always sleeps with his head on the arm. 这个孩子总是头枕着胳膊睡觉。（伴随状语）The soldier had him stand with his back to his father. 士兵要他背对着他父亲站着。（方式状语）With spring coming on, trees turn green. 春天到了，树变绿了。（时间状语） 2. with 复合结构可以作定语 Anyone with its eyes in his head can see it’s exactly like a rope. 任何一个头上长着眼睛的人都能看出它完全像一条绳子。 【高考链接】 1. ___two exams to worry about, I have to work really hard this weekend.（04北京） A. With B. Besides C. As for D. Because of 【解析】A。“with+宾语+不定式”作状语，表示原因。 2. It was a pity that the great writer died, ______his works unfinished. (04福建) A. for B. with C. from D.of 【解析】B。“with+宾语+过去分词”在句中作状语，表示状态。 3._____production up by 60%, the company has had another excellent year. (NMET) A. As B.For C. With D.Through 【解析】C。“with+宾语+副词”在句中作状语，表示程度。
With复合结构的用法小结 with结构是许多英语复合结构中最常用的一种。学好它对学好复合宾语结构、不定式复合结构、动名词复合结构和独立主格结构均能起很重要的作用。本文就此的构成、特点及用法等作一较全面阐述，以帮助同学们掌握这一重要的语法知识。 一、with结构的构成 它是由介词with或without+复合结构构成，复合结构作介词with或without的复合宾语，复合宾语中第一部分宾语由名词或代词充当，第二 部分补足语由形容词、副词、介词短语、动词不定式或分词充当，分词可以是现在分词，也可以是过去分词。With结构构成方式如下： 1. with或without-名词/代词+形容词； 2. with或without-名词/代词+副词； 3. with或without-名词/代词+介词短语； 4. with或without-名词/代词+动词不定式； 5. with或without-名词/代词+分词。 下面分别举例： 1、She came into the room，with her nose red because of cold.（with+名词+形容词，作伴随状语） 2、With the meal over ，we all went home.（with+名词+副词，作时间状语） 3、The master was walking up and down with the ruler under his arm。（with+名词+介词短语，作伴随状语。）The teacher entered the classroom with a book in his hand. 4、He lay in the dark empty house，with not a man ，woman or child to say he was kind to me.（with+名词+不定式，作伴随状语）He could not finish it without me to help him.（without+代词+不定式，作条件状语） 5、She fell asleep with the light burning.（with+名词+现在分词，作伴随状语）Without anything left in the cupboard，shewent out to get something to eat.（without+代词+过去分词，作为原因状语） 二、with结构的用法 在句子中with结构多数充当状语，表示行为方式，伴随情况、时间、原因或条件（详见上述例句）。 With结构在句中也可以作定语。例如： 1.I like eating the mooncakes with eggs. 2.From space the earth looks like a huge water-covered globe with a few patches of land sticking out above the water. 3.A little boy with two of his front teeth missing ran into the house. 三、with结构的特点 1. with结构由介词with或without+复合结构构成。复合结构中第一部分与第二部分语法上是宾语和宾语补足语关系，而在逻辑上，却具有主谓关系，也就是说，可以用第一部分作主语，第二部分作谓语，构成一个句子。例如：With him taken care of，we felt quite relieved.（欣慰）→（He was taken good care of.）She fell asleep with the light burning. →（The light was burning.）With her hair gone，there could be no use for them. →（Her hair was gone.） 2. 在with结构中，第一部分为人称代词时，则该用宾格代词。例如：He could not finish it without me to help him. 四、几点说明： 1. with结构在句子中的位置：with 结构在句中作状语，表示时间、条件、原因时一般放在
1、简述构成复合材料的元素及其作用 复合材料由两种以上组分以及他们之间的界面组成。即构成复合材料的元素包括基体相、增强相、界面相。 基体相作用：具有支撑和保护增强相的作用。在复合材料受外加载荷时，基体相一剪切变形的方式起向增强相分配和传递载荷的作用，提高塑性变 形能力。 增强和作用：能够强化基体和的材料称为增强体，增强体在复合材料中是分散相, 在复合材料承受外加载荷时增强相主要起到承载载荷的作用。 界面相作用：界面相是使基体相和增强相彼此相连的过渡层。界面相具有一定厚度，在化学成分和力学性质上与基体相和增强相有明显区别。在复 合材料受外加载荷时能够起到传递载荷的作用。 2、简述复合材料的基本特点 (1)复合材料的性能具有可设计性 材料性能的可设计性是指通过改变材料的组分、结构、工艺方法和工艺参数来调节材料的性能。显然，复合材料中包含了诸多影响最终性能、可调节的因素，赋予了复合材料的性能可设计性以极大的自由度。 ⑵ 材料与构件制造的一致性 制造复合材料与制造构件往往是同步的，即复合材料与复合材料构架同时成型，在采用某种方法把增强体掺入基体成型复合材料的同时?，通常也就形成了复合材料的构件。 (3)叠加效应 叠加效应指的是依靠增强体与基体性能的登加，使复合材料获得一?种新的、独特而又优于个单元组分的性能，以实现预期的性能指标。 (4)复合材料的不足 复合材料的增强体和基体可供选择地范围有限；制备工艺复杂，性能存在波动、离散性；复合材料制品成本较高。
3、说明增强体在结构复合材料中的作用能够强化基体的材料称为增强体。增强体在复合材料中是分散相。复合材料中的增强体，按几何形状可分为颗 粒状、纤维状、薄片状和由纤维编制的三维立体结构。喑属性可分为有机增强体 和无机增强体。复合材料中最主要的增强体是纤维状的。对于结构复合材料，纤 维的主要作用是承载，纤维承受载荷的比例远大于基体；对于多功能复合材料， 纤维的主要作用是吸波、隐身、防热、耐磨、耐腐蚀和抗震等其中一种或多种， 同时为材料提供基本的结构性能；对于结构陶瓷复合材料，纤维的主要作用是增 加韧性。 4、说明纤维增强复合材料为何有最小纤维含量和最大纤维含量 在复合材料中，纤维体积含量是一个很重要的参数。纤维强度高，基体韧性好，若加入少量纤维，不仅起不到强化作用反而弱化，因为纤维在基体内相当于裂纹。所以存在最小纤维含量，即临界纤维含量。若纤维含量小于临界纤维量，则在受外载荷作用时，纤维首先断裂，同时基体会承受载荷，产生较大变形，是否断裂取决于基体强度。纤维量增加，强度下降。当纤维量大于临界纤维量时，纤维主要承受载荷。纤维量增加强度增加。总之，含量过低，不能充分发挥复合材料中增强材料的作用；含量过高，由于纤维和基体间不能形成一定厚度的界面过渡层, 无法承担基体对纤维的力传递，也不利于复合材料抗拉强度的提高。 5、如何设才计复合材料 材料设计是指根据对?材料性能的要求而进行的材料获得方法与工程途径的规划。复合材料设计是通过改变原材料体系、比例、配置和复合工艺类型及参数，来改变复合材料的性能，特别是是器有各向异性，从而适应在不同位置、不同方位和不同环境条件下的使用要求。复合材料的可设计性赋予了结构设计者更大的自由度，从而有可能设计出能够充分发掘与应用材料潜力的优化结构。复合材料制品的设计与研制步骤可以归纳如下： 1）通过论证明确对于材料的使用性能要求，确定设计目标 2）选择材料体系（增强体、基体） 3）确定组分比例、几何形态及增强体的配置 4）确定制备工艺方法及工艺参数
With 复合结构用法小结 “With + 复合结构”又称为“with结构”，在句中表状态或说明背景情况，常做伴随，方式，原因，条件等状语。具体结构如下： 1. With + 名词 + 介词短语? (1) He was asleep with his head on his arm. ? (2) The man came in with a whip in his hand. ? 在书面语中。上句也可以说成：The man came in, whip in hand. 2．with + 名词 + 形容词（强调名词的特性或状态）? (1)With the weather so close and stuffy, ten to one it'll rain presently.天气这么闷热，十之八九要下雨。? (2)He used to sleep with the windows open. 3. With + 名词 + 副词? (1)With John away, we've got more room. 约翰走了，我们的地方大了一些。? (2)The square looks more beautiful than ever with all the light on. 4. With + 名词 + -ed 分词（强调名词是 -ed分词动作的承受者或动作已经发生） ?(1)With this problem solved, neopenicillin 1 is now in regular production. 随着这个问题的解决，新霉素一号现在已正式生产。 ?(2)All the afternoon he worked with the door locked. 5. with + 名词 + -ing分词（强调名词是 -ing分词的动作的发出者或某动作，状态正在进行）? (1)I won’t be able to go on holiday with my mother being ill. ? (2)He felt more uneasy with the whole class staring at him. ? (3)With the field leveled and irrigation channels controlling the volume of water(水量), no such problem arose again. 6. with + 名词 + to do （不定式动作尚未发生）? (1)So in the afternoon, with nothing to do, I went on a round of the bookshops. 由于下午无事可做，我就去书店转了转。 ?(2)I can't go out with all these dishes to wash. 一、 with结构的构成 它是由介词with或without+复合结构构成，复合结构作介词with或without 的复合宾语，复合宾语中第一部分宾语由名词或代词充当，第二部分补足语由形容词、副词、介词短语、动词不定式或分词充当，分词可以是现在分词，也可以是过去分词。With结构构成方式如下： 1. with或without-名词/代词+形容词； 2. with或without-名词/代词+副词； 3. with或without-名词/代词+介词短语； 4. with或without-名词/代词 +动词不定式； 5. with或without-名词/代词 +分词。 下面分别举例： 1、 She came into the room，with her nose red because of cold.（with+名词+形容词，作伴随状语） 2、 With the meal over ， we all went home.（with+名词+副词，作时间状语） 3、The master was walking up and down with the ruler under his arm。（with+名词+介词短语，作伴随状语。） The teacher entered the classroom with a book in his hand. 4、He lay in the dark empty house，with not a man ，woman or child to say he was kind to me.（with+名词+不定式，作伴随状语） He could not finish it without me to help him.（without+代词 +不定式，作条件状语） 5、She fell asleep with the light burning.（with+名词+现在分词，作伴随状语） Without anything left in the with结构是许多英语复合结构中最