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克鲁格曼国际经济学课后答案英语版

CHAPTER 2

LABOR PRODUCTIVITY AND COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE: THE RICARDIAN MODEL

ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS

1. a. The production possibility curve is a straight line that intercepts the apple axis at 400

(1200/3) and the banana axis at 600 (1200/2).

b. The opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas is 3/2. It takes three units of labor to

harvest an apple but only two units of labor to harvest a banana. If one foregoes harvesting an apple, this frees up three units of labor. These 3 units of labor could then be used to harvest 1.5 bananas.

c. Labor mobility ensures a common wage in each sector and competition ensures the price

of goods equals their cost of production. Thus, the relative price equals the relative costs, which equals the wage times the unit labor requirement for apples divided by the wage times the unit labor requirement for bananas. Since wages are equal across sectors, the price ratio equals the ratio of the unit labor requirement, which is 3 apples per 2 bananas.

2. a. The production possibility curve is linear, with the intercept on the apple axis equal to

160 (800/5) and the intercept on the banana axis equal to 800 (800/1).

b. The world relative supply curve is constructed by determining the supply of apples

relative to the supply of bananas at each relative price. The lowest relative price at which apples are harvested is 3 apples per 2 bananas. The relative supply curve is flat at this price. The maximum number of apples supplied at the price of 3/2 is 400 supplied by Home while, at this price, Foreign harvests 800 bananas and no apples, giving a maximum relative supply at this price of 1/2. This relative supply holds for any price between 3/2 and 5. At the price of 5, both countries would harvest apples.

The relative supply curve is again flat at 5. Thus, the relative supply curve is step shaped, flat at the price 3/2 from the relative supply of 0 to 1/2, vertical at the relative quantity 1/2 rising from 3/2 to 5, and then flat again from 1/2 to infinity.

3. a. The relative demand curve includes the points (1/5, 5), (1/2, 2), (1,1), (2,1/2).

b. The equilibrium relative price of apples is found at the intersection of the relative

demand and relative supply curves. This is the point (1/2, 2), where the relative

demand curve intersects the vertical section of the relative supply curve. Thus the equilibrium relative price is 2.

c. Home produces only apples, Foreign produces only bananas, and each country trades

some of its product for the product of the other country.

d. In the absence of trade, Home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and

Foreign could gain by one apple foregoing five bananas. Trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. Home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while Foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. Each country is better off with trade.

4. The increase in the number of workers at Home shifts out the relative supply schedule

such that the corner points are at (1, 3/2) and (1, 5) instead of (1/2, 3/2) and (1/2, 5).

The intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves is now in the lower horizontal section, at the point (2/3, 3/2). In this case, Foreign still gains from trade but the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of apples for Home is the same whether or not there is trade, so Home neither gains nor loses from trade.

5. This answer is identical to that in 3. The amount of "effective labor" has not changed

since the doubling of the labor force is accompanied by a halving of the productivity of labor.

6. This statement is just an example of the pauper labor argument discussed in the chapter.

The point is that relative wage rates do not come out of thin air; they are determined by comparative productivity and the relative demand for goods. The box in the chapter provides data which shows the strong connection between wages and productivity.

Korea's low wage presumably reflects the fact that Korea is less productive than the United States in most industries. As the test example illustrated, a highly productive country that trades with a less productive, low-wage country will raise, not lower, its standard of living.

7. The problem with this argument is that it does not use all the information needed for

determining comparative advantage in production: this calculation involves the four unit labor requirements (for both the industry and service sectors, not just the two for the service sector). It is not enough to compare only service's unit labor requirements.

If a ls< a ls*, Home labor is more efficient than foreign labor in services. While this demonstrates that the United States has an absolute advantage in services, this is neither

a necessary nor a sufficient condition for determining comparative advantage. For this

determination, the industry ratios are also required. The competitive advantage of any industry depends on both the relative productivities of the industries and the relative wages across industries.

8. While Japanese workers may earn the equivalent wages of U.S. workers, the purchasing

power of their income is one-third less. This implies that although w=w* (more or less), p

However, many of these services cannot be transported and hence, are not traded. This implies that the Japanese may not benefit from the lower U.S. services costs, and do not face an international price which is lower than their domestic price. Likewise, the price of services in United States does not increase with the opening of trade since these services are non-traded. Consequently, U.S. purchasing power is higher than that of Japan due to its lower prices on non-traded goods.

9. Gains from trade still exist in the presence of nontraded goods. The gains from trade

decline as the share of nontraded goods increases. In other words, the higher the portion of goods which do not enter international marketplace, the lower the potential gains from trade. If transport costs were high enough so that no goods were traded then, obviously, there would be no gains from trade.

10. The world relative supply curve in this case consists of a step function, with as many

"steps" (horizontal portions) as there are countries with different unit labor requirement ratios. Any countries to the left of the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves export the good in which they have a comparative advantage relative to any country to the right of the intersection. If the intersection occurs in a horizontal portion then the country with that price ratio produces both goods.

CHAPTER 3

SPECIFIC FACTORS AND INCOME DISTRIBUTION

ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS

1. Texas and Louisiana are states with large oil-producing sectors. The real wage of oil-

producing factors of production in terms of other goods falls when the price of oil falls relative to the price of other goods. This was the source of economic decline in these states in 1986.

2. To analyze the economy's production possibility frontier, consider how the output mix

changes as labor is shifted between the two sectors.

a. The production functions for goods 1 and 2 are standard plots with quantities on the

vertical axis, labor on the horizontal axis, and Q1= Q1(K1,L1) with slope equal to the MPL1, and on another graph, Q2= Q2(K2,L2) with slope equal to the MPL2.

Figure 3-1

b. To graph the production possibilities frontier, combine the production function diagrams with the economy's allocation of labor in a four quadrant diagram. The economy's PPF is in the upper right hand corner, as is illustrated in the four quadrant diagram above. The PPF is curved due to declining marginal product of labor in each good.

3. a. To solve this problem, one can graph the demand curve for labor in sector 1,

represented by (w=MPL 1=demand for L 1) and the demand curve for labor in sector 2, represented by (w=MPL 2=demand for L 2) . Since the total supply of labor is given by the horizontal axis, the labor allocation between the sectors is approximately L 1=27 and L 2=73. The wage rate is approximately $0.98.

L w

27100L 1L 2

Figure 3-2

b. Use the same type of graph as in problem 2b to show that sectoral output is Q 1=44 and Q 2=90. (This involves combining the production function diagrams with the economy's allocation of labor in a four quadrant diagram. The economy's PPF is in the upper right hand corner, as illustrated in the text.)

c. Use a graph of labor demands, as in part a, to show that the intersection of the demand curves for labor occurs at a wage rate approximately equal to $0.74. The relative decline in the price of good 2 caused labor to be reallocated: labor is drawn out of production of good 2 and enters production of good 1 (L 1=62, L 2=38). This also leads

to an output adjustment, whereby production of good 2 falls to 68 units and production of good 1 rises to 76 units.

d. With the relative price change from p 2/p 1=2 to p 2/p 1=1, the price of good 2 has fallen by 50 percent, while the price of good 1 has stayed the sam

e. Wages have fallen, but by less than the fall in p 2 (wages fell approximately 25 percent). Thus, the real wage relative to p 2 actually rises while to real wage relative to p 1 falls. Hence, to determine the welfare consequences for workers, information is needed about their consumption shares of good 1 and good 2.

4. The box diagram presented below is a useful tool for showing the effects of increasing

the supply of the mobile factor of production, labor.

a. For an economy producing two goods, X and Y, with labor demands reflected by their marginal revenue product curves, there is an initial wage of w 1 and an initial labor allocation of L x =O x A and L y =O y A. When the supply of labor increases, the right boundary of this diagram is pushed out to O y '. The demand for labor in sector Y is pulled rightward with the boundary. The new intersection of the labor demand curves shows that labor expands in both sectors, and therefore output of both X and Y also expand. The relative expansion of output is ambiguous. Wages paid to workers fall.

x A B w 1w 2y y’

Figure 3-3

b. From the shape of the MPL curves, it is clear that labor will continue to exhibit diminishing returns. Using a four quadrant diagram, you can demonstrate that the new production possibility frontier is more concave and steeper (flatter) at the ends. Using

the numerical example, L1 increases to 90 from 62 and L2increases to 50 from 38. Wages decline from $0.74 to $0.60. This new allocation of labor yields a new output mix of approximately Q1=85and Q2=77.

CHAPTER 4

RESOURCES AND TRADE: THE HECKSCHER-OHLIN MODEL ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS

1. The definition of cattle growing as land intensive depends on the ratio of land to labor

used in production, not on the ratio of land or labor to output. The ratio of land to labor in cattle exceeds the ratio in wheat in the United States, implying cattle is land intensive in the United States. Cattle is land intensive in other countries too if the ratio of land to labor in cattle production exceeds the ratio in wheat production in that country. Comparisons between another country and the United States is less relevant for this purpose.

2. a. The box diagram has 600 as the length of two sides (representing labor) and 60 as the

length of the other two sides (representing land). There will be a ray from each of the two corners representing the origins. To find the slopes of these rays we use the information from the question concerning the ratios of the production coefficients.

The question states that a LC / a TC = 20 and a LF / a TF = 5.

Since a LC / a TC = (L C /Q C) / (T C /Q C) =L C /T C we have L C =20T C. Using the same

reasoning, a LF / a TF = (L F /Q F) / (T F /Q F) =L F/T F and since this ratio equals 5, we have L F =5T F. We can solve this algebraically since L=L C+L F=600 and T=T C+T F=60.

The solution is L C=400, T C=20, L F=200 and T F=40.

b. The dimensions of the box change with each increase in available labor but the slopes

of the rays from the origins remain the same. The solutions in the different cases are as follows.

L=800: T C=33.33, L C=666.67, T F=26.67, L F=133.33

L=1000: T C=46.67, L C=933.33, T F=13.33, L F=66.67

L=1200: T C=60, L C=1200, T F=0, L F=0. (complete specialization).

c. At constant factor prices, some labor would be unused, so factor prices would have to

change, or there would be unemployment.

3. This question is similar to an issue discussed in Chapter 2. What matters is not the

absolute abundance of factors, but their relative abundance. Poor countries have an abundance of labor relative to capital when compared to more developed countries.

4. In the Ricardian model, labor gains from trade through an increase in its purchasing

power. This result does not support labor union demands for limits on imports from less affluent countries. Labor may gain or lose from trade in the context of the Immobile Factors model. Purchasing power in terms of one good will rise, but in terms of the other good it will decline. The Heckscher-Ohlin model directly addresses distribution by considering the effects of trade on the owners of factors of production.

In the context of this model, unskilled U.S. labor loses from trade since this group represents the relatively scarce factors in this country. The results from the Heckscher-Ohlin model support labor union demands for import limits.

5. Conditions necessary for factor price equalization include both countries (or regions)

produce both goods, both countries have the same technology of production, and the absence of barriers to trade. The difference between wages different regions of the United States may reflect all of these reasons; however, the barriers to trade are purely "natural" barriers due to transportation costs. U.S. trade with Mexico, by contrast, is also subject to legal limits; together with cultural differences that inhibit the flow of technology, this may explain why the difference in wage rates is so much larger.

6. The factor proportions theory states that countries export those goods whose

production is intensive in factors with which they are abundantly endowed. One would expect the United States, which has a high capital/labor ratio relative to the rest of the world, to export capital-intensive goods if the Heckscher-Ohlin theory holds. Leontief found that the United States exported labor-intensive goods. Bowen, Leamer and Sveikauskas found for the world as a whole the correlation between factor endowment and trade patterns to be tenuous. The data do not support the predictions of the theory that countries' exports and imports reflect the relative endowments of factors.

7. If the efficiency of the factors of production differ internationally, the lessons of the

Heckscher-Ohlin theory would be applied to “effective factors” which adjust for the differences in technology or worker skills or land quality (for example). The adjusted model has been found to be more successful than the unadjusted model at explaining the pattern of trade between countries. Factor-price equalization concepts would apply

to the effective factors. A worker with more skills or in a country with better technology could be considered to be equal to two workers in another country. Thus, the single person would be two effective units of labor. Thus, the one high-skilled worker could earn twice what lower skilled workers do and the price of one effective unit of labor would still be equalized.

CHAPTER 5

THE STANDARD TRADE MODEL

ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS

1. An increase in the terms of trade increases welfare when the PPF is right-angled. The

production point is the corner of the PPF. The consumption point is the tangency of the relative price line and the highest indifference curve. An improvement in the terms of trade rotates the relative price line about its intercept with the PPF rectangle (since there is no substitution of immobile factors, the production point stays fixed). The economy can then reach a higher indifference curve. Intuitively, although there is no supply response, the economy receives more for the exports it supplies and pays less for the imports it purchases.

2. The difference from the standard diagram is that the indifference curves are right

angles rather than smooth curves. Here, a terms of trade increase enables an economy to move to a higher indifference curve. The income expansion path for this economy is a ray from the origin. A terms of trade improvement moves the consumption point further out along the ray.

3. The terms of trade of Japan, a manufactures (M) exporter and a raw materials (R)

importer, is the world relative price of manufactures in terms of raw materials (p M/p R).

The terms of trade change can be determined by the shifts in the world relative supply and demand (manufactures relative to raw materials) curves. Note that in the following answers, world relative supply (RS) and relative demand (RD) are always M relative to R. We consider all countries to be large, such that changes affect the world relative price.

a. Oil supply disruption from the Middle East decreases the supply of raw materials,

which increases the world relative supply. The world relative supply curve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorating Japan's terms of trade.

b. Korea’s increased automobile production increases the supply of manufactures, which

increases the world RS. The world relative supply curve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorating Japan's terms of trade.

c. U.S. development of a substitute for fossil fuel decreases the demand for raw materials.

This increases world RD and the world relative demand curve shifts out, increasing the

world relative price of manufactured goods and improving Japan's terms of trade. This occurs even if no fusion reactors are installed in Japan since world demand for raw materials falls.

d. A harvest failure in Russia decreases the supply of raw materials, which increases the

world RS. The world relative supply curve shifts out. Also, Russia’s demand for manufactures decreases, which reduces world demand so that the world relative demand curve shifts in. These forces decrease the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorate Japan's terms of trade.

e. A reduction in Japan’s tariff on raw materials will raise its internal relative price of

manufactures. This price change will i ncrease Japan’s RS and decrease Japan’s RD, which increases the world RS and decreases the world RD (i.e., world RS shifts out and world RD shifts in). The world relative price of manufactures declines and Japan’s terms of trade deteriorate.

4. These results acknowledge the biased growth which occurs when there is an increase

in one factor of production. An increase in the capital stock of either country favors production of good X while an increase in the labor supply favors production of good Y. Also, recognize the Heckscher-Ohlin result that an economy will export that good which uses intensively the factor which hat economy has in relative abundance.

Country A exports good X to country B and imports good Y from country B. The possibility of immiserizing growth makes the welfare effects of a terms of trade improvement due to export-biased growth ambiguous. Import-biased growth unambiguously improves welfare for the growing country.

a. A's terms of trade worsen, A's welfare may increase or, less likely, decrease, and B's

welfare increases.

b. A's terms of trade improve, A's welfare increases and B's welfare decreases.

c. B's terms of trade improve, B's welfare increases and A's welfare decreases.

d. B's terms of trade worsen, B's welfare may increase or, less likely, decrease, and A's

welfare increases.

5. Immiserizing growth occurs when the welfare deteriorating effects of a worsening in

an economy's terms of trade swamp the welfare improving effects of growth. For this to occur, an economy must undergo very biased growth and the economy must be a large enough actor in the world economy such that its actions spill over to adversely alter the terms of trade to a large degree. This combination of events is unlikely to occur in practice.

6. Aid which must be spent on exports increases the demand for those export goods and

raises their price relative to other goods. There will be a terms of trade deterioration for the recipient country. This can be viewed as a polar case of the effect of a transfer on the terms of trade. Here, the marginal propensity to consume the export good by the recipient country is 1. The donor benefits from a terms of trade improvement. As with immiserizing growth, it is theoretically possible that a transfer actually worsens the welfare of the recipient.

7. Given the difference in technological development between most Eastern European

countries and the United States and Japan, the effects on Western European prices will depend, in the short run, on transfer problem issues and, in the long run, on the likely biases in Eastern Europe's growth. The transfer problem point is concerned with the consumption demands of countries which receive available international credit supplies. If loans to developing countries shift from availability to Latin American countries, which have a relatively high propensity to consume U.S. goods, to availability to Eastern European countries, which have a lower propensity to consume U.S. goods and a higher propensity to consume German goods, the price of German exports will rise relative to the price of U.S. exports. This would lead to an improvement in the terms of trade of Germany and a worsening of the terms of trade of the United States. Note, however, that in the long term, the analysis of terms of trade effects should also consider whether the biases in economic growth in Eastern Europe will be in sectors of the economy more closely aligned with the export industries of Germany or of the United States. The greater the similarity of the export-oriented industrial push in Eastern European with the existing industries in Germany, the greater the supply side reversal of the favorable German terms of trade movement which had arisen from the demand side forces of the transfer problem.

8. When a country subsidizes its exports, the world relative supply and relative demand

schedules shift such that the terms of trade for the country worsen. A countervailing import tariff in a second country exacerbates this effect, moving the terms of trade even further against the first country. The first country is worse off both because of the deterioration of the terms of trade and the distortions introduced by the new internal relative prices. The second country definitely gains from the first country's export subsidy, and may gain further from its own tariff. If the second country retaliated with an export subsidy then this would offset the initial improvement in the

terms of trade; the "retaliatory" export subsidy definitely helps the first country and hurts the second.

CHAPTER 6

ECONOMIES OF SCALE, IMPERFECT COMPETITION, AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE

ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS

1. Cases a and d reflect external economies of scale since concentration of the production

of an industry in a few locations reduces the industry's costs even when the scale of operation of individual firms remains small. External economies need not lead to imperfect competition. The benefits of geographical concentration may include a greater variety of specialized services to support industry operations and larger labor markets or thicker input markets. Cases b and c reflect internal economies of scale and occur at the level of the individual firm. The larger the output of a product by a particular firm, the lower its average costs. This leads to imperfect competition as in petrochemicals, aircraft, and autos.

2. The profit maximizing output level of a monopolist occurs where marginal revenue

equals marginal cost. Unlike the case of perfectly competitive markets, under monopoly marginal revenue is not equal to price. Marginal revenue is always less than price under imperfectly competitive markets because to sell an extra unit of output the firm must lower the price of all units, not just the marginal one.

3. By concentrating the production of each good with economies of scale in one country

rather than spreading the production over several countries, the world economy will use the same amount of labor to produce more output. In the monopolistic competition model, such a concentration of labor benefits the host country, which can also capture some monopoly rents, while it may hurt the rest of the world which could then face higher prices on its consumption goods. In the external economies case, such monopolistic pricing behavior is less likely since imperfectly competitive markets are less likely.

4. Although this problem is a bit tricky and the numbers don't work out nicely, a solution

does exist. The first step in finding the solution is to determine the equilibrium number of firms in the industry. The equilibrium number of firms is that number, n, at which

price equals average cost. We know that AC=F/X + c , where F represents fixed costs of production, X represents the level of sales by each firm, and c represents marginal costs. We also know that P=c+ (1/bn), where P and b represent price and the demand parameter. Also, if all firms follow the same pricing rule, then X=S/n where S equals total industry sales. So, set price equal to average cost, cancel out the c's and replace X by S/n. Rearranging what is left yields the formula n2=S/Fb. Substitute in S=900,000+ 1,600,000+ 3,750,000 =6,250,000, F=750,000,000 and b=1/30,000. The numerical answer is that n=15.8 firms. However, since you will never see .8 firms, there will be

15 firms that enter the market, not 16 firms since the last firm knows that it can not

make positive profits. The rest of the solution is straight-forward. Using X=S/n, output per firm is 41,666 units. Using the price equation, and the fact that c=5,000, yields an equilibrium price of $7,000.

5. a. The relatively few locations for production suggest external economies of scale in

production. If these operations are large, there may also be large internal economies of scale in production.

b. Since economies of scale are significant in airplane production, it tends to be done by a

small number of (imperfectly competitive) firms at a limited number of locations. One such location is Seattle, where Boeing produces.

c. Since external economies of scale are significant in semiconductor production,

semiconductor industries tend to be concentrated in certain geographic locations. If, for some historical reason, a semiconductor is established in a specific location, the export of semiconductors by that country is due to economies of scale and not comparative advantage.

d. "True" scotch whiskey can only come from Scotland. The production of scotch

whiskey requires a technique known to skilled distillers who are concentrated in the region. Also, soil and climactic conditions are favorable for grains used in local scotch production. This reflects comparative advantage.

e. France has a particular blend of climactic conditions and land that is difficult to

reproduce elsewhere. This generates a comparative advantage in wine production.

6. The Japanese producers are price discriminating across United States and Japanese

markets, so that the goods sold in the United States are much cheaper than those sold in Japan. It may be profitable for other Japanese to purchase these goods in the United States, incur any tariffs and transportation costs, and resell the goods in Japan. Clearly, the price differential across markets must be non-trivial for this to be profitable.

7. a. Suppose two countries that can produce a good are subject to forward-falling supply

curves and are identical countries with identical curves. If one country starts out as a producer of a good, i.e. it has a head start even as a matter of historical accident, then all production will occur in that particular country and it will export to the rest of the world.

b. Consumers in both countries will pay a lower price for this good when external

economies are maximized through trade and all production is located in a single market. In the present example, no single country has a natural cost advantage or is worse off than it would be under autarky.

8. External economies are important for firms as technology changes rapidly and as the

“cutting edge” moves quickly with frequent innovations. As this process slows, manufacturing becomes more routine and there is less advantage conferred by external economies. Instead, firms look for low cost production locations. Since external economies are no longer important, firms find little advantage in being clustered and it is likely that locations other than the high-wage original locations are chosen.

CHAPTER 7

INTERNATIONAL FACTOR MOVEMENTS

ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS

1. The marginal product of labor in Home is 10 and in Foreign is 18. Wages are higher

in Foreign, so workers migrate there to the point where the marginal product in both Home and Foreign is equated. This occurs when there are 7 workers in each country, and the marginal product of labor in each country is 14.

2. There is no incentive to migrate when there is factor price equalization. This occurs

when both countries produce both goods and when there are no barriers to trade (the problem assumes technology is the same in the two countries). A tariff by country A increases the relative price of the protected good in that country and lowers its relative price in the country B. If the protected good uses labor relatively intensively, the demand for labor in country A rises, as does the return to labor, and the return to labor in the country B falls. These results follow from the Stolper-Samuelson theory, which states that an increase in the price of a good raises the return to the factor used intensively in the production of that good by more than the price increase. These international wage differentials induce migration from country B to country A.

3. The analysis of intertemporal trade follows directly the analysis of trade of two goods.

Substitute "future consumption" and "present consumption" for "cloth" and "food."

The relevant relative price is the cost of future consumption compared to present consumption, which is the inverse of the real interest rate. Countries in which present consumption is relatively cheap (which have low real interest rates) will "export"

present consumption (i.e. lend) to countries in which present consumption is relatively dear (which have high real interest rates). The equilibrium real interest rate after borrowing and lending occur lies between that found in each country before borrowing and lending take place. Gains from borrowing and lending are analogous to gains from trade--there is greater efficiency in the production of goods intertemporally.

4. Foregoing current consumption allows one to obtain future consumption. There will

be a bias towards future consumption if the amount of future consumption which can be obtained by foregoing current consumption is high. In terms of the analysis presented in this chapter, there is a bias towards future consumption if the real interest

rate in the economy is higher in the absence of international borrowing or lending than the world real interest rate.

a. The large inflows of immigrants means that the marginal product of capital will rise as

more workers enter the country. The real interest rate will be high, and there will be a bias towards future consumption.

b. The marginal product of capital is low and thus there is a bias towards current

consumption.

c. The direction of the bias depends upon the comparison of the increase in the price of

oil and the world real interest rate. Leaving the oil in the ground provides a return of the increase in the price of oil whereas the world real interest rate may be higher or lower than this increase.

d. Foregoing current consumption allows exploitation of resources, and higher future

consumption. Thus, there is a bias towards future consumption.

e. The return to capital is higher than in the rest of the world (since the country's rate of

growth exceeds that of the rest of the world), and there is a bias toward future consumption.

5. a. $10 million is not a controlling interest in IBM, so this does not qualify as direct

foreign investment. It is international portfolio diversification.

b. This is direct foreign investment if one considers the apartment building a business

which pays returns in terms of rents.

c. Unless particular U.S. shareholders will not have control over the new French

company, this will not be direct foreign investment.

d. This is not direct foreign investment since the Italian company is an "employee," but

not the ones which ultimately control, the company.

6. In terms of location, the Karma company has avoided Brazilian import restrictions. In

terms of internalization, the firm has retained its control over the technology by not divulging its patents.

CHAPTER 12

NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTING AND THE BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS

1. The reason for including only the value of final goods and services in GNP, as stated in

the question, is to avoid the problem of double counting. Double counting will not occur if intermediate imports are subtracted and intermediate exported goods are added to GNP accounts. Consider the sale of U.S. steel to Toyota and to General Motors.

The steel sold to General Motors should not be included in GNP since the value of that steel is subsumed in the cars produced in the United States. The value of the steel sold to Toyota will not enter the national income accounts in a more finished state since the value of the Toyota goes towards Japanese GNP. The value of the steel should be subtracted from GNP in Japan since U.S. factors of production receive payment for it.

2. Equation 2 can be written as CA = (S p - I) + (T - G). Higher U.S. barriers to imports

may have little or no impact upon private savings, investment, and the budget deficit.

If there were no effect on these variables then the current account would not improve with the imposition of tariffs or quotas. It is possible to tell stories in which the effect on the current account goes either way. For example, investment could rise in industries protected by the tariff, worsening the current account. (Indeed, tariffs are sometimes justified by the alleged need to give ailing industries a chance to modernize their plant and equipment.) On the other hand, investment might fall in industries that face a higher cost of imported intermediate goods as a result of the tariff. In general, permanent and temporary tariffs have different effects. The point of the question is that

a prediction of the manner in which policies affect the current account requires a

general-equilibrium, macroeconomic analysis.

3. a. The purchase of the German stock is a debit in the U.S. financial account. There is a

corresponding credit in the U.S. financial account when the American pays with a check on his Swiss bank account because his claims on Switzerland fall by the amount of the check. This is a case in which an American trades one foreign asset for another.

《国际经济学》篇章精选练习题及答案(DOC)

第1章绪论重点问题:国际经济学的产生、发展、对象及其其他经济学科的关系单选 1．国际经济学分析的最基本的出发点是（B） A经济增长 B经济自然增长 C制度创新的经济增长 D经济发展 2．经济发展是（D） A经济结构的变革 B社会和政治体制的变革 C经济自然增长 D制度创新的经济增长 3．国际经济最基本的出发点是（B ） A社会分工 B国际分工 C产业内分工 D产业之间的分工和合作 4．国际经济交往的主要方式是（A） A生产要跨国界流动 B国际分工 C商品跨国界流通 D开放经济第2章古典国际贸易理论重点问题：绝对利益说的基本内容及其评价比较利益说的基本内容及其评价单选 1．在斯密的绝对优势贸易理论中，(C)。 A所有产品均具有绝对优势的国家最终将获得全部黄金和白银 B具有绝对优势的国家将获得大量贸易余额 C如果两个国家分别出口本国劳动成本相对较低的产品，将同时从贸易中获益 D如果一国不用关税壁垒保护本国产业，将丧失绝对优势 2．李嘉图的比较优势理论指出，(B)。 A贸易导致不完全专业化 B即使一个国家不具有绝对成本优势，也可以从出口绝对成本劣势相对较小的产品中获益 C与不具备绝对成本优势的国家相比，具有绝对成本优势的国家可以从贸易中获利更多 D只有具备比较优势的国家才能获得贸易余额 3．如果一个阿根廷工人能生产3蒲式耳小麦或1辆汽车，而一个巴西工人能生产4蒲式耳小麦或2辆汽车，则(D)。 A巴西在小麦和汽车生产上都具有绝对优势，而阿根廷没有比较优势 B阿根廷在小麦和汽车生产上都具有绝对优势，而巴西没有比较优势 C巴西在小麦和汽车生产上都具有绝对优势，而阿根廷在汽车生产上具有比较优势 D巴西在小麦和汽车生产上都具有绝对优势，而阿根廷在小麦生产上具有比较优势 4．根据比较优势原理的政策经验，一国从国际贸易中获益的条件是(B)。 A制造大量出口顺差 B以较低的机会成本进口商品而不是在国内生产 C本国比贸易伙伴强大 D本国相对于贸易伙伴具备绝对效率优势 5.比较利益理论认为国际贸易的驱动力是( A ) A.劳动生产率的差异 B.技术水平的差异 C.产品品质的差异 D.价格的差异 6.在比较利益模型中，两种参与贸易商品的国际比价( C ) A.在两国贸易前的两种商品的国内比价之上 B.在两国贸易前的两种商品的国内比价之下 C.在两国贸易前的两种商品的国内比价之间 D.与贸易前的任何一个国家的国内比价相同简答： 1．请从国际贸易实际出发评价绝对利益说 P20 斯密的绝对利益学说揭示了在自由市场经济条件下，国际贸易产生的原因在于两国之间劳动生产率的绝对差异，按照绝对利益学说的原则进行国际分工，贸易的参与者与整个世界会因此而获得利益。这一学说在一定程度上反映出了国际贸易中的某些规律，为产业资本的发展提供了相应的理论支撑，具有重要的实践意义和理论意义。从国际贸易实际出发的评价斯密的绝对利益学说在实践中运用存在着一个必要的假设前提：一国要参加国际贸易，就必然要有至少一种产品与贸易伙伴相比处于劳动生产率绝对高或生产所耗费的劳动绝对低的地位上，以便利用劳动生产率的绝对差异进人国际市场。如果一国在所有的产品生产上，劳动生产率均低于贸易对象国，该国便不具备参加国际分工的条件，或者在国际贸易中没有任何的利益获得。这一点在理论上过于绝对，在实践中也不符合实际情况(发展中国家劳动生产率很可能在所有产品上都不如发达国家，但仍然在进行国际贸易)，实际上陷入了理论与实践的两难境地：如果没有超过贸易对手的高劳动生产率部门，该国便被排除在国际贸易的大门之外，或者在贸易中本国的生产部门将被对方的竞争击垮。显然，世界贸易的历史与现实并不完全、普遍地符合斯密这样的假设。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)笔记和课后习题详解第2章~第4章【圣才出品】

第1篇国际贸易理论第2章世界贸易概览 2.1复习笔记 1．经济规模与进出口总额之间的关系（1）规模问题：引力模型现实证明一国的经济规模与其进出口总额息息相关。把整个世界贸易看成整体，可利用引力模型（gravity model）来预测任意两国之间的贸易规模。引力模型方程式如下：其中， T是i国与j国的贸易额，A为常量，i Y是i国的国内生产总值，j Y是j国的国 ij 内生产总值， D是两国的距离。引力模型方程式表明：其他条件不变的情况下，两国间的 ij 贸易规模与两国的GDP成正比，与两国间的距离成反比。（2）引力模型的内在逻辑引力模型之所以能较好地拟合两国之间的实际贸易现状，其原因在于：大的经济体收入高，因而大量进口产品；大的经济体能生产更多品种的系列产品，因而更能满足其他国家的需求，进而大量出口产品。在两国贸易中，任一方的经济规模越大，则双方的贸易量就越大。（3）引力模型的应用：寻找反例当两国之间的贸易量与依照引力模型计算得出的结果相差较大时，就需要从其他因素进行分析，如文化的亲和性、地理位置、运输成本等因素。事实上，这也是引力模型的重要用

途之一，即有助于明确国际贸易中的异常现象。（4）贸易障碍：距离、壁垒和疆界距离、壁垒和疆界对国际贸易有负面作用，会使得两国之间的贸易额大大小于根据引力模型所计算出的结果。另外，在各国GDP和距离给定的情况下，有效贸易协定（trade agreement）比无效的贸易协定更能显著增加成员国的贸易量，这也是美国与其邻国的贸易量明显大于其和相同大小的欧盟的贸易量的原因之一。 2．正在演变的世界贸易模式（1）世界变小了吗？人们认为，现代化的运输和通讯可以超越空间距离的束缚，世界因此成了小“村落”。事实的确如此。但是，有时候政治的力量可以超过技术进步的作用，两次世界大战、20世纪30年代的大萧条及战后全世界范围内的贸易保护主义等都严重制约着国际贸易的发展，使得国际贸易大幅萎缩，并且用了几十年才得以恢复。（2）交易内容从全世界范围来看，工业制成品是主要的交换产品，所占比重最大。矿产品特别是现代世界不可或缺的石油依旧是世界贸易的主要部分。引人注目的是发展中国家已经从初级产品出口国转变为主要的制成品出口国。另外，服务贸易在国际贸易中凸显重要，并且其重要性越来越突出。（3）服务外包随着现代信息技术的发展和应用，一种新的贸易形式——服务外包（service outsourcing）随之出现。服务外包也称之为离岸服务，是一种新兴的国际贸易现象，使得曾经必须在一国国内实现的服务现在可以在国外实现。（4）旧规则依然可行吗？

国际经济学课后答案解析

第一章绪论 1、列举出体现当前国际经济学问题的一些重要事件，他们为什么重要？他们都是怎么影响中国与欧、美、日的经济和政治关系的？当前的国际金融危机最能体现国际经济学问题，其深刻地影响了世界各国的金融、实体经济、政治等领域，也影响了各国之间的关系因此显得尤为重要；其对中国与欧、美、日的政治和经济关系的影响为：减少中国对上述国家的出口，影响中国外汇储备，贸易摩擦加剧，经济联系加强，因而也会导致中国与上述国家在政治上的对话与合作。 2、我们如何评价一国与他国之间的相互依赖程度？我们可以通过一国的对外贸易依存度来评价该国与他国之间的相互依赖程度，也可以通过其他方式来评价比如一国政府政策的溢出效应和回震效应以及对外贸易对国民生活水平的影响。 3、国际贸易理论及国际贸易政策研究的内容是什么？为什么说他们是国际经济学的微观方面?国际贸易理论分析贸易的基础和所得，国际贸易政策考察贸易限制和新保护主义的原因和效果。国际贸易理论和政策是国际经济学的微观方面，因为他们把国家看作基本单位，并研究单个商品的（相对）价格。 4、什么是外汇交易市场及国际收支平衡表？调节国际收支平衡意味着什么？为什么说他们是国际经济学的宏观方面？什么是宏观开放经济学及国际金融？外汇交易市场描述一国货币与他国货币交换的框架，国际收支平衡表测度了一国与外部世界交易的总收入与总支出的情况。调节国际收支平衡意味着调节一国与外部世界交易出现的不均衡（赤字或盈余）；由于国际收支平衡表涉及总收入和总支出，调节政策影响国家收入水平和价格总指数，因而他们是国际经济学的宏观方面；外汇交易及国际收支平衡调节涉及总收入和总支出，调整政策影响国家收入水平和价格总指数，这些内容被称为宏观开放经济学或国际金融。 5、浏览报刊并做下列题目：（1）找出5条有关国际经济学的新闻（2）每条新闻对中国经济的重要性或影响（3）每条新闻对你个人有何影响 A (1) 国际金融危机: 影响中国整体经济,降低出口、增加失业、经济减速等 (2) 美国大选：影响中美未来经济政治关系 (3) 石油价格持续下跌：影响中国的能源价格及相关产业 (4) 可口可乐收购汇源被商务部否决：《反垄断法》的第一次实施，加强经济法治 (5) 各国政府经济刺激方案：对中国经济产生外部性效应B 以上5条新闻对个人影响为：影响个人消费水平和就业前景第二章比较优势理论 1、重商主义者的贸易观点如何？他们的国家财富概念与现在有何不同？重商主义者主张政府应当竭尽所能孤立出口，不主张甚至限制商品（尤其是奢侈类消费品）。重商主义者认为国家富强的方法是尽量使出口大于进口，而出超的结果是金银等贵重金属流入，而一个国家拥有越多的金银，就越富有越强大。现在认为一个国家生产力即生产商品的能力越高则一国越富强 2、亚当.斯密主张的贸易基础和贸易模式分别是什么？贸易所得是如何产生的？斯密倡导什么样的国际贸易基础？他认为政府在经济生活中的适当功能是什么？亚当.斯密主张的贸易基础是绝对优势；贸易模式为两国通过专门生产自己有绝对优势的产品并用其中一部分来交换器有绝对劣势的商品。通过生产绝对优势商品并交换，资源可以被最有效的使用，而且两种商品的产出会有很大的增长，通过交换就会消费比以前更多的商品从而产生了贸易所得；斯密倡导自由贸易，主张自由放任也就是政府尽可能少干涉经济

国际经济学答案答案中文版

Home's PPF 200400600800200400600800 Q apple Q banana Foreign's PPF 200400600800100080160240320400 Q*apple Q*banana Chapter 2 1a.画出本国的生产可能性边界： b. 用香蕉衡量的苹果的机会成本是， 5.1=Lb La a a c ．劳动力的自由流动使两部门的工资率相等，自由竞争使得他们生产两种产品的机会成本相同。相对价格等于相对成本，后者可以表示为(*)/(*)a a b b w a w a ，由于两部门间的工资率相等，a b w w ∴=，只有在Lb La b a /a a /P P =，两种商品才都会被生产。所以 1.5 /P P b a = 2a. b. 3 a. a b b a /P P /D D =∵当市场达到均衡时, 1b a ) (D D -**=++=b a b b a a P P Q Q Q Q ∴RD 是一条双曲线 x y 1 =

b.苹果的均衡相对价格由RD 和RS 的交点决定: RD: y x 1 = RS: 5 ]5,5.1[5.1],5.0(5.0) 5.0,0[=∈=??? ??+∞∈=∈y y y x x x ∴x=0.5, y=2 ∴2/=b P a P e e c. ∵b a b e a e b a P P P P P P ///>>**∴只有两个国家的时候，本国专门生产苹果，出口苹果并进口香蕉：外国则正好相反。 d ．国际贸易允许本国和外国在阴影区内任何一点消费，专门生产某种产品然后和另一个国家进行贸易的间接方式，要比直接生产该商品的方式更有效率。在没有贸易时，本国要生产3单位的香蕉必须放弃2单位的苹果，外国要生产1单位的苹果要放弃5单位的香蕉。贸易允许两国以两单位香蕉交换一单位苹果。通过出让2单位苹果，本国可以获得四单位的香蕉；而外国可以用2单位向交换得1单位苹果。所以两个国家都从贸易中获利。 4. RD: y x 1 = RS: 5 ]5,5.1[5 .1] ,1(1)1,0[=∈=?? ???+∞∈=∈y y y x x x →5.13 2==y x →5.1/=b P a P e e 在这种情况下，外国将专门生产并出口香蕉，进口苹果。但本国将同时生产香蕉和苹果，并且香蕉相对于苹果的机会成本在本国是相同的。所以本国既没有得益也没有受损，但外国从贸易中获益了。 5.在这种情况下，劳动力总量加倍了而劳动生产率减半，所以有效劳动力总量仍是相同的。答案类似于第三小题，两国都从贸易中获益了。但是，相对于第四小题，外国的获益减少了。 6.实际上，相对工资率由相应的劳动生产率和对产品的相对需求决定。韩国的低工资率反映了韩国大部分行业的劳动生产率比美国低。和低劳动生产率，低工资率的国家进行贸易可以提高像美国那样高劳动生产率国家的福利和生活水平。所以这种贫民劳动论是错误的。

国际经济学克鲁格曼考试重点

绝对优势：是指以各国生产成本的绝对差异为基础进行的国际专业化分工，并通过自由贸易获得利益的一种国际贸易理论。李嘉图模型：是一个单一要素模型，劳动是唯一的生产要素，劳动生产率的差异是不同国家各个产业部门之间唯一的不同之处，也是决定国际贸易的唯一因素。李嘉图模型的中心含义是如果每个国家都能够专门生产并出口本国劳动生产率较高的产品，那么他们之间的贸易就会给每个国家带来利益，他的两个核心含义：劳动生产率的差异在国际贸易中占据重要地位和贸易模式取决于比较优势而非绝对优势，至今仍能得到事实支持。机会成本：是指因一种选择而放弃的最有替换物或失去最好机会的价值，即是指经济决策中影由中选的最优方案负担的，按所放弃的次优方案潜在收益计算的那部分资源损失。要素比例理论/赫克歇尔俄林理论：是指从资源禀赋角度对国际贸易中的生产成本和价格的差异做出解释的国际贸易理论。其内容是：各国的贸易源于不同国家之间商品的价格存在差异，而价格差异的原因在于不同国家之间的生产成本有高有低，生产成本的高低是因为各国生产要素价格有差别，生产要素价格的差异又与各国生产要素丰裕程度密切相关。生产要素丰裕，其商品价格自认就相对低一些，生产要素稀缺，其价格相对高一些。生产要素丰裕度的差异是国际贸易产生的根本原因。出口偏向性增长：是指一国的经济增长主要源于出口产品生产能力提高的经济增长方式，表现在生产可能性边界上就是使生产可能性边界扩张偏向出口产品。福利恶化性增长：是指一国整体福利水平恶化的经济增长方式，是发展中国家的出口偏向型增长在严格假定下可能出现的一种极端情况。一国的出口偏向性增长可能导致该国的贸易条件恶化。因此，如果一国的经济增长方式表现为极强的出口偏向性，那么贸易条件恶化带来的负面影响就会抵消生产力提高带来的正面效应，使得该国整体的福利水平恶化。出口补贴：是指国家为了降低出口商品的价格，提高其在国际上的竞争力，对出口商品给予的现金或财政上的补贴。动态收益递增：成本随着累计产量下降而并非随着当前劳动生产率的上升而下降的情形就是动态收益递增倾销：出口商以低于国内市场价格的价格，甚至以低于成本的价格在国际市场上销售商品的行为。外部规模经济是指整个行业规模和产量的扩大而使单个企业平均成本下降或收益增加的经济现象。边际收益：在生产的技术水平和其他投入要素的数量均保持不变情况下，新增加一个单位的某种投入要素所引起的产量的增加量。幼稚工业论：认为新兴工业在发展初期需要国家提供保护以免在外国强大的竞争下夭折，并随着新兴工业的发展和竞争力的增强而逐步取消贸易保护，为自由贸易的实行创造条件。垄断竞争：介于完全竞争和完全垄断之间的一种市场结构，这种结构下既存在垄断，又存在竞争。价格歧视：一家企业在销售同样的商品时，对不同的顾客索取不同价格的做法完全垄断：完全排斥竞争的一种市场结构。内部规模经济：单个企业生产规模不断扩大时，由其自身内部引起的平均成本不断下降，收益不断增加的经济现象。相互倾销：不同国家生产同种或类似产品的厂商都对出口产品制定一个低于国内市场价的价格并进行双向贸易的现象。行业内贸易：在国际贸易活动中，不同国家之间就同一产业的产品所进行的贸易。

国际经济学课后习题答案

For personal use only in study and research; not for commercial use 第一章 1.为什么说在决定生产与消费时,相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示:当生产处于生产边界线上,资源则得到了充分利用,这时,要想增加某一产品的生产,必须降低另一产品的生产,也就就是说,增加某一产品的生产就是有机会机本(或社会成本)的。生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率与充分就业得以实现,但究竟选择哪一点,则还要瞧两个商品的相对价格,即它们在市场上的交换比率。相对价格等于机会成本时,生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。所以,在决定生产与消费时,相对价格比绝对价格更重要 2.仿效图1—6与图1—7,试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线与国民需求曲线。答:参见教材第一章第二节内容,将图1－6a中,以横坐标表示y商品的供给,以纵坐标表示x商品供给,得出相应生产可能性边界线,然后将图1－6b中,以横坐标表示y商品供给,以纵坐标表示y的相对价格,通过类似推导可得出国民供给曲线,国民需求曲线作类似推导可得。 3.在只有两种商品的情况下,当一个商品达到均衡时,另外一个商品就是否也同时达到均衡？答:两种商品同时达到均衡。一种商品均衡时,由其相对价格,机会成本,需求可知另一种商品得相对价格,机会成本与需求。 4.如果生产可能性边界就是一条直线,试确定过剩供给(或需求)曲线。答案提示:略,参见书上 5.如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线(B国)与过剩需求曲线(A国)来确定国际均衡价格,那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果就是否一致？答案提示:国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。 6.说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。答案提示:一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品,有利于此国贸易利益的获得,不过,出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加,有损于出口国的贸易利益;与此类似,出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加,但就是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。对于进

克鲁格曼国际经济学课后答案英语版

克鲁格曼国际经济学课后答案英语版 Company Document number：WUUT-WUUY-WBBGB-BWYTT-1982GT

C H A P T E R 2 LABOR PRODUCTIVITY AN D COMPARATIV E ADVANTAGE: THE RICARDIAN MODEL ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS 1. a. The production possibility curve is a straight line that intercepts the apple axis at 400 (1200/3) and the banana axis at 600 (1200/2). b. The opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas is 3/2. It takes three units of labor to harvest an apple but only two units of labor to harvest a banana. If one foregoes harvesting an apple, this frees up three units of labor. These 3 units of labor could then be used to harvest bananas. c. Labor mobility ensures a common wage in each sector and competition ensures the price of goods equals their cost of production. Thus, the relative price equals the relative costs, which equals the wage times the unit labor requirement for apples divided by the wage times the unit labor requirement for bananas. Since wages are equal across sectors, the price ratio equals the ratio of the unit labor requirement, which is 3 apples per 2 bananas. 2. a. The production possibility curve is linear, with the intercept on the apple axis equal to 160 (800/5) and the intercept on the banana axis equal to 800 (800/1). b. The world relative supply curve is constructed by determining the supply of apples relative to the supply of bananas at each relative price. The lowest relative price at which apples are harvested is 3 apples per 2 bananas. The relative supply curve is flat at this price. The maximum number of apples supplied at the price of 3/2 is 400 supplied by Home while, at this price, Foreign harvests 800 bananas and no apples, giving a maximum relative supply at this price of 1/2. This relative supply holds for any price between 3/2 and 5. At the price of 5, both countries would harvest apples. The relative supply curve is again flat at 5. Thus, the relative supply curve is step shaped, flat at the price 3/2 from the relative supply of 0 to 1/2, vertical at the relative quantity 1/2 rising from 3/2 to 5, and then flat again from 1/2 to infinity. 3. a. The relative demand curve includes the points (1/5, 5), (1/2, 2), (1,1), (2,1/2). b. The equilibrium relative price of apples is found at the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves. This is the point (1/2, 2), where the relative demand curve intersects the vertical section of the relative supply curve. Thus the equilibrium relative price is 2. c. Home produces only apples, Foreign produces only bananas, and each country trades some of its product for the product of the other country. d. In the absence of trade, Home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and Foreign could gain by one apple foregoing five bananas. Trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. Home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while Foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. Each country is better off with trade. 4. The increase in the number of workers at Home shifts out the relative supply schedule such that the corner points are at (1, 3/2) and (1, 5) instead of (1/2, 3/2) and (1/2, 5). The intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves is now in the lower horizontal section, at the point (2/3, 3/2). In this case, Foreign still gains from trade but the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of apples for Home is the same whether or not there is trade, so Home neither gains nor loses from trade.

国际经济学答案中文版(人大版)

Chapter 2 Chapter 12 1. 正如题目中所说的，GNP只包括最终产品和服务的价值的原因是为了避免重复计算。如果从GNP中减掉中间产品进口并加上中间产品出口，那么就可以避免重复计算。以卖给丰田公司和通用汽车的美国钢铁为例，卖给通用汽车的钢铁由于其价值已经包含在美国生产的汽车中，因此不应再计入美国GNP；由于丰田的产值计入日本GNP，卖给丰田的钢铁的价值不再以成品形态计入（日本）国民收入账户。日本的GNP则应扣除这些钢铁的价值，因为这是美国生产要素的报酬。 2. 等式2可以写成CA = (S p - I) + (T - G)，更高的进口壁垒对私人储蓄，投资及预算赤字几乎没有影响。若这些变量没有受影响，那么征收的关税或进口配额无助于改善经常项目账户收支状况（赤字）。但是贸易壁垒对经常账户的影响是柄双刃剑，例如，收关税保护的行业的投资上升会恶化经常账户（有时关税确实被证明是正当的，因其为国内落后行业升级技术装备提供了机会）。另一方面，由于关税导致的进口半产品成本上升，某些行业的投资可能下降。一般来说，永久性关税和临时性关税具有不同的效果。问题的关键在于，预测关税以何种方式影响经常账户需要从一般均衡，也就是宏观经济角度分析。 3.（a）购买德国股票借记美国金融账户；由于开支票减少了他在瑞士银行的付款要求权，所以当他用瑞士银行的账户开出的支票支付时，则贷记金融账户。在该案例中，美国人用持有的一种外国资产换取了另一种外国资产。（b）购买股票借记美国金融账户，贷记则发生于德国售股者将美国支票存入德国银行而该银行又把钱借给德国进口商（贷记美国经常账户）或购买美国资产的公司或个人（贷记美国金融账户）。德国银行的某些行为最终将贷记美国国际收支账户。（c）法国政府通过出售美国资产，即它在美国银行的美元，干预外汇市场，因此借记美国金融账户。法国公民购买美元后，如购买美国商品，则贷记美国经常账户；如购买美国资产，则贷记美国金融账户。（d）假设发行旅行支票的公司使用它在法国的支票帐户进行支付。当它为这顿饭向法国饭店付款时，借记美国经常账户。旅行支票的发行公司必须出售（美国的）资产（即减少在法国支票帐户上的存款），该公司在法国资产的减少意味着贷记美国金融账户。（e）由于没有市场交易，经常账户和资本账户借贷双方都没有变化。（f）离岸交易没有计入在美国国际收支。 4. 购买电话录音机分别借记纽约州，贷记新泽西州的经常账户；当新泽西公司把钱存到纽约银行时，分别贷记纽约州，借记新泽西州的金融账户。如果交易使用的是现金，那么两州金融账户的变化仍与前述相同：新泽西州获得了美钞（从纽约进口资产，借记金融账户）；纽约州失去了美钞（出口钞票，贷记金融账户）。 5. （a）由于非央行渠道的资本流入只能以弥补经常账户5亿美元的赤字，因此Pecunia国际收支余额（官方结算余额）是-5亿美元。由于国家要为10亿美元的经常账户赤字融资，因此Pecunia的海外净资产下降了10亿美元。（b）对Pecunia国的外汇储备稍加研究，我们发现Pecunia的央行无法通过私人资本流入来为经常账户赤字融资。只有在外国中央银行购进Pecunia资产的情况下Pecunia央行才可以避免动用5亿美元外汇储备来弥补经常账户赤字。Pecunia央行失去了5亿美元的外汇储备，在国际收支账户中则体现为官方资本流入。（c）如果外国官方资本流入是6亿美元，Pecunia就拥有1亿美元的国际收支顺差。换而言之，Pecunia只需要10亿美元弥补经常账户赤字，但是却有10亿美元流入。因此Pecunia央行必须对外借出1亿美元以增加其储备。外国央行购买Pecunia资产的行为在其国际收支账户中表现为资本流出，是借方项目。其中的基本原理是：这些交易导致了外国对Pecunia出售资产进行的支付。（d）与央行间交易相伴的是，Pecunia金融账户显示外国在Pecunia持有的官方储备资产增加了6亿美元（贷记Pecunia金融账户，资本流入），Pecunia在外国持有的官方储备资产（借记其金融账户，资本流出）增加了1亿美元。因此，10亿资本的净流入正好弥补了经常账户赤字。 6. 从长期来看，经常账户盈余或赤字都是不能接受的。有些情况下，赤字是合理的，例如，为提高未来的国民收入而借款提高当前生产能力。但是，对于任何时期的经常账户赤字，必然要有相应的时期支出少于收入以偿还外债。在没有特别的投资机会时，对于一个经济体来说最好的情况莫过于长期的消费和支出相当。一国央行持有的外汇储备会随着国际收支差额变动而变动。央行使用外汇储备来干预汇率，外汇储备不足会限制央行干预或固定汇率的能力。对于一些国家而言（特别是发展中国家），当它们向国外贷款出现困难时，央行的储备就成了保持消费和投资的重要力量。高水平的外汇储备还可使潜在的外国投资者确信该国是信誉卓著的。 7. 官方结算余额，也叫国际收支平衡，显示了像美联储和财政部这样的美国政府机构持有的外汇储备相对于外国政府机构持有的美元储备的变动。该账户提供了美联储干预外汇市场程度的部分描述。例如，德国联邦银行购买美元并存在它在伦敦的欧洲美元账户中，虽然这笔交易是外汇干预的一种形式，但它并没有体现在美国官方结算余额中。当伦敦银行将这笔存款贷记他在美国的账户时，这笔交易就体现为私人资本流入。 8. 如果金融账户和资本账户的盈余超过经常账户赤字，那么一国可以既有经常项目赤字又有国际收支盈余。国际收支盈余=经常账户盈余 +资本账户盈余+金融账户盈余。例如，如果经常账户赤字为1亿美元，资本账户盈余为1.02亿美元，那么国际收支盈余为0.02亿美元。本问题可以作为第十七章固定汇率和外汇干预的引言。在80年代的头几年美国政府没有直接干预外汇市场，课本上结果是国际收支差额为0，而实际数字则显示在82年到85年有少量的国际收支盈余。这些年份有达尔的经常账户赤字，因此，在这些年里，美国的资本流入超过了经常账户赤字。

克鲁格曼国际经济学第9版教材答案

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