Meaning and context
Types of context
A. Linguistic context
a)Lexical context
b)Grammatical context
c)Verbal context in its broad sense
B. Extra-linguistic context/Context of situation
a)The actual speech situation in which a word occurs: context of situation
b)The entire cultural background against which a word, or an utterance or a speech has to be set. The role of context in the determination of word meaning
a)Eliminating ambiguity
b)Conveying emotional overtones
The role of context in the determination of word meaning Indicating referents and the range of the meaning of a word Suggested Ways for the Correct Comprehension of Word Meaning
A. The use of an up-to-date and adequate monolingual dictionary
B. A good knowledge of the culture of the
English-speaking people
C. Development of the ability to determine the meaning of a word from its context
Polysemy and Homonymy It is quite difficult to say where polysemy ends and homonymy begins
Polysemy and homonymy
–In the case of one lexeme with a variety of referents we have an example of polysemy.
–Two or more lexemes with the same form are homonyms.
a)Lexemes may be alike to the ear but not to the eye, in which case they may be referred to
as homophones. sea/see
b)Conversely they may look alike but sound different in which case they may be referred to
as homographs. sow/sow
Polysemy
–Of Greek origin: polys (much) + sema (meaning)
–There are countless instances of polysemic words in English, whereas monosemic words are very rare. lexicology, oxygen… (technical terms)
–Polysemy is the rule and monosemy is the exception.
Reasons for polysemy
Multiple meaning is a sign of an advanced culture.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/1814548238.html,nguage faithfully reflects the spirit and reality of the age. In order to express new ideas, new
processes, new products and so on, a language can do three things:
1.(1) form a new word (2) borrow a word from other languages (3) add new meanings
to established words
ii.The simplest is to have old words take an additional meaning.
Two approaches to polysemy
a)Diachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word, or how the semantic
structure of a word has developed from a primary meaning to the present polysemic state.
b)Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings and the interrelation
between the central meaning and secondary meanings.
Two processes leading to polysemy
–Radiation (词义)辐射
the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the centre while secondary
meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays
–Concatenation (词义)串联
the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first
sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, until there is no connection between the
sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.
Homonymy
–Polysemy: more than one meaning is attached to a word
–Homonymy: two or more words may have the same form but be different in meaning.
In English, there are many pairs or groups of words which, though different in meaning,
are pronounced alike, or spelled alike, or both. Such words are called homonyms.
Types of homonyms
a)Perfect homonyms
b)Homophones
c)Homographs
Sources of homonyms
a)Phonetic convergence
b)Semantic divergence
c)Foreign influence
d)Shortening
Stylistic Values of Polysemy and Homonymy
a)The importance of context in interpretation
b)Context plays a very important role in the hearer’s interpretatio n of words of two special
types: different words of like form and words of several meanings.
c)Such words in the proper context normally cause no confusion.
d)When ambiguity arises, it is usually intentional.
SENSE RELATIONS BETWEEN WORDS
Sense relations:
a)Synonymy (同义关系)– semantic similarity
b)Antonymy (反义关系)– semantic opposition
c)Hyponymy (上下义关系) – semantic inclusion
Synonymy
Definition:
a)Synonyms are traditionally defined as words differing in sound form but identical or similar
in meaning. This definition is vague and by no means accurate.
b)words of the same language and grammatical category having the same essential or generic
meaning and differing only in connotation, application, or idiomatic use words having
essentially identical definitions.
Kinds of Synonyms
a)Complete synonyms
Two words are totally synonymous only if they are fully identical in meaning and
interchangeable in any context without the slightest alteration in connotative, affective
and stylistic meanings.
b)Relative synonyms
words which are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but different in:
degree of a given quality or in shade of meaning; affective meaning and stylistic meaning ;
collocation and distribution
Synonymous patterns
1.Double scale pattern
2.Triple scale pattern
Antonomy
Antonymy: oppositeness of meaning
Types of antonyms
a)On the basis of semantic contrast
i.Contraries
https://www.doczj.com/doc/1814548238.html,plementaries
iii.Conversives
b)On the basis of morphological structure
i.Root antonyms
ii.Derivational antonyms
Markedness and unmarkedness
The unmarked member is used much more widely than merely as a contrast with the marked one, which is more specific in denotation.
Hyponymy (上下义关系)
1.Crystal (1980): Hyponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical
items, such that the former is “included in the latter (i.e. “is a hyponym of the latter). For
example, a cat is a hyponym of animal, flute of instrument, chair of furniture, and so on.
2.Superordinate or upper term / subordinate or lower terms
3.The subordinate term can be defined, as it usually is in a dictionary definition, with reference to
the superordinate term ( cabbage is a type of large round vegetable …)
Semantic field (Lexical field)
a)The lexicon is regarded as a network
b)Semantic field theory took the view that the vocabulary of a given language is not simply a
listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, or fields, within which words
interrelate and define each other in various ways.
Development of English vocabulary
Old English or Anglo-Saxon period (450-1100)
Middle English period (1100-1500)
Modern English (1500-)
Rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary
Causes:
-Marked progress of science and technology
-Socio-economic, political and cultural changes
2. English variations across countries
2.1 American English 2.1.1 An outline of the development of American English
A. Before Independence 1) 1584 The first expedition 2) 1607 The first permanent English settlement: amestown (after James Ⅰ) Virginia (after the “Virgin Queen”Elizabeth)
3) 1620 Puritans Mayflower 4) Elizabethan English (Shakespeare, Milton), Modern English
2.1.1 An outline to the development of American English
B. From independence to the early 19th century
1) Sense of nationality:recognition of the American variety
2) Noah Webster:to establish an American use of English; to introduce American spellings
American Dictionary of the English Language
C. From 19th century to the present time
American English today is no longer just a transplanted language from Britain, but a variety or national standard of English in its own right with its own peculiarity in spelling, pronunciation, grammatical usage and vocabulary.
2.1.1 Characteristics of American English
A. Creativeness in enriching the language
B. Conservativeness
C. Words borrowed from a variety of foreign languages
2.1.2 The Causes of Differences btw AmEng and BriEng
A. Development of BriEng:English was brought to America in the early 17th century.
B. Development of AmEng: Through Independence war, civil war, America formed its own political and social life.
Word Meaning and Semantic Features
Conventionality
1.Most English words are conventional, arbitrary symbols. Consequently, there is no intrinsic
relation between the sound-symbol and its sense.
2.There is only an association between word and object because the English-speaking community
accepts that this is the case. The association is matter of convention.
Motivation
1.Motivation refers to the connection between word/symbol and its sense. From the point of view
of motivation, the great majority of English words are non-motivated, since they are
conventional, arbitrary symbols.
2. A small number of words can be described as motivated, that is, a direct connection between
the symbol and its sense can be readily observed.
Motivation can arise in three major ways:
a)Phonetic motivation:Words motivated phonetically are called echoic or onomatopoeic words, whose
pronunciation suggests the meaning.
b)Morphological motivation:We know that most of the derivational affixes have a specific meaning. We
say a word is morphologically motivated because a direct connection can be observed between the morphemic structure of the word and its meaning.
c)Semantic motivation
Semantic motivation refers to motivation based on semantic factors. It is a kind of mental
association. Figurative usage often provides the semantic motivation
Types of Meaning
1.Grammatical meaning
a)word-class
b)inflectional paradigm
2.Lexical meaning
a)Denotative meaning
b)Connotative meaning
c)Social meaning
d)Affective meaning
3.Denotative meaning（外延意义）(Leech’s Conceptual meaning)
a)The central factor in linguistic communication
b)logical, cognitive, or denotative content– the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or
refers to, e.g. woman(+HUMAN, –MALE, +ADULT)
c)Crystal: denotative meaning involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic
entities to which it refers.
4.Connotative meaning（内涵意义）:
a)the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind
b)The supplementary value which is added to the purely denotative meaning of a word: e.g. mother(love,
care, tenderness, etc)
5.Social or stylistic meaning:
a)what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use, e.g. dialect, social class, register,
style, gender
6.Affective meaning:
a)what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer, e.g. words that mainly
express emotion
b)Purr words: scholar, masterpiece, generous
c)Snarl words: gang, boast
Word formation by composition (复合法) theme park, generation gap,
b. Word formation by derivation (派生法): root + affixes
c. Word formation by analogy (类比构词法) brainstorming ---- blamestorming yesterday ---- yester year
d. Word formation by contrast (对比构词法) boycott (联合抵制) ---- girlcott (妇女联合抵制), nightmare ---- daymare ,
e. Word formation by blending (拼缀法)smog ---- smoke + fog fantabulous popaganda autocide sitcom edutainment
f. Word formation by shortening (缩略法) SIS, SYSU, CET6, OPEC, EEC, APEC
2. Semantic changes: old words, new meaning break 霹雳舞
ypes of word formation: affixation; compounding; conversion; blending; clipping; acronym; back-formation; word from proper names.
Idiom
Care killed a cat. （忧虑伤身）. Penny wise, pound foolish. (小事聪明大事糊涂）toil and moil (辛辛苦苦地工作) as dead as a doornail (肯定死了，死透了) a new broom (新上任的官员) The pen is mightier than the sword. (文比武强) Many hands make light work (人多好办事) The pot calls the kettle black. (责人严而律己宽.) A thousand years cannot repair a moment’s loss of honor. (一失足成千古恨) Short pleasure, long lament.(欢乐一时，烦恼一世) as cool as a cucumber(泰然自若）A good anvil does not fear the hammer.” (好砧不怕捶打）The cobbler’s wife is the worst shoed.” (鞋匠的老婆没鞋穿）
Such carpenters, such chips.” (什么木匠出什么活儿）As a man sows, so shall he reap.”种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆）The best fish swim near the bottom.”（好鱼游于水底，真人不露相）A bird in the hand is worth two in the bushes.”（双鸟在林不如一鸟在手）“All is not gold that glitters.” (发光的未必是金子） A stitch in time saves nine.” (一针及时省九针）render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s（凡事各有所归）to burn one’s boat（破釜沉舟）over head and ear in debt / love / work 债台高筑/坠入爱河/埋头工作Never offer to teach fish to swim.不要班门弄斧All shall be well, Jack shall have Jill. (有情人终成眷属）A dish fit for the gods (菜中极品)
语系划分的标准Estern set : Balto-Slavic(Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech, Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian.), Indo-Iranian（Persian, Hindi）, Armenian and Albanian ；Western set : Celtic(Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton), Italic(Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Roumanian) , Hellenic(Greek), Germanic(Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, English, German).
词典的种类There are four types of dictionaries with their features mentioned in this parts: (1) monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, (2) linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries, (3) unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries, (4) specialized dictionaries. A monolingual dictionary is a dictionary which is written in one language. A bilingual dictionary is one in which two languages are involved. A linguistic dictionary is a dictionary which aims at defining words and explaining their usages in the language. An encyclopedic dictionary is one in which encyclopedic information is provided along with the general information as in a linguistic dictionary . An encyclopedia is a dictionary which only provide encyclopedic information concerning each headword. An unabridged dictionary is an unshortened dictionary with at least 200,000 headwords that can supply a great quantity of basic, information about a word. A desk dictionary is a medium-sized dictionary containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000. A pocket dictionary is a dictionary which has about 50,000 entries or fewer.
词汇学复习重点 1. jargon------ Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business. 2. translation loans------ Translation loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language. 3. Renaissance------ It is a European movement of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. 4. Allomorph------ one of the variants of the same morpheme 5. inflectional affix------ an affix that indicates grammatical relationships 6. acronyms------ the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations special noun phrases and technical terms 7. back-formation------ the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes 8. polygsemy------ Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time. 9. morpheme------ It is a minimal meaningful unit of a language, or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 10. grammatical meaning------ that part of the meaning of the word indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms. 11. homonym------ Homonyms are words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. 12. reference------what a linguistic form refers to in the real word. It is the relationship between language and the world 13. semantic field------ Semantic field is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as a system of interrelated lexical networks. 14. motivation------ the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. 15. conceptual meaning------ the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. 16. amelioration------ or elevation, a process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. 17. transfer------ a process whereby words which were used to designate one thing have changed to mean something else.
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.' Lexicology the is into linguistics, inquiring a branch of origins and meanings of words. Morphology different their and the : study of morpheme forms. Semantics the study of word meaning. ：Etymology: the study of the origin of words, and of their history and changes in their meaning. Stylistics : the study of the variation in language which is dependent on the situation in which the language is used and also on the effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or hearer Lexicography : the compiling of dictionaries. Synchronic study one or words at a : the study of word particular point in time. Diachronic study studies which to : an approach lexicology how a word (or words) changes over a period of time.
一．Give the notions of each term.(9’) 1.lexicology: 2.semantics: 3.etymology: 二．True or False(10’) 1.In old English ,nouns had three genders:masculine,feminine or neuter. 2.In Early Modern English Period,the comparative form became-er,and the superlative became-est. 3. A morpheme may have different pronunciations in different contexts. 4.In 1755,Samuel Johnson published his ―Dictionary of the English Language‖,which is the first attempt at a truly principled lexicography. 5.In old English ,the comparative of adjectives had the ending of –ar. 6.The advent of the printing revolution was in the Middle English period. 7.Phonemes are the smallest working units of sound. 8.The word ―gentlemanly‖consists of three morphemes. 9. A word must consist of two or more morphemes. 10.Bound morphemes must be joined to other morphemes. 三．Choose the best answer.(15’) 1. He waited with breath . A.baited B.bated. 2. There is a in the clouds. A.brake B.break 3. A of the bicycle fell off. A.pedal B.peddle. 4. The wreckers began to the building. A.raise B.raze. 5. Edgar cannot sail until he has a full of men for his crew. https://www.doczj.com/doc/1814548238.html,plement https://www.doczj.com/doc/1814548238.html,pliment. 6. The battle was so that hardly a combatant on either side was without a wound. A.sanguine B.sanguinary. 7. The general needs more troops and . A.material B.materiel 8．The of our troops is high . A.moral B.morale 9. The argument ,convincing when first heard ,proved on closer examination to be . A.fallible B.fallicious 10. They arrived at a agreement. A.tacit B.taciturn
Chapter 1Word-Structure 1. The definition of morpheme 1.1 What is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language?- morpheme What are words composed of? - Words are formed by morphemes. A word is the smallest unit that stands alone to communicate meaning. 1.2 What are the Chinese equivalents对应词of morpheme? 语素词素-形位 2.1 Morphemes may be classified into free and bound. Free morphemes, also called content morphemes, may constitute words by themselves. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. So we may say that free morphemes are free roots. Bound morphemes = Bound root + affixes, known as grammatical morphemes, must appear with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words, e.g. recollection, idealistic, ex-prisoner 2.2 Morphemes may also be classified into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes). Task: (1) Read the following words and find the root in each word. heart, hearten, dishearten, heartless, hearty, heartiness, sweetheart, heartbroken, kind-hearted, whole-heartedly. (2) What is your definition of root? A root is the part of the word-form which remains when all the affixes have been removed. (3) Is a root necessarily a free morpheme? Why? 2.2.1 Two types of roots - Free root In English, many roots are free morphemes, such as black in black, blackboard, blacksmith. - Bound root However, there are quite a number of roots which cannot exist on their own and thus belong to the class of bound morphemes. For example, ceive in receive, conceive, perceive, deceive; mit in permit, commit, submit; tain in retain, contain, maintain; cur in recur, occur, incur, etc. these roots cannot be used to form new words. 2.2.2 Two types of affixes Affix is a collective term for the type of formative (构词成分) that can be used only when added to another morpheme. - Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to express the following meanings: (1) plurality: e.g. -s in chairs, pens; -es in boxes, tomatoes; en in oxen. (2) the genitive case: e.g. ’s in boy’s, children’s. (3) the verbal endings: for example, a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third person singular present tense. b. -ing in words like eating, teaching shows the present participle or gerund. c. -(e)d in words like worked, saved shows the past tense or past participle. (4) the comparative and superlative degrees: e.g. -er in words like smaller, harder; -est in words like smallest, hardest. - Derivational affixes (or derivational morphemes)can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes. ?(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root, e.g: unjust, rewrite. As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech.
《英语词汇学》重要术语 One: 1. Native words 本族词 Words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of Old English are native words. 2. Loan words 借词 Words borrowed from other languages are loan words or borrowed words. 3. Slang words 俚语 Slang words are those words of a vigorous, colourful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary. 4. Function words 功能词 Function words are often short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries that serve grammatically more than anything else. 5. Content words 实义词 Content words are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. 6. Free forms 自由形式 Forms which occur as sentences are free forms. Two: 1. Morphemes 语素 Morphemes are the smallest meaningful linguistic units of English language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. 2. Allomorphs 语素变体 Allomorphs are any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. 3. Free morpheme 自由语素 Free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. 4. Bound morpheme 粘着语素 Bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance and must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound. 5. Root 词根 Root is the basic unchangeable part of a word and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. 6. Affix 词缀 Affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. 7. Inflectional affix 屈折词缀 Inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. 8. Derivational affix 派生词缀 Derivational affix is the kind of affixes that has specific lexical meaning hand can derive a word when it is added to another morpheme. 9. Prefixes 前缀 Prefixes are affixes added before words.
Mid-term Exam 1.Please illustrate the logical relationships of the following terms: free morphemes, bound root, derivational affixes, affixes, morphemes, inflectional affixes, bound morphemes. Free ----free root Bound root Morpheme Bound inflectional affixes prefixes Derivational affixes suffixes 2.Prefixation and suffixation are two subclasses of affixation. Please define prefixation and suffixation and explain the difference between them. Use ―polite—impolite‖, ―happy—happiness‖ to illustrate your point. Prefixation is the formation on new words by adding a prefix or combining form to the base, and usually change the meaning of the base. Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base, and usually changing the word-class of the base. Im- is a negative prefix, polite, by adding a suffix im- , changes into the negative side impolite. However, happy is a adjective, and it is changed into a noun by adding suffix –ness without changing its basic meaning. 3. Comment on the following groups of words to illustrate types of meaning of words and their relationship. Group 1: ―took, taught, became‖ Group 2: ―have, has, had, had, having‖ There are two main types of meaning that are grammatical and lexical. Grammatical meaning consists of word-class and inflectional paradigm. Group 1 is the same in grammatical meaning: ―took , taught, became‖, they have different lexical meaning, but they are in the same word-forms of the past-tense meaning. However, group 2 has the same lexical meaning, while they are different in the tense, that is to say in different grammatical meaning. 4. Analyze and comment on three adjectives used in the following sentences based on synonym difference in connotation. [A] Look at that little boy. [B] Look at that small boy. [C] Look at that tiny boy
Lexicology复习要点 Linguistics:Generally speaking, linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language. To be more exact, linguistics studies the general principles upon which languages are constructed and operate as systems of human communication Language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a specific social action and a carrier of information. Lexicology: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage. 1. Definition of Word: Word: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has given sound and meaning and syntactic function. A word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language (2) a sound unity (3) a unit of meaning (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence 2. Sound and meaning: The symbolic connection between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary. 3. Vocabulary: All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. 4. Classification of words: Words fall into the basic words and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin. By notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words. content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. they include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity, etc. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. as their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. 5. Development of English vocabulary: Old English (450 ~ 1150):Celtic --- Latin of the Roman Legions --- Anglo-Saxon of the Germantic tribes (now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English) --- religious terms brought by the introduction of Christianity (6th century) --- Scandinavian words of Norwegian and Danish vikings (the 9th century) Middle English: French of Norman (1066) --- English came back (13th century) Modern English:Early Modern English (1500 ~ 1700): Latin and Greek were borrowed in the time of Renaissance Late Modern English (after 1700): absorbing words from all major languages of the world with the growth of colonization. (Mid-seventeenth) --- new words created about science and technology (after World War II)
《词汇学》名词解释总汇 1.Conversion（转换）is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero derivation. 2.Neologisms（新词用法）are newly coined words or words that are given new meaning to fit new situation because of social, economic, political, cultural, scientific and technological changes in human society. 3.Lexicology（词汇学）is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage. 4.the elevation of meaning（词义的升格）refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. 5.Acronyms（首字母拼音词）words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as words. They differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. 6.Hyponymy(上下义关系)deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. It refers to the relationship which obtains between the genus (general lexical item)and the species(specific lexical items). 7.Analogy（类比）is a process by which words or phrases are created or re-formed according to the existing patterns in the language. 8.Motivation（理据）deals with the connection between name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It is the relationship between the word structure and its meaning. 9.Metaphor（隐喻）is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison. It is a simile without like or as. 10.Antonymy(反义关系)is concerned with semantic opposition. It can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. 11.Suffix（后缀）: an affix attached to the end of a base (root or stem) 12. synecdoche（提喻）means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing, or vice versa, the whole for a part. 13. prefix（前缀）: an affix attached to the beginning of a base (root or stem) 14. initialism（首字母连写词）: a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; it is pronounced letter by letter. 15.morpheme(词素): the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not dividable or analyzable into smaller forms. 16.the degradation of meaning（词义的降格）: is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense. 17.Derivational affixes (派生词缀)Affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes。 18. back-formation（逆成法）: is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed suffix. It is also known as a reverse derivation. 19. derivation（派生）: the process by which noninfectional affixes are added to roots to form words. 20. compounding（复合）: the process of joining together two linguistic forms which can function independently.
大型综合医院配电设计 甘肃省建筑设计研究院王治义730030 摘要：结合大型综合医院工程配电设计实例，阐述相关规范在设计实践中的应用 关键词：综合医院负荷等级配电系统 1 工程概况 按照功能、任务不同，我国医院分为一级、二级、三级。一级医院：是直接向一定人口的社区提供预防、医疗、保健、康复服务的基层医院、卫生院；二级医院：是向多个社区提供综合医疗卫生服务和承担一定教学、科研任务的地区性医院；三级医院：是向几个地区提供高水平专科性医疗卫生服务和执行高等教学、科研任务的区域性以上医院。各级医院又分为甲、乙、丙三等，三级医院增设特等。一般综合性医院均设有急诊、门诊、手术、医技、康复、体检、行政办公及服务性用房。 现结合大型综合医院工程的配电设计实例，对相应规范在设计过程中可操作性及应用，进行讲解。 兰州大学附属第二医院属三级甲等医院，该院医疗综合楼建筑面积109505平方米，建筑高度68.55米。地下三层，地上十六层。地下三层及地下二层部分平时为汽车停车场，战时为人防。变配电所、水泵房、楼宇自动化管理控制室、信息中心等设备用房均设在地下二层。地下一层为柴油发电机房、消控室、放疗科、中心供应、洗衣房等。一至三层为门诊医技，四层为手术室及ICU，五层为行政办公及设备层，六层为产科及产房，七至十六层为标准护理单元。设置病房420间，共1163床。诊室52间，手术室23间，其中四层设洁净手术室21间，I级（百级手术室）4间，II级（千级手术室）8间，
III级（万级手术室）9间。 洁净手术室的分级见表1。 表1 洁净手术室的分级 2 供电系统 2.1负荷分级 在确定医院供电系统之前，首先根据供电要求进行负荷分级。IEC标准中供电等级按照恢复供电时间分为0.5S内,15S内, >15S。而我国内规范将用电负荷根据供电可靠性及中断供电所造成的损失或影响的程度，分为一级负荷、二级负荷及三级负荷。本设计依据的主要设计规范有《综合医院建筑设计规范》（JGJ49-88）、《医院洁净手术部建筑技术规范》（GB50333-2002）、《民用建筑电气设计规范》（JGJ 16-2008）等。 IEC标准和《民用建筑电气设计规范》（JGJ16-2008：12.8.2条）按医疗电气设备与人体接触的状况和断电的后果，将医疗场所作如下分类：0类场所应为不使用接触部件的医疗场所；1类场所应为接触部件接触躯体外部及除2类场所规定外的接触部件侵入躯体的任何部分;2类场所应为将接触部件用于诸如心内诊疗术、手术室以及断电将危及生命的重要治疗场所。可见医院的负荷等级划分应以医疗场所与人体生命的安全程度及电气设备与人体的接触程度进行划分。参照IEC标准医院各部位的供电等级、接地方式的划分示例见表2。