lexicology

Lexicology复习要点Linguistics: Generally speaking, linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language、To be more exact, linguistics studies the general principles upon which languages are constructed and operate as systems of human municationLanguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human munication、It is a specific social action and a carrier of information、Lexicology: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language、It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage、1、Definition of Word:Word: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has given sound and meaning and syntactic function、A word prises the following points:(1) a minimal free form of a language(2) a sound unity(3) a unit of meaning(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence2、Sound and meaning:The symbolic connection between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary、3、Vocabulary:All the words in a language make up its vocabulary、4、Classification of words:Words fall into the basic words and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin、By notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words、content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words、they include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity, etc、Functional words do not have notions of their own、Therefore, they are also called empty words、as their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words、5、Development of English vocabulary:Old English (450 ~ 1150):Celtic Latin of the Roman Legions AngloSaxon of the Germantic tribes (now people generally refer to AngloSaxon as old English) religious terms brought by the introduction of Christianity (6th century) Scandinavian words of Norwegian and Danish vikings (the 9th century)Middle English: French of Norman (1066) English came back (13th century)Modern English: Early Modern English (1500 ~ 1700): Latin and Greek were borrowed in the time of RenaissanceLate Modern English (after 1700): absorbing words from all major languages of the world with the growth of colonization、(Midseventeenth) new words created about science and technology (after World War II)6、Characteristics of English:Old English: Old English was a highly inflected language, language of full endings、Middle English: Language of leveled endings、Modern English:English has envolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language、8、Causes of the development:Generally, there are three main sources of new words: the rapid development of modern science and technology; social, economic and political changes; the influence of other cultures and languages、9、Morpheme:The morpheme is “the smallest functioning unit in the position of words”、Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units、10、Allomorph:Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discreet units known as morphs、Most morphemes are realized by single morphs and they coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence、Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words、An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds、11、Classification of morphemes:Free morpheme: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free、These morphemes have plete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences、Free morphemes are free roots、Bound morpheme: Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words bound、They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words、Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words、12、Root and affixRoot:A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word、Free root: free roots can stand alone as words and provide the language with a basis for the formation of new words、Bound roots(粘着词根): A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root、Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to bine with other morphemes to make words、A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss for identity、In terms of derivational and inflectional morphology, a “root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed、” A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added、Affixes(词缀): Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function、According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional and derivational affixes、Inflectional affix (inflectional morpheme):An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the parative or superlative degree、It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word、Derivational affix (derivational morpheme): it is so called because when it is added to another morpheme, it “derivates” a new word、Many derivational affixes have a specific lexical meaning、The most productive wordformations are affixation, pounding and conversion、13、Derivation:Derivation:Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a wordformation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base、Prefixation: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding a prefix or bing form to the base、Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the base、(1) Negative prefixes: a, dis, in (il, ir, im), non, un(2) Reversative prefixes: de, dis, un(3) Pejorative prefixes: mal, mis, pseudo(4) Prefixes of degree or size: arch, extra, hyper, macro, micro, mini, out, over, sub, super, sur, ultra, under(5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude: anti, contra, counter, pro(6) Locative prefixes: extra, fore, inter, intra, tele, trans(7) Prefixes of time and order: ex, fore, post, pre, re(8) Number prefixes: bi, multi (poly), semi (hemi), tri, uni (mono)(9) Miscellaneous prefixes: auto, neo, pan, viceSuffixation: Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a bing form to the base, and usually changing the wordclass of the base、Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems、In other words, they mainly change the word class、(1) Noun suffixes:A、Denominal nouns:Concrete: The suffixes of this group are added to noun bases to produce concrete nouns: eer, er, ette, let, e、g、profiteer (person who makes unfairly large profits)、Abstract: The following suffixes e at them end of noun stems to form abstract nouns: age, dom, ery, hood, ing, ism, ship, e、g、wastage, mileage, officialdom (officials as a group)B、Deverbal nouns:The following suffixes bine with verb stems to create largely nouns denoting people: ant, ee, ent, er (or), e、g、assistant, informant (one who gives information to police, etc、) Suffixes of this group added to verb stems to produce largely abstract nouns, denoting action, result, process, state, etc、: age, al, ance, ation (ition, tion, sion, ion), ence, ing, ment, e、g、linkage, carriage、C、Deadjective nouns: ity, ness, e、g、popularity, productivity, happiness, largenessD、Noun and adjective suffixes:A small number of suffixes, when added to stems related to human beings or nationality names, form words that can be both as nouns and adjectives: ese, an, ist, e、g、Lebanese, Chinese(2) Adjective suffixes:A、Denominal suffixes: ed, ful, ish, less, like, ly, y, e、g、wooded, simpleminded、B、Deverbal suffixes: able (ible), ive (ative, sive), e、g、washable, arguable, permissible, active, decisive, productive、(3) Adverb suffixes:ly, ward(s), wise, e、g、calmly, naturally, publicly, homewards, downward, onward, clockwise (in the direction in which the hands of the clock move), educationwise (so far as education is concerned)、(4) Verb suffixes: ate, en, (i)fy, ize (ise), e、g、originate (have…as origin); darken, heighten, strengthen, solidify (make…solid), beautify (make more beautiful); modernize, symbolize、14、pounding:(1) pounding: pounding or position is a wordformation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a pound word、pound is a “lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word、”(2) pounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:Phonetic features: In pounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed、Semantic features: pounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity、Every pound should express a single idea just as one word、Grammatical features: A pound tends to play a single grammatical role in sentence、(3) Classification of pounds:Noun poundsAdjective poundsVerb pounds15、ConversionConversion: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class、Conversion is also known as functional shift; Conversion is also named zeroderivation for not adding an affix; The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid、16、Abbreviation or shortening:Abbreviation:Abbreviation refers to word formation through clipping, initialisms and acronyms、These short forms are quicker and more convenient in use and for this reason they are being more and more popular especially in web English、(1) Clipping:A、Clipping: Clipping denotes the deletion of one or more syllables from a word、Words created by clipping are called clipped words、(2) Initialism:Initialism: Initialisms are words formed from the initial letters of words, and pronounced as a sequence of letters、(3) AcronymsAcronyms: Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as single words、(4) BlendingBlending: Blending is a process of wordformation by bining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word、The result of such a process is called a blend, which bines the sounds_ and meanings of two others、17、Backformation:Backformation: Backformation is a term used to refer to a type of wordformation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language、18、OnomatopoeiaMost English words are conventional, arbitrary symbols; consequently there is no intrinsic relation between the soundsymbol and its sense、19、Reference:Reference: Reference is the relationship between language and the world、In other words only when a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent does the sign bee meaningful、Concept: which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind、The meaning of “meaning” is perhaps what is termed “sense”、20、Motivation:Onomatopoeic / Phonetic motivation: In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises、For example, bowwow, bang, cuckoo, ticktckMorphological motivation: pounds and derived words are multimorphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes bined、For instance, airmail means to “mail by air”, readinglamp is the “lamp for reading”, miniskirt is a “small skirt”and hopeless means “without hope”、Semantic motivation:Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word、It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word、e、g、pen and sword in “The pen is mightier than the sword”suggest “writing” and “war” respectively、Etymological motivation:The meanings of many words often relate directly to their origins、The word laconic meaning “brief” or “short” is derived from Lacons, a tribe of people who were known for their “brevity of speech” and for their habit of never using more words than necessary、Hence a laconic answer is a “short answer”、21、Semantic features:Semantic features:The analysis of word meaning is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal ponents, which are known as semantic features or sense ponents、22、Semantic field:Semantic field: Semantic field refers to a set of words (or lexemes) related in meaning、Semantic field takes the view that the vocabulary of a given language is not simply a listing of independent items (as the headwords in dictionary would suggest), but is organized into areas or fields, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways、23、Grammatical meaning(语法意义):Grammatical meaning(语法意义) refers to that part of meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as the word class, singular and plural forms of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms (forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting)、24、Lexical meaning(词汇意义):Lexical meaning(词汇意义) is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary、This ponent of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word、Lexical meaning itself has two ponents: conceptual meaning and associative meaning、25、Conceptual meaning(概念意义):Conceptual meaning(概念意义) (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning、Conceptual meaning forms the basis for munication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language、26、Associate meaning(关联意义):Associate meaning(关联意义)is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning、It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc、Associative meaning prises four types: connotative meaning, stylistic meaning, affective meaning, and collocative meaning、27、Connotative meaning (内涵意义):Connotative meaning : In contrast to denotative meaning, connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations which a word suggests or implies、28、Stylistic meaning(文体意义):Stylistic meaning: Words may have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts、This stylistic difference is especially true of synonyms、It is observed that there are few words which have both the same conceptual meaning and stylistic meaning、Degrees of formalityFormalNeutral/monInformal/ Colloquial29、Affective meaning(情感意义):Affective meaning: Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towar ds the person or thing in conversation、Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories:Appreciative or mendatory(褒义): words of positive overtones used to show appreciation or approval、Pejorative or derogatory(贬义):words of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt or criticism、30、Collocative meaning(搭配意义):Collocative meaning: Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation、In other words, it is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion、31、Polysemy:Polysemy: Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time、The bulk of English words are polysemantic, such as albatross; onemeaning words are rare and are mainly scientific terms, such as hydrogen、32、HomonymyHomonym: Homonyms are words which have the same phonological or spelling form but differ in meaning、Such a linguistic phenomenon, i、e、identity of form and diversity of meaning is referred to as homonymy、Homographs (同形异义词): Homographs are words identical in spelling, but different in sound and meaning、Homophones (同音异义词):Homophones are words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning、perfect homonyms(完全同音同形异义词): Perfect homonyms are words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning、The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meaning、one important criterion is to see their etymology, i、e、homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development、The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness、The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree、On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another、In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries、33、Context:Context includes Linguistic context and extralinguistic contextLexical context:This context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question、The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighboring words、Grammatical context:In some cases, the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs、34、SynonymyWords which have the same or nearly the same meanings as other words are called synomyms and the relationship between them is synonymy、35、Types of synonyms:Perfect synonyms/ strict synonyms: perfect / absolute synonyms are words whose meaning is fully identical in any context so that one can always be substituted for the other without the slightest change in meaning、Partial synonyms/ loose synonyms:Partial / relative synonyms share the nearly same or similar basic meaning, but still denote differences in other meanings、36、Origin of synonyms:BorrowingDialects and regional EnglishFigurative and euphemistic use of wordsCoincidence with idiomatic expressions37、AntonymyAntonymy is concerned with semantic opposition、Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning、antonyms can be classified into three major groups、Contradictory terms/ plementaries: These antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning、They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them、Contrary terms: Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes、Relative terms/converse antonyms: This third type consists of relational opposites such as parent / child、Directional antonyms: This kind of antonyms has to deal with the fact that the opposition involves deixis、Semantic inpatibleAntonyms have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable in defining the meanings of words、Antonyms are useful in enabling us to express economically the opposite of a particular thought, often for the sake of contrast、Antonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together、38、HyponymyHyponymy:The relationship between specific words and general words are called hyponymy, so it is a relationship of inclusion、39.MeronymyMeronymy is a semantic relation specific to linguistics、A meronym denotes a constituent part of, or a member of something、[。

Introduction 绪论0.1 The nature and Domain of English lexicology 英语词汇学的定义及研究范围Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. 词汇学是语言学的一个分支，研究词汇的起源和意义。

English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. 英语词汇学研究英语词汇的形态结构、词的对应及其语义结构、词义关系、词的历史演变、词的构成及词的用法等。

English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. 英语词汇学是一门理论性课程。

It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular. 该课程主要论述词汇学的基本理论，特别是英语词汇的理论知识。

However, it is a practical course as well, for in the discussion, we shall inevitably deal with copious stocks of words and idioms, and study a great many usage examples. 但是，英语词汇学也是一门实践性课程，在该书的论述中，我们将遇到大量的词汇和习语，学习大量词汇用法实例。

修辞学与有关学科的关系1．修辞学与语言学语言学（linguistics）是研究语言的学科，语言的三要素分别是语音学（phonetic），词汇学（lexicology）和语法学（grammar）研究的对象。

修辞学属于语言学的范畴，是语言学的一个学科。

修辞学是研究如何利用语音条件和规律构成各种不同的表达手段，进而提高语言的表达效果。

如头韵（），元韵（），拟声（）等语音修辞手法，使得语音和谐悦耳，语意突出，增添韵律感和节奏感。

修辞学是利用词汇，词义的条件提高语言的表达力，以求达到最佳的交际效果。

比如，怎样选用词语，怎样使同一概念的表现多样化。

修辞学在语法规律的基础上研究如何调整安排句子的结构形式来充分地表达情意，取得良好的修辞效果。

2．修辞学与逻辑学逻辑学（logic）是一门专门研究思维的科学，其根本任务就是总结人的正确思维的形式及其规律。

修辞学与逻辑有着密切的关系。

有了一定的逻辑知识可以帮助我们正确地进行思维，思想条理清晰了，这就为语言的完美表达奠定了基础。

例如，3．修辞学与美学美学（aesthetics）是研究审美规律的学科。

语言是人类社会最重要的社会现象，也是审美对象，语言里面客观存在着美。

修辞作为语言的艺术，更是追求较高的审美价值，达到美的境界，以悦人耳目，使人获得美的享受。

比如:均衡美——Work has a bitter root but sweet fruit.整齐美——I was born an American; I live an American; I shall die an American.变化美——The Big Bull Market was dead. Billion of dollar`s worth of profits and paper profit had disappeared.。

Lexicology(英语词汇学英语词汇学) English Lexicology(英语词汇学) : Lexicology 词汇学）is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins （词汇学）and meanings of words. lexicology：The Nature and Scope of English lexicology English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. to：The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) lexicology：The reason for a student to study English lexicology According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English. A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study. 1---Basic Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary Word （词的定义）Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence Sound and meaning （声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thin g or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself” form（读音和形式）Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary Vocabulary（词汇）Vocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary English Words：Classification of English Words：frequency:basic By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary By notion:content words&functional words By origin:native words&borrowed words 1stock（基本词汇）The basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary. Stock(基本词汇的特征) The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征): 1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）words:(1)T erminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang 没有上述特征的words: （俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email) words/notional Content words/notional words 实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words 虚词(on, of, and, be, but) words/empty 虚词( ) ) Words Native Words and Borrowed Words Nati words（本族语词）Native words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in use words/Loan words 外来语词）ords（Borrowed words/Loan words （外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV) 4 Types of loan words: 1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON)) 2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头) 3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China) 4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowed Chapter 2 the development of the English Vocabulary Family(印欧语系) The Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系) IndoThe Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8 大印欧语群）The Eastern set: （1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc. （2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc. (3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian. (4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian. The Western set: (5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek. (6)The Italian Group （意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc. (7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc. (8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc. 2Development Vocabulary: The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary: 1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language. 2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections 3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language. Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式词汇的发展模式): Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式): 1)creation 创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式) 2)semantic change 旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words. 3) borrowing 借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words Reviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. Chapter 3 Word Formation I Morpheme(词Morpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体) Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaning Morpheme(词素的分类) Type of Morpheme(词素的分类) （1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent). （2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀) Affixes can be put into two groups: 1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes. 2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective. Free Morpheme =free root （自由词根）Morpheme(词素) bound Bound root derivational affix inflectional prefix suffix stem（词根和词干）Root and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem: A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 3A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root. WordII(构词法) Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法) 1.Affixation 词缀法（Derivation 派生法）：the formation of words by adding 1.Affixation 词缀法word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem. （1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems. 1)Negative prefixes( 否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey) 2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open) 3) Pejorative prefixes: mis （贬义前缀）：mis- ，mal-, pseudoetc.misconduct(bad behaviour) 4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,u ltra-,under-,ect. overweight 5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude （倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear 6)Locative prefixes 方位前缀）（:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary) 7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,reetc. monorail(one rail) 8) Number prefixes （数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages) 9) Miscellaneous prefixes （混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman) (2)Suffixation （后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems. 1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes pounding composition）pounding 复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems Compounds are written in three ways: solid 连写(airmail)，hyphenated 带连字符(air-conditioning)and open 分开写(air force, air raid) Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot （2）adjective compounds ：e.g. acid + head = acid-head （3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep 3.Conversion 转类法 3.Conversion 转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. 功能转换，（又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）44.Blending 拼缀法4.Blending 拼缀法Ble Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping 5.Clipping 截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings 删节前面(phone from telephone) 2).Back clippings 删节后面(dorm from dormitory) 3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza) 4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy 6.Acronymy 首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. （1）Initialism （首字母缩写词法）initialisms are words pronounced letter : by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation) （2）Acronym （首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffi xation. It‟s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words Name(专有名词转成法): 8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法): Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word Meaning Meaning” The meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义) Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It Reference is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific. Concept （概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. …The sense Sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with 5other expressions in the language.‟ Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic Motivation symbol and its meaning. 1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha. 2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation （词义理据）refers to the mental associations ：suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot) 4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-feather meaning(词义的类别) Types of meaning(词义的类别) 1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context) 2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning) Lexical meaning has 2 components 内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义) 1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. 2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. [4types: （1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱” “关心” “温柔”联系起来) （2）Stylistic （文体意义）many words have stylistic features, which make ：them appropriate for different contexts. （3）Affective （感情意义）：indicates the speaker‟s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative （4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.] --Sense Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field （语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Polysemy Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）: 61.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning. Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）: 1. radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck) 2. concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word move gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3. In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning. In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4. They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other. Homonymy （同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别) Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别) 1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. 2)Homographs （同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见) 3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. 同形同音异义词的来源) Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源) 1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long) 2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball ) 3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,) The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. 72)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source. 3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries. Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule. Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning . Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) : (1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ] (2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent) Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) : 1)Borrowing （借词）最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, ：leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase) 2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one‟s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand. Discrimination of Synonyms (1)difference in denotation 外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire) (2)difference in connotation 内涵不同 . By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. ( 借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal. 中性词：8policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake ) (3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference in usage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter) Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. Types of Antonyms: 1)contradictory terms ( 矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married) 2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms （关系反义词）this type consists of relational opposites. ：（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）antonyms(反义关系的特点): Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点): 1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立) 2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym 3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool) antonyms（反义词的使用）The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words. 2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe 敌友，weal and woe 哀乐) 3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.) Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic Hyponymy inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animal Superordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea. 9Field(语义场) Semantic Field(语义场) Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory. e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of …fruits‟) The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language. e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122) Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning 词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form. Changes 词义变化的种类) Types of Changes (词义变化的种类) 1.Extension generalization( 1.Extension /generalization( 词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion) 2.Narrowing specialization( 词义的缩小) Narrowing/ 2.Narrowing/ specialization( 词义的缩小) ：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ] 3.Elevation amelioration( 升华) 3.Elevation /amelioration( 词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ] 4.Degradation pejoration(词义的降格Degrada 降格) 4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ] 5.Transfer 词义的转移) Transfer( 5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate 指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer. Semantic Change(词义变化的原因) Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因) 1.Extra Extrafactors(词义演变的语言外部因素) 1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素): 1) Historical reason( 历史原因) ：Increased scientific knowledge and 10discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer. 2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation. 3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons. 2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused 2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）by internal factors with in the language system. 1)shorting 缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier 2)borrowing 借用:deer-animal-beast 3)analogy 类推: 词义和语境Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts. context（语境的种类）Two types of context（语境的种类）Extracontext/ Nonsituation（非语言语境）：In 1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord ) 2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, Linguistic context/ it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do) 2) Grammatical context （语法语境）It refers the situation when the meaning ：of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become) context(语境的作用) The role of context(语境的作用) 1.Eliminat Elimination ambiguity 消除歧义) 1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义) 1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy. 2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity 如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little 2.Indicat Indication referents 限定所指) 2.Indication of referents(限定所指) 如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context 3.Provision word提供线索以猜测词义) 3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义) 111)definition 2)explanation 3)example 4)synonymy 5)antonymy 6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details 8)word structure English Chapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语dioms（习语的定义）Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms （俗语）Catchphrases , （标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary. Idioms（英语习语的特点）Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic 语意的整体性）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）words in the idiom they have lost their ：individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom. The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom. 2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性) 2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable. 1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced 2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed 3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article. 4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeable The fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Idioms（英语习语的分类）Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类） 1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant 累赘物) 2 .idioms adjectival in nature 形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature 副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）idioms（习语的使用）Use of idioms 1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：Stylistic features（文体色彩）1）colloquialisms（俗语）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions（书面表达）12The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩) 2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩) 1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration 头韵法（2）rhyme 尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举[scream and shout] （2）repetition 重复[out and out] （3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures speech（修辞格）3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile 明喻（2）metaphor 暗喻（3）metonymy 换喻/以名词代动作：live by one‟s pen （4）synecdoche 提喻/以部分代整体：earn one‟s bread （5）Personification 拟人法（6）Euphemism 委婉语：kick the bucket(die) （7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of trouble idioms(习语的变异形式) Variations of idioms(习语的变异形式)： 1.addition 增加2.deletion 删除 3.replacement 替换4.position-shifting 位置转移5.dismembering 分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: Dictionary presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）. dictionaries(词典的种类) Types of dictionaries(词典的种类): 1.Monolingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries （单语词典和双语词典）最早的词：典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language. (2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D) 2.Linguistic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, 13。

Sense relations 语义关系1、Sense relations are the relations held between words withinthe vocabulary.2、Five types•synonymy 同义关系•antonymy反义关系•hyponymy下义关系•homonymy同形同音异义关系polysemy一词多义3、Synonymy3、1 Synonyms can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.张维友picture, photo, snapshotSynonymy is a term used in semantics to refer to a major type of sense relation between lexical items: lexical items which have the same meaning but differ in morphemic structure, phonological form and usage are synonyms, and the relationship between them is one of synonymy.3.2 types of synonymy•total / absolute / perfect synonyms: (完全同义词)are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning include.•partial synonyms（部分同义词）/relative ~ 相对refer to items which are close enough in their meaning to allow a choice to be made between them in some contexts without affecting the meaning of the sentence as a whole.partial synonyms （部分同义词）examples:‘able’, ‘capable’, ‘nearly’, ‘almost’‘announce’, ‘declare’4Antonymy反义关系4.1 Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.4.2 Types of antonymsMorphologically, antonyms can be divided into root antonyms(词根反义词)and derivative antonyms（派生反义词）. P340•词根反义词：long—short, up—down, white—black•派生反义词: code--decode, appear—disappear, useful—useless, Types of antonymsSemantically, antonyms can be divided into three types: •Complementary Contrary Converses(1) Complementaries 互补反义词Complementaries are forms of antonyms which truly represent oppositeness of meaning.binary antonyms二元反义词nongradable Examples in the textbook:•Adj.:dead — alive, present — absent,male — female, true — false,•Noun:boy — girl, man — woman•V. pass---fail; hit---missFeatures of complementariesThey are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other or vice versa. •Another distinctive feature of this category is that such antonyms are nongradable.(2) Contraries 相对反义词•gradable antonyms•Contraries are best envisaged in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.old, middle-aged, younghot, ___________, coldbeautiful, __________________, ugly•Such words also show the feature of gradability,that is, superlative degree or comparative degree, even some adverbs can be added into the two poles to indicate the words are gradable.•eg. Younger, youngest, very young, relatively youngAntonyms of this kind are characteristic of semantic polarity. These antonyms form part of a scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a middle ground belonging neither to one pole nor to the other. 这种反义词的特点是语义二极性。

Lexicology (from lexiko-, in the Late Greek lexikon) is that partof linguistics which studies words, their nature and meaning, words' elements, relations between words (semantical relations), words groups and the whole lexicon.The term first appeared in the 1820s, though there were lexicologists in essence before the term wascoined. Computational lexicology as a related field (in the same way that computational linguistics is related to linguistics) deals with the computational study of dictionaries and their contents. An allied science to lexicology is lexicography, which also studies words in relation with dictionaries - it is actually concerned with the inclusion of words in dictionaries and from that perspective with the whole lexicon. Therefore lexicography is the theory and practice of composing dictionaries. Sometimes lexicography is considered to be a part or a branch of lexicology, but the two disciplines should not be mistaken:lexicographers are the people who write dictionaries, they are at the same time lexicologists too, but notall lexicologists are lexicographers. It is said that lexicography is the practical lexicology, it is practically oriented though it has its own theory, while the pure lexicology is mainly theoretical.[hide]1 Lexical semanticso 1.1 Domaino 1.2 History▪ 1.2.1 Prestructuralist semantics▪ 1.2.2 Structuralist and neostructuralist semantics▪ 1.2.3 Chomskyan school▪ 1.2.4 Cognitive semantics2 Phraseology3 Etymology4 Lexicographyo 4.1 Noted lexicographers5 Lexicologists6 Bibliography7 References8 See also9 External linkso9.1 Societieso9.2 Theory[edit]Lexical semanticsMain article: Semantics[edit]DomainSemantical relations between words are manifested in respectof homonymy, antonymy, paronymy, etc. Semantics usually involved in lexicological work is called lexical semantics. Lexical semantics is somewhat different from other linguistic types of semantics like phrase semantics, semantics of sentence, and text semantics, as they take the notion of meaning in much broader sense. There are outside (although sometimes related to) linguistics types of semantics like cultural semantics and computational semantics, as the latest is not relatedto computational lexicology but to mathematical logic. Among semantics of language, lexical semantics is most robust, and to some extend the phrase semantics too, while other types of linguistic semantics are new and not quite examined.[edit]HistoryLexical semantics may not be understood without a brief exploration of its history.[edit]Prestructuralist semanticsSemantics as a linguistic discipline has its beginning in the middle of the 19th century, and because linguistics at the time was predominantly diachronic, thus lexical semantics was diachronic too - it dominated the scene between the years of 1870 and 1930.[1] Diachronic lexical semantics was interested without a doubt in the change of meaning withpredominantly semasiological approach, taking the notion of meaning in a psychological aspect: lexical meanings were considered to be psychological entities), thoughts and ideas, and meaning changes are explained as resulting from psychological processes.[edit]Structuralist and neostructuralist semanticsWith the rise of new ideas after the ground break of Saussure's work, prestructuralist diachronic semantics was considerably criticized for the atomic study of words, the diachronic approach and the mingle of nonlinguistics spheres of investigation. The study became synchronic, concerned with semantic structures and narrowly linguistic.Semantic structural relations of lexical entities can be seen in three ways:▪semantic similarity▪lexical relations such as synonymy, antonymy, and hyponymy▪syntagmatic lexical relations were identifiedAs structuralist lexical semantics was revived by neostructuralist not much work was done by them, it is actually admitted by the followers.It may be seen that WordNet "is a type of an online electronic lexical database organized on relational principles, which now comprises nearly 100,000 concepts" as Dirk Geeraerts[2] states it. [edit]Chomskyan schoolMain article: Generative semanticsFollowers of Chomskyan generative approach to grammar soon investigated two different types of semantics, which, unfortunately, clashed in an effusive debate[3], these were interpretativeand generative semantics.[edit]Cognitive semanticsMain article: Cognitive semanticsCognitive lexical semantics is thought to be most productive of the current approaches.[edit]PhraseologyMain article: PhraseologyAnother branch of lexicology, together with lexicographyis phraseology. It studies compound meanings of two or more words, as in "raining cats and dogs". Because the whole meaning of that phrase is much different from the meaning of words included alone, phraseology examines how and why such meanings come in everyday use, and what possibly are the laws governing these word combinations. Phraseology also investigates idioms.[edit]EtymologyMain article: EtymologySince lexicology studies the meaning of words and their semantic relations, it often explores the origin and history of a word, i.e. its etymology. Etymologists analyse related languages using a technique known as the comparative method. In this way, word roots have been found that can be traced all the way back to the origin of, for instance, the Indo-European language family. However, the comparative method is unhelpful in the case of "multiplecausation"[4], when a word derives from several sources simultaneously as in phono-semantic matching.[5]Etymology can be helpful in clarifying some questionable meanings, spellings, etc., and is also used in lexicography. For example, etymological dictionaries provide words with their historical origins, change and development.[edit]LexicographyMain article: LexicographyA good example of lexicology at work, that everyone is familiar with, is that of dictionaries and thesaurus. Dictionaries are books or computer programs (or databases) that actually represent lexicographical work, they are opened and purposed for the use of public.As there are many different types of dictionaries, there are many different types of lexicographers.Questions that lexicographers are concerned with are for example the difficulties in defining what simple words such as 'the' mean, and how compound or complex words, or words with many meanings can be clearly explained. Also which words to keep in and which not to include in a dictionary.[edit]Noted lexicographersMain article: LexicographerSome noted lexicographers include:▪Dr. Samuel Johnson (September 18, 1709 – December 13, 1784)▪French lexicographer Pierre Larousse (October 23, 1817-January 3, 1875)▪Noah Webster (October 16, 1758 – May 28, 1843)▪Russian lexicographer Vladimir Dal (November 10, 1801 –September 22, 1872)[edit]Lexicologists▪Damaso Alonso, (Oct. 22, 1898-) Spanish literary critic and lexicologist▪Roland Barthes, (Nov. 12, 1915-Mar. 25, 1980) French writer, critic and lexicologist[edit]Bibliography▪Lexicology/Lexikologie: International Handbook on the Nature and Structure of Words and Vocabulary/EinInternationales Handbuch Zur Natur and Struktur Von Wortern Und Wortschatzen, Vol 1. & Vol 2. (Eds. A. Cruse et al.)▪Words, Meaning, and Vocabulary: An Introduction to Modern English Lexicology, (ed. H. Jackson); ISBN 0-304-70396-6▪Toward a Functional Lexicology, (ed. G. Wotjak); ISBN 0-8204-3526-0▪Lexicology, Semantics, and Lexicography, (ed. J.Coleman); ISBN 1-55619-972-4▪English Lexicology: Lexical Structure, Word Semantics & Word-formation,(Leonhard Lipka.); ISBN 9783823349952▪Outline of English Lexicology , (Leonhard Lipka.); ISBN 3484410035[edit]References1. ^ Dirk Geeraerts, The theoretical and descriptivedevelopment of lexical semantics, Prestructuralist semantics, Published in: The Lexicon in Focus. Competition andConvergence in Current Lexicology, ed. Leila Behrens andDietmar Zaefferer, p. 23-422. ^ Dirk Geeraerts, The theoretical and descriptivedevelopment of lexical semantics, Structuralist andneostructuralist semantics, Published in: The Lexicon inFocus. Competition and Convergence in Current Lexicology, ed. Leila Behrens and Dietmar Zaefferer, p. 23-423. ^ Harris, Randy Allen (1993) The Linguistics Wars, Oxford,New York: Oxford University Press4. ^ Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2009), Hybridity versusRevivability: Multiple Causation, Forms andPatterns, Journal of Language Contact, Varia 2: 40-67.5. ^ Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), ‘‘Language Contact andLexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew’’, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, (Palgrave Studies in Language History andLanguage Change, Series editor: Charles Jones). ISBN1-4039-1723-X.。

1.外来词分为四类：1 Denizens ,cup from cuppa , port form portus 2) Aliens garage , décor 3) Translation –loans e.g. long time no see 4) Semantic- loans.e.g. dream.2.Motivation 分类：onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation, etymological motivation. Types of meaning: grammatical ~ & lex ical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~, collocative ~,)多义关系及两种研究方法:Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural language that one word has two or more senses or meanings. Diachronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies how a word derived its different meanings from its primary meaning in the course of time.3.Synchronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.4.Primary meaning is the only meaning that a word had when it was first created.5.Derived meanings are the meanings that a word gets from the primary meaning at different stages of its development in the course of time.6.同形同音异义关系Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from another, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）. Perfect homonyms are those words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, e.g. bear /bea/ (n) a large heavy animal; bear /bea/ (v) to put up with. Homographs are the words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. saw / / (v) to scatter seeds; sow /sau/ (n) female adult pig. Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear /dia/ (n) a loved person; deer /dia/ (n) a kind of animal.7.同形同音异义词与多义词的区别Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. This creates the problem of differentiation. The fundamental differen ce between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. One important criterion is to see their etymology, i.e. homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development. The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree, e. g. neck (See 6.1 Polysemy) . On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.8.同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.9.Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions10.如何区分同义词？1Difference in denotation2 Difference in connotation 3 Difference in application11.What are the characteristics of antonyms?12.1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.13.上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to so me general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomesa subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes14.词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes i n meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy).15.词义的扩大Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less16.definite concept. Compare the following；词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was once used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made from rags, wood, straw and the like, but the product has retained the same name. There is associated transfer. There are other kinds of transfer, such as, concrete to abstract, abstract to concrete and transfer of sensation.17.语境的种类:非语言语境。