西方政治思想史复习资料
一、名词解释（6×5′=30′）
1.自然法：萌发于古希腊哲学，最早的定义为：世界都处于一种必然性与自然律的支配下，具有永恒性；神与人一样，都服从于这种永恒的自然律；对自然律所确定的秩序，便是一种正义。
2.宗教改革（路德）：是指基督宗教在16世纪至17世纪进行的一次改革，是资产阶级披着宗教外衣进行的一场资产阶级性质的改革，改革代表人物有马丁路德、加尔文及慈运理等，随后发展出来新教教派。
3.法的精神（孟德斯鸠）：一个国家的法律与该国的政体、自然环境、宗教、贸易、风俗习惯、人民的生活方式、制度架构、人文传统的关系，以及法律与法律之间的关系总和。
4.公民（积极、消极）：1791年法国宪法取消等级的划分，将法国人民分为积极公民和消极公民。其中经济上独立，叫积极公民，享有选举权。经济上没有独立性和其他不具备“积极公民”条件的人，叫消极公民，不享有选举权。
5.主权（布丹）：主权是国家的主要标志，是对公民和臣民的不受法律限止的永恒的绝对的最高权力。主权是对内具有至高无上、对外具有独立平等的权力。
6.国家（黑格尔）：国家是道德理念的现实——即作为显现可见的、自己明白的实体性意志的道德精神。国家是建立在理性基础上的必然产物，而不是任意或偶然的结果。
7.人民主权（卢梭）：人民主权是指国家中绝大多数人拥有国家的最高权力。人民是主权者，国家的权力属于人民。人民主权遵循主权神圣、不可转移、不可分割、不可代表的原则。
8.乌托邦（莫尔）：空想社会主义的创始人莫尔的代表作，虚构了一个航海家航行到一个奇乡异国“乌托邦”的旅行见闻，“乌托邦”是一个幸福的、理想的国家，财产公有、人人平等、没有压迫。
二、简答题（5×8′=40′）
1.斯宾诺莎的自由观念
思想自由权
在国家生活中，每一个人保留他的权利的一部分，由其自己决定，不由别人决定，即思想自由之权。
（1）政治的真正目的是自由。
（2）每个人是自己思想的主人，不能转让也不可放弃。
（3）维护个人的思想和言论自由，是维护国家安全的最好方法。
（4）政府应允许自由争论。
（5）人在行动上要守法。
（为此，提出“思想自由、行动守法”，这便是西方政治自由的核心。）
2.格劳秀斯的自然法
（1）理性与意志是法的基础。
（2）法分为两类：
①自然法：起源于人的理性
②意定法：起源于意志，包括神法和人为法
（3）自然法源自理性，高于神法。
（4）自然法是合理、永恒而又普遍的。
（5）维护私有财产，初步提出自然权利。
（6）共同的道德标准是人类社会的结合力。
3.霍布斯的主权学说
（1）主权强大而广泛：臣民得不到君主的允许就不能抛弃现存的政府，无权返回自然状态，重新选择主权者。
（2）主权至高无上：主权者不受前人的法律制约，也不受自己制定的法律的制约，因为不可能想象还有一个凌驾于主权者之上的权力，如此类推的话，国家必乱必亡。
（3）主权不可分割：主权者享有立法、行政、司法、言论监督等广泛的权力。
（4）主权不可转让：因为主权不可分割，权分则国分，国分则不国，所以，主权者也无权转让自己的权力。
（5）国家权力的专制性：臣民必须无条件地服从主权者，没有借口去反对主权者，否则就是不义。
4.洛克的分权思想
分权原因：
一切有权力的人都容易滥用权力，这是万古不易的经验。为了使权力始终处于被约束状态，不能单单寄希望于掌权者的个人品德。
他将国家权力分为三种：立法权、执行权和对外权。他对这三种权力定义为：
?立法权：享有权利来指导如何运用国家的力量以保障这个社会及其成员的权力。
?执行权：负责执行被制定和继续有效的法律且经常存在的权力。
?对外权：包括战争与和平、联合与联盟以及同国外的一切人士和社会进行一切事物的权力。
这三种权力必须分别有不同的机关行使。其中立法权属于议会，行政和外交属于君主。PS：找了半晚也没找到关于洛克分权理论的系统性阐述，所以这题…………
5.边沁的功利主义
（1）边沁的功利主义是以苦乐感情为基础的，他从人追求快乐的本性中推论出趋乐避苦是道德的本质。
（2）功利主义的最高道德原则是获取最大多数人的最大幸福。
（3）功利是衡量和检验一切德行的标准。判断一切事物和一切行为好坏的标准，在于它是否能产生功利。
(4)是对契约论的批评。
6.伏尔泰的平等思想
（1）平等包括人身、权利、法律和经济平等
（2）平等的最大威胁是特权阶级
（3）不平等源自社会分工及人的能力差异
（4）批判卢梭的不平等源自私有制
7.密尔的自由思想
（1）密尔关心的问题是政府的政治权力和被管理者的政治自由之间的关系。
（2）自由被限制的唯一条件是自由受到约束仅仅是为防止上海伤害别人。
（3）思想和言论必须是绝对自由。
（4）自由必须限制在不损害他人的范围内。
（5）社会行为的最终目的是“确保一切人的行为完全独立和自由”。
（6）个人主动性优于社会控制的理由，绝大多数事情由个人做比政府做优越得多。
8.孟德斯鸠的三权分立
把国家权力分为三部分：议会有立法权、国王有行政权和法院有司法权，用这种方法来限制王权，防止国王暴政。立法、行政和司法三权分立，三种权力间制约与平衡：（1）立法机关分贵族院与平民院，受行政机关否决权制约，何时召集由行政机关决定（2）行政机关为执行机关，可以通过反对权参加立法，有权阻止立法机关的专断。
（3）司法机关对立法和行政机关有违宪监督权。
三、论述题(老师没说，猜测而已，仅供参考)（2×15′=30′）
1.莫尔的乌托邦和柏拉图的理想国的的异同点？
都主张财产公有，妇女解放，但他们对财产的态度截然不同。柏拉图是禁欲主义态度，莫尔却持乐观主义态度。
柏拉图主张共产主义制度的原因在于实现最高的善，完全是出于道德的考虑；莫尔出于经济问题，以改变当时社会贫富不均的实际状况。
柏拉图理想国中的统治者都是有闲阶级，科学、艺术使他们的专利，而乌托邦中任何人都必须劳动；柏拉图主张在高贵阶级中实现共产主义，莫尔主张在全社会实现共产主义。
都主张妇女解放，男女同工同酬，但柏拉图提倡公妻制度，莫尔要求严守一夫一妻制。
2.霍布斯、洛克思想的异同点？
相同点
(1)洛克与霍布斯思想的相同点在于都主张社会契约立国。
(2)洛克与霍布斯都是以自然状态作为理论的逻辑起点。
（3）霍布斯与洛克作为同一个阶级的代言人，都为资产阶级的合法性进行辩护。，他们深刻揭露了“君权神授”对人民的欺骗性。
不同点
（1)洛克和霍布斯社会契约论的区别
①霍布斯认为人们订立契约时转让的是全部权利，洛克认为不仅保全自己生命的权利，而且自由和财产权利都是人们在订立契约时不可放弃、不可转让的权利；
②洛克认为人们交出的权利只是保护自己不受他人侵犯的权利，而不是任意伤害他人的权利；
③洛克认为被授予权力的人也是契约的参加者，必须受契约内容的限制，按照社会全体成员的委托行使他们的权力。
（2)关于国家政体理论有着不同的理解
霍布认为主权是不可分割、不可转让的。他认为君主政体最好，因为君主政体最能避免“内乱”。洛克极力反对君主专制制度，他指出，在君主专制政体中，君主只是用心血来潮或毫无约束的意志代替法律，而没有任何准绳和规定约束君主的行为。
（3)关于自然状态的不同理解
霍布斯的自然状态建立在人性恶的基础上，而洛克的自然状态则建立在人性善的基础上。霍布斯的自然状态是一种混乱无序的战争状态，而洛克的自然状态是一种和平有序的和谐状态。
（4)关于自然权利理论的不同理解
霍布斯认为自我保全是人们的最高自然权利，是人性的最高原则，自然权利是不可剥夺、不可转让的。洛克则认为人的自然权利本质上有三种，即生命权、自由权和财产权。这些权利是不可转让和不可侵犯的。在三种权利中自由权是最本质的，是其他权利的基础。霍布斯关注的是生命权，而洛克关注的是自由权。
（5)关于政府建立的目的的不同理解
霍布斯认为，政府建立的目的并不是为了自身，相反，政府实际上对于社会具有某种确定的义务。洛克认为政府的目的是保护人们的生命、自由、财产，人们基于自己的同意转让的只是一部分权利，而不能转让天赋的生命、自由、财产权利，而且这些权利也不允许剥夺。
以下是老师强调要重点掌握的内容或人物思想（主要是上面没有涉及到的，可能会在预料之外的论述题中涉及到；要在了解历史背景的基础上理解人物思想）
一、文艺复兴时期背景？
（1）资本主义生产关系的萌芽：随着城市经济的发展，农奴大量涌入城市，并未城市经济发展注入了新的活力，工场手工业也便随即产生，严重冲击了当时的行会制度。
（2）教会势力的衰弱：中世纪末期最重要的发展是：封建制度渐趋消逝，随之而起的是新兴民族国家的君主专制；
（3）社会等级秩序的改变：城市的大量涌现，造就了一个新的社会阶层：都市商人。
（4）人文主义与自由精神的兴起：15、16世纪欧洲开始了一场文化革命、思想革命。这场革命的最初表现就是文艺复兴运动和宗教改革。
（5）宗教改革运动（现实背景）：在德国，文艺复兴染上了宗教色彩，结果是宗教改革运动的兴起与宗教战争的爆发。宗教改革运动更加准确地预示了一个新的时代即将来临。
（6）空想社会主义思想的产生：空想社会主义思想是对早期无产阶级思想的反映。
二、马基雅维利的政治思想
1.人性论（人性恶）
马基雅维利认为人类天生都是自私自利，见利忘义的，人类的一切行为都是为了满足自私的欲望。君主治国与其用爱，不如用威。
2.政策论（君主的统治方法）
政治技巧和策略是马基雅维利政治思想的重要组成部分。他是一个坚定的国家至上主义者，他认为，无论国家的利益，为了政治的目的，君主完全可以不择手段，即使采用残忍。暴力手段也在所不惜。基于此，马基雅维利的政治理论很少触及文化和经济政策，他主要关注的是国防、治安和民主问题。
国家强盛的相关政策：武力政策（统治术）、开疆拓土政策（野心）。（长期的和平会使国家衰弱和瓦解，这启发了后代的帝国主义和军国主义，主张了欧洲强国对外掠夺殖民地的野心和帝国主义国家间的战争。）
3.影响与评价
（1）政治思想史上最有影响力的思想家之一
（2）强权政治的信徒
（3）客观主义、现实主义的政治观
（4）国家利益的理论源头
（5）主要贡献：使政治与道德分离；使政治与宗教分离
三、布丹的政治思想（主权思想）
1.主权理论
（1）主权是国家的本质（主权国家是国家真正的基石、核心）
（2）立法权最为重要（主权的内容）
（3）主权具有绝对性、永久性和不可分性
（4）主权之上有神法和自然法（主权者受制于神法和自然法）
（5）主权不得侵犯财产权
四、路德的政治思想
1.路德宗教改革的主旨
（1）政教分离
（2）否认教权之至尊
（3）上帝之下，所以嫉妒教徒平等
（4）教徒可以直接于上帝交流，不需要任何中介
（5）尊重《圣经》
2.国家论
（1）神的国家
信仰的世界，绝对自由，不得有阶级观念
（2）世俗的国家
（3）严格区分国家和君主
国家的权力渊源在于神意，但君主所有的权力并不代表神的权力，必须限制君主的权力 3.主要影响
（1）建立了国家教会；
（2）引起了政治革命；
（3）使国家摆脱了教会的控制，获得行政上的独立；
（4）提倡君权神授，为国家至上论埋下了伏笔。
五、法国社会背景
（1）资本主义工商业有了迅速的发展
（2）欧洲大陆典型的封建君主专制国家（专制、制度混乱、经济贫困）
（2）陈旧的法律体系公开确认人们的不平等
（3）特权阶级：贵族、僧侣（占据政府、军队、教会中的一切重要位置）
（4）第三等级：资产阶级、农民、城市贫民和工人
六、启蒙运动
18世纪50年代，唯物主义者以暂新的理论武器投入战斗，形成了启蒙运动的高峰。
近代的自然科学和理性主义是启蒙运动的思想渊源。在政治思想领域，传播资产阶级的人权和民主构成运动的主流。平等问题在启蒙运动中占据重要位置。
1.政治思想的特点：
（1）反封建完全摆脱了宗教的外衣，直接在政治上向封建专制制度作战；
（2）继承了天赋人权思想，在哲学上回合了大陆的理性主义和英国的经验主义，平等原则彰显了他们政治思想世俗化倾向；
（3）用普通人能够明白的语言去启迪人民的头脑，在各领域批判专制政府的罪恶政策，揭露教会的黑暗和堕落，宣扬自由、平等和人权。
2.背景：资产阶级壮大要结束旧制度,需要舆论准备,自然科学的发展解放了人们的思想
自然科学取得很大进展，挑战教会权威。新兴资产阶级要求摆脱封建专制统治和教会压迫。
七、美国
1.美国社会的形成与特点
（1）北美大陆是一个移民社会
（2）资本主义经济嫁接在奴隶制之上
（3）经济上南北发展不平衡
（4）政治上分立与自治
（5）缺乏封建传统
（6）独特的政治文化传统：独立、平等、自由、多元、包容、开放
2.美国的建国思想
（1）两大历史性课题：独立自主和民主共和制
（2）激进派和保守派的争论：自由主义和保守主义的分野
（3）追求平等、自由和幸福
3.美国独立思想
（1）美国脱离英国的必要性，是核心思想
（2）区别社会与国家
（3）国家是一种“必要的邪恶”
（4）批判英国的君主制度
（5）坚决主张美国脱离英国
（6）人民革命是铲除封建君主专制的唯一方法
八、杰斐逊的政治思想
1.民主自治思想
代议制与人民自治
?反对联邦党人对君主制的迷恋和大国不宜民主制的主张
?坚持卢梭的民主原则，吸收洛克的代议制思想，倡导代议制民主共和国
?主张扩大民主参与，限制总统权力
?人民自治是代议制的基础和保护
?人民自治以个人自治为前提
2.民主共和国理论
人民主权+代议制民主
?共和国应该是一个有限政府（三权分立与制衡）
?保持联邦与州及地方政府的纵向分权
?发展教育事业，推进人民监督的实现
?完善选举制度，体现民治政府的原则（普选制和公共代表制）
?其他的政治原则（军权服从文权；定期修改宪法和法律）
3.影响
其政治思想的直接目的是为美国人民和美国政府服务。其天赋权利的一系列思想可以说是欧洲启蒙思想的美国版本。其民主共和理论对美国政体产生了重大影响，以他为代表的激进民主派坚决维护了人民所固有的权利。进一步发展了代议制民主理论。
九、汉密尔顿的政治思想
?他是“宪法之父”联邦党创始人之一
1.性恶论与精英论
?人的情感是国家一切动乱、贫穷、软弱的根源（人性恶）
?统一而强大的国家是和平的保障
?一切社会均可划分为两大阵营：少数和多数
?富人和血统高贵的人富于理性和善于决断
?由精英统治的国家可能遏制民主政治的轻举妄动
2.联邦制理论
如何建立一个既强大又能体现共和国原则的政府
（1）从建立一个限权政府出发，阐述了三权分立的思想；
（2）在联邦体制的三权中人民易误解和最需要更正的是立法权。（防止和限制立法权）；（3）联邦派认为原来邦联中行政首长的权力太小，而且缺乏实现的必要手段。（扩大行政权力）；
（4）司法权因为最易受到损害，所以也必须有权可以制约其他两权；
3.分权与制衡思想
?推崇英国的君主立宪制
?批判共和政体，认为国会权势太大后果严重
?修改洛克和孟德斯鸠的分权理论
?限制议会权利
议会设立参议院和众议院
给予行政首脑和司法机关以更大权力
承认议会对总统的弹劾权
PS：答题注意事项：
1.简答题答要点即可。
2.论述题要展开回答，要分段，有条理。
1. Transcendentalism The origin of it is a philosophical and literary movement centered in Concord and Boston, which marks the summit of American Transcendentalism. 19th-century movement of writers and philosophers in New England who were loosely bound together by adherence to an idealistic system of thought based on a belief in the essential unity of all creation, the innate goodness of man, and the supremacy of insight over logic and experience for the revelation of the deepest truths. The major features of American Transcendentalism are:It emphasis on spirit, or the Oversoul, as the most important thing in the universe. It stressed the importance of the individual. To them the individual was the most important element of society. It offered a fresh perception of nature as symbolic of the Spirit or God. 2.Romanticism The Romanticism period stretches from the end of the 18th century through the outbreak of the Civil War. It is a term associate with imagination boundlessness, and in critical usage is contrasted with classicism which is commonly associated with reason and restriction. The features of Romanticism are: American Romanticism was in a way derivative: American romantic writing was some of them modeled on English and European works. American romanticism was in essence the expression of "a real new experience "and contained"an alien quality".Representatives:William Cullen Bryant; Henry Longfellow and James Cooper, Washington Irving. 3.Realism: In American literature, the Civil War brought the Romantic Period to an end. The Age of Realism came into existence. It came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism. Realism turned from an emphasis on the strange toward a faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived. It expresses the concern for commonplace and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.The representatives are Howells, James, and Mark Twain. 4. Naturalism American naturalism was a new and harsher realism, it had come from Europe. Naturalism was an outgrowth of realism that responded to theories in science, psychology, human behavior and social thought current in the late nineteenth century. The background of naturalism are: In the last decade of the nineteenth century, with the development of industry and modern science, intelligent minds began to see that man was no longer a free ethical being in a cold, indifferent and essentially Godless universe. In this chance world he was both helpless and hopeless.Major Features of it are:Humans are controlled by laws of heredity and environment.The universe is cold, godless, indifferent and hostile to human desires.Representatives of it such as Stephen Crane, Frank Norris and Theodore Dreiser. 5.New Criticism The New Criticism as a school of poetry and criticism established itself in the 1940s as an academic orthodoxy in the United States. The school has its beginning in the 1920s. It focus on the analysis of the text rather paying attention to external elements such as its social background, its author's intention and political attitude, and its impact on society. Then it explores the artistic structure of the work rather than its author's frame of mind or its reader's responses. It also see a literary work as an organic entity, the unity of content and form, and places emphasis on the close reading of the text. These New Critics included T.S. Eliot,I.A.Richards,John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate and some other critics. The New Criticism has tended to divorce criticism from social and moral concerns, which was to become one salient feature of the movement. 6.Imagism: Between 1912 and 1922 there came a great poetry boom in which about 1000 poets published over 1000 volumes of poetry. Indeed ,to express the modern spirit, the sense of fragmentization and dislocation, was in large measure the aim of quite a few modern literary movements, of which Imagism was one.The first Imagist theorist, the English writer T.E.Hulme. Hulme suggests that modern art deals with expression and communication of momentary phases in the poet's mind. The most effective means to express these momentary impressions is through the use of dominant image.It is a literary movement launched American poets early in the 20th century that advocated the use of free verse, common speech patterns, and clear concrete images as a reaction to Victorian sentimentalism. The representatives are Ezra pound, William Carlos Williams and some other poets.
I. Explain the following literary terms(名词解释). 1. Romanticism The most profound and comprehensive idea of romanticism is the vision of a greater personal freedom for the individual. Appeals to imagination; Stress on emotion rather than reason; optimism, gen iality. Subjectivity: in form and meaning. 2 American transcendentalism American transcendentalism was an important movement in philosophy and literature that flourished during the early to middle years of the nineteenth century (about 1836-1860). For the transcendentalists, the soul of each individual is identical with the soul of the world and contains what the world contains. 3 Realism: ―nothing more and nothing less than the truthful treatment of material.‖ the Civil war a. verisimilitude of details derived from observation b. representative in plot, setting and character c. an objective rather than an idealized view of human experience or（American Realism: In American literature, the Civil War brought the Romantic Period to an end. The Age of Realism came into existence. It came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism. Realism turned from an emphasis on the strange toward a faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived. It expresses the concern for commonplace and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.） 4. Modernism like modernism in general is a trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve, and reshape their environment, with the aid of scientific knowledge, technology and practical experimentation, and is thus in its essence both progressive and optimistic. The general term covers many political, cultural and artistic movements rooted in the changes in Western society at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century. American modernism is an artistic and cultural movement in the United States starting at the turn of the 20th century with its core period between World War I and World War II and continuing into the 21st century. 5、American Puritanism: Puritanism is the practices and beliefs of the Puritans. The Puritans were originally members of a division of the Protestant Church. The first settlers who became the founding fathers of the American nation were quite a few of them. They were a group of serious, religious people, advocating highly religious and moral principles. As the word itself hints, Puritans wanted to purity their religious beliefs and practices. They accepted the doctrine of predestination, original sin and total depravity, and limited atonement through a special infusion of grace form God. As a culture heritage, Puritanism did have a profound influence on the early American mind. American Puritanism also had a enduring influence on American literature. 6、Transcendentalism: In New England, an intellectual movement known as transcendentalism developed as an American version of Romanticism. The movement began among an influential set of authors based in Concord, Massachusetts and was led by Ralph Waldo Emerson. Like Romanticism, transcendentalism rejected both 18th century rationalism and established religion, which for the transcendentalists meant the Puritan tradition in particular. The transcendentalists celebrated the power of the human imagination to commune with the universe and transcend the limitations of the material world. They found their chief source of inspiration in nature. Emerson’s essay Nature was the major document of the transcendental school and stated the ideas that were to remain central to it. 7、Free verse: free verse is the rhymed or unrhymed poetry composed without attention to conventio nal rules of meter. Free verse was first written and labeled by a group of French poets of the late 19th century. Their purpose was to deliver poetry from the restrictions of formal metrical patterns and to recreate the free rhythms of natural speech. Walt Whitman was the precursor who wrote lines of varying length and cadence, usually not rhymed. The emotional content or meaning of the work was expressed through its rhythm. Free verse has been characteristic of the work of many modern American poets, including Ezra Pound and Carl Sandburg. 8、Naturalism: A more deliberate kind of realism in novels, stories and plays, usually involving a view of human beings as passive victims of natural forces and social environment. Naturalism was a new and harsher realism. It
1．邓小平关于社会主义市场经济理论的主要内涵是什么？ 第一，突破了过去公认的计划经济和市场经济是代表社会主义和资本主义两种经济制度本质属性的观念，认为它们都是经济手段。 第二，计划与市场作为调节经济的两种手段，它们对经济活动的调节各有自己的优势和长处。第三，市场经济作为资源配置的一种方式本身不具有制度属性，但是，它与社会主义相结合而形成的经济体制则必须体现社会主义基本制度的特征。 6. 为什么要强调促进国家经济又好又快的发展？如何理解提高自主创新能力、建设创新型国家是国家发展战略的核心？ （1）第一，提出国民经济又快又好的发展，是以改革开放以来我国经济发展取得的重大成就为前提的。第二，提出国民经济又快又好的发展，也是进一步发展的迫切要求。第三，提出国民经济又快又好的发展。并不意味着发展速度问题无足轻重。 （2）提高自主创新能力、建设创新型国家是国家发展战略的核心，是提高综合国力的关键。 ①加强自主创新是我国科学技术发展的战略基点。 ②加快建设国家创新体系，促进科技成果向现实生产力转化，是建设创新型国家的一项重要任务。 ③建设创新型国家，科技是关键，人才是核心，教育是基础。 1. 如何正确理解坚持党的领导、人民当家作主和依法治国的有机统一？P220 第一，中国共产党的领导是人民当家作主和依法治国的根本保证。 第二，人民当家作主是社会主义民主政治的本质和核心要求。 第三，依法治国是党领导人民治理国家的基本方略。 6．依法治国的含义是什么？实行依法治国的重要意义何在？P236 （1）含义：依法治国就是广大人民群众在党的领导下，依照宪法和法律规定，通过各种途径和形式管理国家事务，管理经济文化事业，管理社会事务，保证国家各项工作都依法进行，逐步实现社会主义民主的制度化、法律化，使这种制度和法律不因领导人的改变而改变，不因领导人看法和注意力的改变而改变。 （2）意义：第一，依法治国是中国共产党执政方式的重大转变，有利于加强和改善党的领导。依法治国同坚持和改善党的领导是完全一致的。 第二，依法治国是发展社会主义民主、实现人民当家作主的根本保证。民主与法治相互依赖，相互促进，密不可分。社会主义民主是社会主义法治的基础，社会主义法治是社会主义民主的保障。第三，依法治国是发展社会主义市场经济和扩大对外开放的客观需要。第四，依法治国是国家长治久安的重要保障。 3. 如何理解社会主义核心价值体系的主要内容及其相互关系？ （1）主要内容：社会主义核心价值体系的基本内容包括马克思主义指导思想、中国特色社会主义共同理想、以爱国主义为核心的民族精神和以改革创新为核心的时代精神、社会主义荣辱观。 （2）这四个方面的内容，相互联系、相互贯通，相互促进，是一个有机统一的整体，都是社会主义意识形态最重要的组成部分，是从我们党领导人民在长期实践中形成的丰富思想文化成果中提炼和概括出来的精华，是对社会主义核心价值体系深刻内涵的科学揭示。 坚持马克思主义的指导地位，抓住了社会主义核心价值体系的灵魂；树立共同理想，突出了社会主义核心价值体系的主题；培育和弘扬民族精神与时代精神，掌握了社会主义核心价值体系的精髓；树立和践行社会主义荣辱观，打牢了社会主义核心价值体系的基础。 4、如何理解树立社会主义荣辱观的重要意义？p261 第一，树立正确的荣辱观，是形成良好社会风气的重要基础；
Allegory is a narrative that serves as an extended metaphor. Allegories are written in the form of fables, parables, poems, stories, and almost any other style or genre. The main purpose of an allegory is to tell a story that has characters, a setting, as well as other types of symbols, that have both literal and figurative meanings. One well-known example of an allegory is Dante’s The Divine Comedy.In Inferno, Dante is on a pilgrimage to try to understand his own life, but his character also represents every man who is in search of his purpose in the world. Alliteration is a pattern of sound that includes the repetition of consonant sounds. The repetition can be located at the beginning of successive words or inside the words. Poets often use alliteration to audibly represent the action that is taking place. Aside is an actor’s speech, directed to the audience, that is not supposed to be heard by other actors on stage. An aside is usually used to let the audience know what a character is about to do or what he or she is thinking. Asides are important because they increase an audience's involvement in a play by giving them vital information pertaining what is happening, both inside of a character's mind and in the plot of the play. Gothic is a literary style popular during the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th. This style usually portrayed fantastic tales dealing with horror, despair, the grotesque and other “dark” subjects. Gothic literature was named for the apparent influence of the dark gothic architecture of the period on the genre. Also, many of these Gothic tales took places in such “gothic” surroundings. Other times, this story of darkness may occur in a more everyday setting, such as the quaint house where the man goes mad fro m the "beating" of his guilt in Edgar Allan Poe's “The Tell-Tale Heart.”In essence, these stories were romances, largely due to their love of the imaginary over the logical, and were told from many different points of view. CATHARSIS is an emotional discharge that brings about a moral or spiritual renewal or welcome relief from tension and anxiety. According to Aristotle, catharsis is the marking feature and ultimate end of any tragic artistic work. IMAGERY: A common term of variable meaning, imagery includes the "mental pictures" that readers experience with a passage of literature. It signifies all the sensory perceptions referred to in a poem, whether by literal description, allusion, simile, or metaphor. Surrealism is an artistic movement doing away with the restrictions of realism and verisimilitude that might be imposed on an artist. In this movement, the artist sought to do away with conscious control and instead respond to the irrational urges of the subconscious mind. From this results the hallucinatory, bizarre, often nightmarish quality of surrealistic paintings and writings. Sample surrealist writers include Frank O'Hara, John Ashberry, and Franz Kafka.
American Puritanism: Puritanism was a religious reform movement that arose within the Church of England in the late sixteenth century. Under siege from church and crown, it sent an offshoot in the third and forth decades of the seventeenth century to the northern English colonies in the New World--- a migration that laid the foundation for the religious, intellectual, and social order of New England, Puritanism, however,was not only a historically specific phenomenon coincident with the founding of New England; it was also a way of being in the world---a style of response to lived experience---that has reverberated through American life ever since. Doctrinally, Puritans adhered to the Five Points of Calvinism as codified at the Synod of Dort in 1619:(1) unconditional election ( the idea that God had decreed who was damned and who was saved from before the beginning of the world); (2) limited atonement ( the idea that Christ died for the elect only); (3) total depravity (humanity's utter corruption since the Fall); (4) irresistible grace (regeneration as entirely a work of God, which cannot be resisted and to which the sinner contributes nothing); and (5) the perseverance of the saints (the elect, despite their backsliding and faintness of heart , cannot fall away from grace). American Dream: The American Dream is the faith held by many in the United States of America that through hard work, courage, and determination one can achieve a better life for oneself, usually through financial prosperity. These were values held by many early European settlers, and have been passed on to subsequent generations. Nowadays the American Dream has led to an emphasis on material wealth as a measure of success and\ or happiness. Gothic tradition: Gothic novel or Gothic romance is a story of terror and suspense, usually set in a gloomy old castle or monastery. In an extended sense, many novels that do not have a medievalized setting, but which share a comparably sinister, grotesque, or chaustrophobic atmosphere have been classed as Gothic. It contributed to the new emotional climate of Romanticism. Historical novel: a novel in which the action takes place during a specific historical period well before the time of writing ( often one or two generations before, sometimes several centuries), and in which some attempt is made to depict accurately the customs and mentality of the period. The central character---real or imagined---is usually subject to divided loyalties within a larger historic conflict of which readers know the outcome. The pioneers of this genre were Walter Scott and James Fenimore Cooper American Romanticism:Romanticism refers to an artistic and intellectual movement originating in Europe in the late 18th century and characterized by a heightened interest in nature, emphasis on the individual's expression of emotion and imagination, departure from the attitudes and forms of classicism, and rebellion against established social rules and conventions. The romantic period in American literature stretched from the end of the 18th century through the outbreak of the Civil
一、名词解释： 1.中国化的马克思主义：马克思主义中国化，就是将马克思主义的基本原理同中国具体实际相结合。具体地说，就是把马克思主义的基本原理更进一步地同中国实践，中国历史，中国文化结合起来，使马克思主义在中国实现具体化。 2.中国特色社会主义理论体系：就是包括邓小平理论、“三个代表”重要思想以及科学发展观等重大战略思想在内的科学理论体系。这个理论体系，坚持和发展了马克思列宁主义、毛泽东思想，凝结了几代中国共产党人带领人民不懈探索实践的智慧和心血，是马克思主义中国化最新成果，是党最可宝贵的政治和精神财富，是全国各族人民团结奋斗的共同思想基础。 3.邓小平理论：是马克思列宁主义的基本原理同当代中国实践和时代特征相结合的产物，是毛泽东思想在新的历史条件下的继承和发展，是中国共产党集体智慧的结晶。 4.科学发展观：是对中国共产党的三代中央领导集体关于发展的重要思想的继承和发展，是马克思主义关于发展的世界观和方法论的集中体现，是同马克思列宁主义、毛泽东思想、邓小平理论和“三个代表”重要自相既一脉相承又与时俱进的科学理论，是我国经济社会发展的重要指导方针，是发展中国特色社会主义必须坚持和贯彻的重大战略思想。是指党的十六届三中全会提出的“坚持以人为本，树立全面、协调、可持续发展观，促进经济社会和人的全面发展”，按照“统筹城乡发展、统筹经济社会发展、统筹人与自然和谐发展、统筹国内发展和对外开放”的要求推进各项事业的改革和发展的一种方法论。 5.思想路线：亦称认识路线，指的是人们的认识所遵循的方向、途径、原则和方法。一个政党的思想路线，是指这个政党确定自己的指导思想并支配自己行动的认识路线。 6.实事求是：“实事”就是客观存在的一切事物，“是”就是客观事物的内部联系，即规律性，“求”就是我们去研究。我们要从国内外、省内外、县内外、区内外的实际情况出发，从其中引出其固有的而不是臆造的规律性，即找出周围事变的内部联系，作为我们行动的向导。 7.解放思想：是指在马克思主义的指导下打破习惯势力和主观偏见的束缚，研究新情况，解决新问题。解放思想就是使思想和实际想符合，使主观和客观相符合，就是实事求是。 8.《论十大关系》：为了以苏联经验为鉴戒，探索适合中国情况的社会主义建设道路，1956年4月，毛泽东在中共中央政治局扩大会议上作了题为《论十大关系》的讲话，提出为了调动一切积极因素为社会主义事业服务，需解决社会主义建设中十个重要问题，即重工业和农业、轻工业的关系，沿海工业和内地工业的关系，经济建设和国防建设的关系等十大关系。 9.新民主主义革命：是指在帝国主义和无产阶级革命时代,殖民地半殖民地国家中的无产阶级领导的资产阶级民主革命。由无产阶级及其知识分子所领导的,以马克思主义理论为指导思想的,以推翻帝国主义、封建主义统治,建立民主共和国为目的的新式资产阶级民主革命。 10.“二次革命论”：是指第一次国内革命战争时期，中国共产党内的一种右倾错误观点。以陈独秀为代表。认为资产阶级民主革命应由资产阶级领导，革命胜利是资产阶级掌握政权，无产阶级只能站在消极被动的地位，从中“获得若干自由及扩大自己能力的机会”，等到建立资产阶级共和国，资本主义经济有了进一步发展，无产阶级再实行推翻资产阶级政权的第二次革命，建立无产阶级专政。 11.农村包围城市：农村包围城市是实行工农武装割据，以农村包围城市，最后夺取全国政权的道路。这是 毛泽东研究中国国情，把马克思主义普遍真理同中国革命的具体实践相结合的产物，是夺取中国革命胜利的正确道路，也是对马克思主义军事理论的丰富和发展。 12.“一化三改”：“一化”就是社会主义工业化，“三改”即对个体农业、手工和资本主义工商业的社会主义改造。 13.“四马分肥”：这是我国社会主义改造时期对民族资本主义工商业利润分配形式的形象说法。1953年国家规定，私营企业每年结算盈余，其利润分配为“四马分肥”，即分为国家所得税、企业公积金、职工福利费、资方红利四部分。 14.和平赎买：是指在无产阶级夺取政权后，对资产阶级的生产资料通过和平方式并采取有偿办法实行国有化的政策。
American Dream: American dream means the belief that everyone can succeed as long as he/she works hard enough. It usually implies a successful and satisfying life. It usually framed in terms of American capitalism（资本主义）, its associated purported meritocracy,（知识界精华）and the freedoms guaranteed by the U.S. Bill of Rights. American Puritanism清教主义: Puritanism is the practices and beliefs of the puritans. The Puritans were originally members of a division of the protestant church who wanted to purify their religious beliefs and practices. They accepted the doctrines of predestination, original sin and total depravity, and limited atonement through a special infusion of grace from God. American literature in the 17th century mostly consisted of Puritan literature. Puritanism had an enduring influence on American literature. It had become, to some extent, so much a state of mind, so much a part of national cultural atmosphere, rather than a set of tenets. Transcendentalism 超验主义: Transcendentalism was a group of new ideas in literature, religion, culture and philosophy that emerged in New England in the early to middle 19th century. Transcendentalists spoke for cultural rejuvenation and against the materialism of American society. It placed emphasis on spirit, or the Over soul, as the most important thing in the world. It stressed the importance of individual and offered a fresh perception nature ad symbolic of the spirit of God. Prominent transcendentalists included Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thorough. American Naturalism自然主义: American naturalism was a new and harsher realism. The naturalists attempt to achieve extreme objectivity and frankness, presenting characters of low social and economic classes who were determined by environment and heredity. It emphasized that the world was amoral, the men and women had no free will, that lives were controlled by heredity and environment, that the destiny of humanity was misery in life and oblivion in death. The pessimism and deterministic ideas naturalism pervaded the works of such American writers as Stephen Crane and Theodore Dreiser. American Naturalism(美国自然主义文学)：The American naturalists accepted the more negative interpretation of Darwin’s evolutionary theory and used it to account for t he behavior of those characters in literary works who were regarded as more or less complex combinations of inherited attributes, their habits conditioned by social and economic forces.2) naturalism is evolved from realism when the author’s tone in writing becomes less serious and less sympathetic but more ironic and more pessimistic. It is no more than a gloomy philosophical approach to reality, or to human existence.3>Dreiser is a leading figure of his school. The Gilded Age镀金时代:the Gilded Age refers to the era of rapid economic and population growth in the United States during the post-Civil War and post-Reconstruction eras of the late 19th century. The term "Gilded Age" was coined by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner in their 1873 book, The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today.The Gilded Age is most famous for the creation of a modern industrial economy. The end of the Gilded Age coincided with the Panic of 1893, a deep depression. The depression lasted until 1897 and marked a major political realignment in the election of 1896. After that came the Progressive Era. The Lost Generation: The Lost Generation is a group of expatriate American writers residing primarily in Paris during the 1920s and 1930s. The group was given its name by the American writer Gertrude Stein, who used “a lost generation” to refer to expatriate Americans bitter about their World War I experiences and disillusioned with American