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建筑方案图纸英文Architectural DrawingArchitectural drawing is a crucial component of the design process in the field of architecture. It serves as a visual representation of a proposed building or structure, providing detailed information about its layout, dimensions, materials, and specifications. These drawings are essential for communication between architects, engineers, clients, and construction teams. In this article, we will explore the different types of architectural drawings, their purposes, and the importance of accurate and precise drawings in the construction industry.One of the most common types of architectural drawings is the floor plan. This drawing shows the layout of each floor of a building, including the location of walls, doors, and windows. It provides a clear understanding of the flow and organization of spaces. Floor plans are instrumental in determining the functionality and efficiency of a building, as well as the circulation of people within it. They are also used by interior designers to plan the placement of furniture and fixtures.Another type of architectural drawing is the elevation. Elevation drawings show the exterior views of a building from different angles. They provide a detailed depiction of the building's facade, depicting the design and arrangement of windows, doors, and other exterior elements. Elevation drawings help in assessing the aesthetic aspect of a building and its integration into the surrounding environment. It is especially crucial in urban planning and architectural visualization.Sections are drawings that cut through a building vertically or horizontally, showing the internal elements and structure. These drawings provide a cross-sectional view of the building, allowing architects and engineers to understand the building's interior spatial arrangement, structural elements, and services. Sections are vital in ensuring the coordination of various building systems, such as electrical, plumbing, and HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) systems.In addition to these, architectural drawings may also include details such as construction sections, site plans, and electrical and plumbing layouts. Construction sections show specific details of construction assemblies, such as wall sections, roof details, and floor constructions. Site plans provide an overview of the building's location and its relationship with the surroundings, including roads, landscaping, and utilities. Electrical and plumbing layouts illustrate the placement and routing of electrical wires, outlets, plumbing pipes, and fixtures within the building. Accuracy and precision are of utmost importance in architectural drawings. Any errors or inconsistencies can result in costly construction mistakes and delays. Architectural drawings need to be clear, concise, and easy to understand, using standardized symbols, scales, and notations. It is crucial for architects to pay attention to every detail, from the dimensions of the rooms to the materials and finishes specified. Similarly, engineers need to accurately depict the structural elements and ensure their compatibility with the architectural design.The advent of computer-aided design (CAD) has revolutionized architectural drawing. CAD software allows architects and engineers to create accurate and detailed drawings, providing the flexibility to make changes and revisions easily. It also enables the generation of 3D models and renderings, facilitating better visualization and understanding of the proposed design. With CAD, drawings can be easily shared and transmitted digitally, enhancing communication and collaboration among project stakeholders.In conclusion, architectural drawing is an indispensable tool in the design and construction process. It enables architects, engineers, clients, and construction teams to communicate and visualize a building's design and specifications accurately. The different types of drawings, such as floor plans, elevations, and sections, provide essential information about the building's layout, structure, and aesthetic qualities. Accuracy and precision are vital in ensuring the successful execution of architectural drawings, and CAD technology has greatly improved the efficiency and effectivenessof the drawing process.。
立体主义艺术英语介绍作文Cubism, a groundbreaking art movement that emerged in the early 20th century, revolutionized the way we perceive and depict reality. Spearheaded by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, Cubism challenged traditional artistic conventions by presenting subjects from multiple perspectives simultaneously. This avant-garde movement sought to deconstruct forms and reconstruct them into geometric shapes, thereby fracturing the conventional notions of space and time in art.At its core, Cubism aimed to capture the essence of the subject rather than its literal representation. Artists employed a variety of techniques such as fragmentation, overlapping, and geometric simplification to achieve this goal. By breaking down objects into basic geometric forms like cubes, spheres, and cones, Cubist painters aimed to represent the subject from various viewpoints simultaneously. This multiplicity of perspectives allowed viewers to engage with the artwork in a more dynamic andinteractive manner, inviting them to explore different facets of reality.One of the key characteristics of Cubism is its emphasis on the two-dimensional surface of the canvas. Rather than creating illusionistic depth, Cubist artists flattened the pictorial space, foregrounding the surface as the primary site of artistic expression. This departure from traditional perspective challenged viewers to reconsider their relationship with the artwork and encouraged them to engage with it on a more intellectual level.Furthermore, Cubism was not limited to painting alone; it also extended to sculpture and collage. Sculptors such as Jacques Lipchitz and Alexander Archipenko embraced the principles of Cubism, translating them into three-dimensional form. Through the use of fragmented planes and abstracted shapes, Cubist sculptures captured the essence of the subject in a manner that was both innovative and unconventional.The influence of Cubism extended far beyond the confines of the art world, permeating into otherdisciplines such as literature, architecture, and design. Writers such as Gertrude Stein and poets like Guillaume Apollinaire were inspired by the fragmented aesthetics of Cubism, incorporating its principles into their literary works. Similarly, architects such as Le Corbusier drew upon Cubist ideas in their designs, advocating for a more rational and geometric approach to architecture.In conclusion, Cubism remains one of the most significant art movements of the 20th century, challenging traditional notions of representation and paving the wayfor modern abstraction. Through its innovative techniques and radical approach to form, Cubism continues to inspire artists and audiences alike, reminding us of the transformative power of art to reshape our perceptions of the world.。
建筑文化英语Architecture is not only a form of art, but also a representation of culture. It reflects the traditions, beliefs, and values of a society. As a result, architecture plays a crucial role in shaping and preserving cultural identity. In this article, we will explore the significance of architectural culture and its impact on society.Firstly, architectural culture embodies a society's historical background. By studying architectural designs and structures, we can gain insights into the past. Ancient civilizations, such as the Egyptians and Greeks, left behind monumental structures like the pyramids and the Parthenon, which are not only architectural marvels but also windows into their cultures.For instance, the pyramids of Egypt symbolize the importance of the afterlife and the divine power of the pharaohs. The intricately carved columns of the Parthenon demonstrate the admiration and reverence the ancient Greeks had for their gods and goddesses. Overall, architectural culture provides a tangible link to the past, allowing us to understand and appreciate the traditions that have shaped our present.Moreover, architectural culture influences the way we perceive and interact with our surroundings. The design of buildings and urban spaces can greatly impact human behavior and well-being. For instance, cities in Europe often feature narrow streets, vibrant plazas, and buildings with intricate facades, creating a sense of intimacy and community. In contrast, modern cities often prioritize functionality over aesthetics, leading to a more impersonal and disconnected urban environment.Architectural culture also shapes our perception of beauty. Different cultures have distinct architectural styles that reflect their unique aesthetics. For example, traditional Chinese architecture is characterized by its emphasis on harmony with nature, symmetrical designs, and intricate decorations. On the other hand, Islamic architecture is known for its geometric patterns, intricate tile work, and dome structures. The beauty of these architectural styles lies in their ability to blend functionality with artistic expression.Furthermore, architectural culture contributes to the preservation and conservation of heritage sites. Historical buildings and landmarks are a testament to a society's history, and they bring a sense of pride and identity. Cultural heritage sites like the Taj Mahal in India or the Great Wall of China attract tourists from around the world, generating economic benefits and promoting cultural exchange. It is imperative to preserve and safeguard these sites to ensure they remain accessible to future generations.In conclusion, architectural culture is an integral part of our global heritage. It acts as a bridge between the past and the present, providing insights into the traditions and values of different societies. Furthermore, architectural culture shapes our perceptions, influences our behavior, and contributes to the preservation of cultural heritage. By embracing and celebrating architectural diversity, we can foster a better understanding and appreciation of our shared humanity.。
The Differences Between Eastern And Western Architecture姓名：张欣（1010641124）卢雅静（1010641128）石姗姗（1010641132）班级：10建筑学1班指导老师：唐咏梅The Differences Between Eastern And Western ArchitectureThe representation nations of eastern architecture are China,India and Japan. While those of western are Greece and Rome.The biggest difference between eastern and western architecture is that the east highlights the natural landscape while the west highlights the buildings.1.The the materials of architectureThe east: mainly wood and earthThe west: Mainly stone2.The layout of architectureThe east: the majority emphasize the entiretyThe west: attach importance to the individual building3.About the theme of the culture of architectureThe east: focus on advocating the imperial power and etiquetteThe west: focus on publicising their majestic God and showing their admiration and respect4.About the style of the artThe east: depend on the harmony between nature and humanThe west: highlight the conflicting beauty between nature andhuman. The wide and close inner space of the religious building lets people bring out the religious passion and craziness.5.The difference of the constructionThe east: woodwork, mainly post and lintel constructionThe west: by piling up the stones,their walls are thicker, the openings in the wall are smaller and the inner space is closer.。
建筑物的英语作文Architecture is an art form that has been practiced for centuries. From the ancient wonders of the world to the modern skyscrapers that dominate our cities, architecture has played a crucial role in shaping the world around us.In this essay, we will explore the significance of architecture, its impact on society, and the role it playsin our lives.First and foremost, architecture is a reflection of a society's culture and values. The buildings and structures that we create are a physical representation of our beliefs, aspirations, and achievements. For example, the grand cathedrals of Europe are a testament to the religious devotion of the people who built them, while the towering skyscrapers of New York City symbolize the ambition and innovation of American society. In this way, architecture serves as a mirror of our collective identity, allowing usto express ourselves and communicate our values to future generations.Moreover, architecture has a profound impact on ourdaily lives. The spaces that we inhabit, whether it's our homes, workplaces, or public spaces, have a directinfluence on our well-being and quality of life.Thoughtfully designed buildings can enhance our productivity, foster a sense of community, and promote a healthy lifestyle. On the other hand, poorly designed or neglected spaces can have a negative impact on our mental and physical health. Therefore, it is essential for architects and urban planners to consider the human experience when creating new environments, ensuring that they are not only aesthetically pleasing but alsofunctional and conducive to our well-being.Furthermore, architecture plays a crucial role in addressing some of the most pressing challenges of our time, such as climate change and urbanization. Sustainable architecture, which focuses on minimizing the environmental impact of buildings and maximizing their energy efficiency, has become increasingly important in the face of global warming. By incorporating green technologies, renewablematerials, and innovative design strategies, architects are able to create buildings that are not only environmentally friendly but also resilient to the effects of climate change. Additionally, as more people move to cities, architects are tasked with designing urban spaces that are efficient, inclusive, and adaptable to the needs of a diverse population. This requires a holistic approach that takes into account factors such as transportation, housing, and public amenities, in order to create cities that are both livable and sustainable for future generations.In conclusion, architecture is a powerful form of expression that shapes our world in profound ways. It reflects our culture, influences our daily lives, and addresses the challenges of our time. As we continue to evolve and face new challenges, it is essential that we recognize the significance of architecture and the role it plays in creating a better future for all. By embracing innovative design, sustainable practices, and a commitment to the well-being of society, we can ensure that the buildings and spaces we create will continue to inspire and enrich our lives for generations to come.。
美术英语work 作品work of art 艺术作品masterpiece 杰作plastic arts 造型艺术graphic arts 形象艺术Fine Arts 美术art gallery 画廊,美术馆salon 沙龙exhibition 展览collection 收藏author 作者style 风inspiration 灵感,启发muse 灵感purism 修辞癖conceptism格言派,警名派Byzantine 拜占庭式Romanesaue罗马式Gothic 哥特式Baroque 巴洛克式Rococo 洛可可式classicism 古典主义,古典风格neoclassicism 新古典主义romanticism 浪漫主义realism 现实主义symbolism 象征主义impressionism 印象主义Art Nouveau 新艺术主义expressionism 表现主义Fauvism 野兽派abstract art 抽象派, 抽象主义Cubism 立体派, 立体主义Dadaism 达达主义surrealism 超现实主义naturalism 自然主义existentialism 存在主义futurism 未来主义abstract art:抽象派艺术●A nonrepresentational style that emphasizes formal values over the representation of subject matter.强调形式至上，忽视内容的一种非写实主义绘画风格。
★Kandinsky produced abstract art characterized by imagery that had a musicical quality.**斯基创作的抽象派作品有一种音乐美。
abstract expressionism:抽象表现派，抽象表现主义=●A nonrepresentational style that emphasizes emotion,strongcolor,and giving primacy to the art of painting.把绘画本身作为目的，以表达情感和浓抹重涂为特点的非写实主义风格。
Standards facilitate the Fourth Industrial Revolution 专访德国电气电子信息技术委员会（DKE）总裁迈克尔·泰格勒Interview with Mr. Michael Teigeler, Managing Director of German Commission Electrical and Electronic Information Technology in DIN andVDE (DKE)标准助推第四次工业革命BETTER COMMUNICATION ｜ GREATER VALUEIndustry 4.0 represents the Fourth Industrial Revolution. What is Industry 4.0 in your opinion? What is German standardization strategy in this process?Mr. Michael Teigeler: The fourth industrial revolution will affect the whole eco-system of the manufacturing industry. The previous industrial revolutions changed the way how products have been produced in a vertical dimension, with other aspects remained more or less unchanged. In the fourth industrial revolution, we will see an extended value chain connecting smart factories, smart products and smart services. These three dimensions form the three axis of the Reference Architecture Model “Industrie 4.0” (RAMI 4.0), a model which has been introduced by German experts and will guide the standardization work worldwide.The central building blocks of this process are seamless data structures. For example, the concept of “Digital Twin” foresees a complete digital representation of a product or system throughout its entire life cycle. This digital representation monitors in real time key requirements on interoperability, safety and security are conform to standards, which can be tested virtually. New services can also be created to extend the values of standardization and better serve industry and consumer needs.You said that the Standardization Council Industry 4.0 is the linchpin of the process in your presentation at the international symposium on standardization strategies held in Beijing in November 2018. Could you tell us a little more about it?The concept of “Industrie 4.0” covers many areas which have been treated in silos in the past, also for standardization work. Today, standardization activities need to be coordinated to interlink different aspects across functions and sectors. Therefore the Standardization Council “Industrie 4.0” was established. There are several key tasks. First, there is a need to initiate and coordinate the development of digital production standards at national and international level. This requires liaising with industry and standardization bodies, i.e. to coordinate the needs between the stakeholders represented through the German “Industrie 4.0” platform and the various standards developing organizations (SDOs). Second, the Standardization Council “Industrie 4.0” aims to facilitate the creation of international standards through, for example, partnering with ISO and IEC, and through regular technical discussion in the Sino-German standardization cooperation commission and the established Sub Working Group Smart Manufacturing/Industry 4.0.Moreover, the SCI 4.0 collaborates with pilot projects, which enables quick and tailored standardization activities utilizing the findings of these initiatives.Finally the Standardization Council “Industrie 4.0” coordinates the draft of Standardization Roadmap “Industrie 4.0”.The German Standardization Roadmap Industrie 4.0, released by DIN, DKE and VDE, is the most dowloaded document in the online library and highly interested by China. Could you introduce more about it? What benefits can it bring to industries and consumers across the globe?Standardization roadmaps address several targets. First of all they give an overview on the current standardization landscape. This includes the different players like standardization organizations and technical committees but also the different existing standards and ongoing standardization projects. Secondly the roadmap identifies needs for new standards based on a gap analysis. Recommendations for standardization work are derived based on this step. Altogether the roadmap describes the German standardization strategies to achieve “Industrie 4.0”. The roadmap is not a static document. It is written by a large number of technical experts from various disciplines and it is updated bi-annually.DKE is a trusted platform for standardization, cooperation and interaction of experts in the areas of electrical engineering, electronics and information technologies. How does DKE encourage SMEs to access standards and participate in standardization?BETTER COMMUNICATION ｜ GREATER VALUEFirst of all, DKE provides a level playing field for all technical experts regardless they are from a global enterprise or a SME. The participation in DKEs work is free of charge which is another benefit especially for SMEs.Additionally DKE offers free trainings to technical experts, including those from SMEs. We are as well offering a tailored program to ease the access to standards for SMEs, a help desk to support experts particularly from SMEs in participation in standardization activities, as well as tools to guide the use of standards.Reciprocally, SMEs also see the benefit by being active in drafting new standards.What benefits can SMEs receive in the participation in standardization?Typically SMEs have excellent know how about a specific technology. But due to their size they cannot cover all technical aspects of “Industrie 4.0”. Through participation in standardization, companies can make sure that their specific technology is recognized and forms part of a standard. In other words even SMEs can influence the wording of requirements in a standard in a way which supports the application of their specific technology.Another benefit is to sense technical trends through participation in standardization. For example if a new safety concept is adopted in a safety standard you can adapt the market introduction of new products to the foreseeable introduction of such a standard. As a consequence we see many ofthe German “hidden champion” SMEs in our technical committees.。
CET4CET6Nacademic adj.学院的, 理论的academy n.(高等)专科院校, 研究院architecture n.建筑, 建筑学architect n.建筑师astronaut n.太空人, 宇航员astronomy n.天文学automatic adj.自动的, 无意识的, automation n.自动控制, 自动操作bureau n.办公桌, 衣柜bureaucracy n.官僚, 官僚作风, 官僚机构bury vt.埋葬,burial n.埋葬cafe n.咖啡馆, 小餐馆cafeteria n.自助餐厅capture n.捕获, 战利品captive n.俘虏, 被美色或爱情迷住的人casual adj.偶然的, 不经意的, 临时的casualty n.伤亡circulate v.(使)流通, (使)运行, circulation n.循环, 流通, 发行额civil adj.全民的, 市民的, civilian n.平民, 公务员, 文官clear adj.清楚的, 清晰的, 清澈的, clarity n.清楚, 透明classical adj.古典的, 正统派的,classic n.[pl.] 杰作, 名著clear adj.清楚的, clearance n.清除comment n.注释, 评论, 意见commentary n.注释, 解说词commit vt.犯(错误), commitment n.委托事项, 许诺, 承担义务competent adj.有能力的, 胜任的competence n.能力complicated adj.复杂的, 难解的complication n.复杂化, (使复杂的)因素confuse vt.搞乱, 使糊涂confusion n.混乱, 混淆constitute vt.制定(法律), constituent n.选举者, 委托人, 要素continue v.继续, 连续, 延伸continuity n.连续性, 连贯性convince vt.使确信, 使信服conviction n.深信, 确信,cooperate vi.合作, 协作cooperative adj.合作的, 协力的correspond vi.符合, 协调, correspondence n.相应, 通信, 信件declare vt.断言, 宣称,declaration n.宣布, 宣言, 声明defect n.过失, 缺点deficiency n.缺乏, 不足deny v.否认, 拒绝denial n.否认, 否定, 谢绝, 拒绝depress vt.使沮丧, 使消沉,depression n.沮丧, 消沉,descend vi.下来, 下降descendant n.子孙, 后裔, 后代detect vt.察觉, 发觉, 侦查, 探测detective n.侦探direct adj.径直的, 直接的, directory n.姓名地址录, 目录disturb vt.弄乱, 打乱, 打扰, 扰乱disturbance n.骚动, 动乱, 打扰,drain n.排水沟, 消耗, 排水drainage n.排水, 排泄,economic adj.经济(上)的, economics n.经济学editor n.编辑, 编辑器, 编者editorial n.社论electrical adj.电的, 有关电的electrician n.电工, 电学家endure v.耐久, 忍耐endurance n.忍耐(力), 持久(力) engage vt.使忙碌, 雇佣engagement n.约会, 婚约, 诺言, entertain vt.娱乐, 招待, 接受, 怀抱entertainment n.款待, 娱乐, 娱乐表演essential adj.本质的, 实质的, 基本的, essence n.基本, [哲]本质, 香精expert n.专家, 行家, [军expertise n.专家的意见, 专门技术federal adj.联邦的, 联合的, 联邦制的federation n.同盟, 联邦, 联合, 联盟fellow n.人, 家伙, 伙伴, fellowship n.伙伴关系, 交情,fit n.突然发作, 适合, 痉挛, 一阵fitting adj.适合的, 相称的, 适宜的fix vt.使固定, 装置, fixture n.固定设备, 预定日期, frighten vt.使惊吓fright n.惊骇, 吃惊guard n.守卫, 警戒,guradianguilty adj.犯罪的, 有罪的, 心虚的guilt n.罪行, 内疚hear vt.听到, 听说, hearing n.听力, 听觉, 听取意见, 听讼sphere n.球, 球体, 范围hemisphere n.半球history n.历史, 历史学, historian n.历史学家, 史家host n.主机,主人,旅馆招待hostess n.女主人, 女房东,human n.人, 人类humanity n.人性, 人类, 博爱, 仁慈ignorant adj.无知的ignorance n.无知, 不知imitate vt.模仿, 仿效, 仿制, 仿造imitation n.模仿, 效法, 冒充,incident n.事件, 事变incidence n.落下的方式, 影响范围,infer v.推断inference n.推论initial adj.最初的, 词首的, 初始的initiative n.主动sight n.视力, 视觉, 见, 瞥见, insight n.洞察力, 见识inspire vt.吸(气), 鼓舞, 感动, 激发, inspiration n.灵感instal installment n.部分intellectual adj.智力的, 有智力的, 显示智力的intellect n.智力journal n.定期刊物, 杂志, 航海日记, journalist n.新闻记者, 从事新闻杂志业的人legal adj.法律的, 法定的, 合法legislation n.立法, 法律的制定(或通过) liable adj.有责任的, 有义务的, liability n.责任, 义务, 倾向likely adj.很可能的, 合适的, likelihood n.可能, 可能性line n.绳, 索, 线路, 航线, 诗句liner n.<美>班机, 划线者, 衬垫literary adj.文学(上)的, 从事写作的, literacy n.有文化，有教养，有读写能力local adj.地方的, 当地的, locality n.位置, 地点lodge n.门房, （猎人住的）山林小屋,lodging n.寄宿处, 寄宿,mechanics n.(用作单数)机械学、力学, mechanism n.机械装置, 机构, 机制member n.成员, 会员, 议员, membership n.成员资格, 成员人数message n.消息, 通讯, messenger n.报信者, 使者miserable adj.痛苦的, 悲惨的, 可怜misery n.痛苦, 苦恼,moral adj.道德(上)的, 精神的morality adj.道德的night n.夜, 夜晚, 黑暗, 死亡nightmare n.梦魇, 恶梦, 可怕的事物normal n.正规, 常态, [数学]法线norm n.标准, 规范note n.笔记, 短信,notation n.符号novel n.小说, 长篇故事novelty n.新颖, 新奇,oblige vt.迫使, 责成obligation n.义务, 职责, 债务offend v.犯罪, 冒犯, 违反, offence n.犯罪, 冒犯,optimistic adj.乐观的optimism n.乐观, 乐观主义optional adj.可选择的, 随意的option n.选项,part n.部分, 局部, 零件, 角色partition n.分割,participate vi.参与, 参加, 分享, 分担participant n.参与者, 共享者perceive v.感知, 感到, 认识到perception n.理解perfect adj.完美的, perfection n.尽善尽美, 完美, 完成period n.时期, 学时, 节, periodical adj.周期的, 定期的personal adj.私人的, personality n.个性, 人格, 人物, persuade v.说服, 劝说, (使)相信, persuasion n.说服, 说服力photograph n.照片photography n.摄影, 摄影术pray v.祈祷, 恳求, 请prayer n.祈祷prescribe v.指示, 规定, 处(方), 开(药)prescription n.指示, 规定,present n.赠品, 礼物, 现在, 瞄准presentation n.介绍, 陈述, 赠送, 表达prior adj.优先的, 在前的priority n.先, 前, 优先, 优先权private adj.私人的, 私有的privacy n.独处而不受干扰, 秘密proceed vi.进行, 继续下去, 发生proceeding n.行动, 进行,product n.产品, 产物, 乘积productivity n.生产力project n.计划, 方案,projector n.放映机propose vt.计划, 建议, proposition n.主张, 建议, 陈述, 命题type n.类型, 典型, 模范, prototype n.原型psychological adj.心理(上)的psychology n.心理学, 心理状态public n.公众, (特定的)人群, 公共场所publicity n.公开pure adj.纯的, 纯粹的, 象的purity n.纯净, 纯洁, 纯度pursue vt.追赶, 追踪, pursuit n.追击qualify v.(使)具有资格, qualification n.资格, 条件,quarter n.四分之一, quarterly adj.一年四次的, 每季的question n.问题, 疑问, 询问questionnaire n.调查表, 问卷rate n.比率, 速度,rating n.等级级别(尤指军阶), 额定, rebel n.造反者rebellion n.谋反receive vt.收到, 接到,recipient adj.容易接受的, 感受性强的refresh v.(使)精神振作, refreshment n.(常pl.) 点心, 饮料,rely v.依赖, 依靠, reliance n.信任, 信心,remain vi.保持, 逗留, 剩余, 残存remainder n.残余, 剩余物,replace vt.取代, 替换, 代替, replacement n.归还, 复位,represent vt.表现, 描绘, 声称, representation n.表示法,resemble vt.象, 类似resemblance n.类同之处reserve vt.储备, 保存reservation n.保留, (旅馆房间等)预定, 预约retain vt.保持, 保留retention 保持力reveal vt.展现, 显示, 揭示, 暴露revelation n.显示,romantic adj.传奇式的, 浪漫的, romance n.冒险故事, 浪漫史,royal adj.王室的, 皇家的,royalty n.皇室, 王权senate n.参议院, 上院senator n.参议员,sense n.官能, 感觉, 判断力,sensation n.感觉, 感情, 感动, 耸人听闻的ship n.船, 海船, 舰shipment n.装船, 出货society n.社会, ...会, ...社,流社会sociology n.社会学solid n.固体, 立体solidarity n.团结special n.特派员, 专车, 专刊speciality n.特性, 特质, 专业, 特殊性specific n.特效药, 细节specification n.详述, [常 pl.] 规格, 说明书statistical adj.统计的, 统计学的statistics n.统计学, 统计表stimulate vt.刺激, 激励stimulus n.刺激物, 促进因素,succession n.连续, 继承, 继任, 演替successor n.继承者, 接任者, 后续的事物superior n.长者, 高手, 上级superiority n.优越, 高傲surgery n.外科, 外科学surgeon n.外科医生survive v.幸免于, 幸存, 生还survival n.生存, 幸存, 残存,suspend vt.吊, 悬挂suspension n.吊, 悬浮, 悬浮液,synthetic adj.合成的, 人造的, 综合的synthesis n.综合, 合成test n.测试, 试验, 检验testimony n.证词(尤指在法庭所作的),thief n.小偷, 贼theft n.偷, 行窃, 偷窃的事例thirsty adj.口渴的, 渴望的, 热望的thirst n.渴, 口渴, (～ for)渴望, 热望valid adj.[律]有效的, 有根据的, validity n.有效性, 合法性, 正确性vegetable n.蔬菜, 植物, 生活呆板单调的人vegetation n.[植]植被, (总称)植物、voluntary adj.自动的, 自愿的, volunteer n.志愿者, 志愿兵war n.战争warfare n.战争, 作战, 冲突, 竞争young adj.年轻的, 年纪小的, youngster n.年青人, 少年Vaccommodate vt.供应, 供给, 使适应, accommodation n.住处, 膳宿, (车, 船, 飞机等的)预accordance n.一致, 和谐accord n.一致, 符合, 调和, 协定acquaintance n.相识, 熟人acquaint vt.使熟知, 通知active adj.积极的, 能起作用的, activate vt.刺激, 使活动join vi.参加, 结合, 加入adjoin v.邻接, 毗连administration n.管理, 经营, 行政部门administer v.管理, 给予, 执行advertisement n.广告, 做广告advertise v.做广告, 登广告firm n.公司, (合伙)商号affirm v.断言, 确认, 肯定authority n.权威, 威信, 权威人士, 权力,authorize v.批准available adj.可用到的, 可利用的, avail vi.有益于, 有帮助, 有用, 有利characterise vt.表现...的特色, 刻画的...性格character n.(事物的)特性, 性质, 特征(的总和commemorate vt.纪念collision n.碰撞, 冲突collide vi.碰撞, 抵触comprehension n.理解, 包含comprehend vt.领会, 理解, 包括(包含), 由...组成conservation n.保存, 保持, 守恒conserve vt.保存, 保藏contradiction n.反驳, 矛盾contradict vt.同...矛盾, 同...抵触relate vt.叙述, 讲, 使联系, 发生关系correlate vt.使相互关联different adj.不同的differentiate v.区别, 区分dinner n.正餐, 宴会dine vi.吃饭, 进餐light n.光, 日光, 发光体, 灯enlighten vt.启发, 启蒙, 教导,elevator n.电梯, 升降机, [空]升降舵elevate vt.举起, 提拔,rich adj.富的, 有钱的, 富有的, enrich vt.使富足, 使肥沃, 装饰, vision n.视力, 视觉, 先见之明, envisage v.正视fabric n.织品, 织物, 布, fabricate vt.制作, 构成, 捏造,facility n.容易, 简易, 灵巧,facilitate vt.（不以人作主语的）使容易, formula n.公式, 规则, 客套语formulate vt.用公式表示, 明确地表达, general n.普通, 将军, 概要generalize vt.归纳, 概括, 推广, 普及haste n.匆忙, 急忙hasten v.催促, 赶紧, 促进, 加速height n.高度, 海拔, 高地(常用复数)heighten v.提高, 升高prison n.监狱imprison vt.监禁, 关押inhabitant n.居民, 居住者inhabit vt.居住于, 存在于, 占据, 栖息initial adj.最初的, 词首的, 初始的initiate vt.开始, 发动, 传授injection n.注射, 注射剂, inject vt.注射, 注入intense adj.强烈的, 剧烈的, intensify vt.加强act n.幕, 法案, 法令, 动作, interact vi.互相作用, 互相影响connect v.连接, 联合, 关连interconnect vt.使互相连接length n.长度, 长, 时间的长短, [语]音长lengthen v.延长, (使)变长less n.较少, 较小lessen v.减少, 减轻minimum adj.最小的, 最低的minimize vt.将...减到最少mobile adj.可移动的, 易变的, 机动的mobilize v.动员necessity n.必要性, 需要, (常 pl.) 必需品necessitate v.成为必要name n.名字, 名称, 姓名, 名誉nominate vt.提名, 推荐, 任命, 命名note n.笔记, 短信,notify v.通报origin n.起源, 由来, 起因, originate vt.引起, 发明, 发起, 创办portrait n.肖像, 人像portray v.描绘preceding adj.在前的, 前述的precede v.领先(于), 在...之前, 先于pure adj.纯的, 纯粹的, 纯净的,purify vt.使纯净claim n.(根据权利提出)要求, 要求权,proclaim vt.宣布, 声明, 显示, 显露quantity n.量, 数量quantify vt.确定数量radiation n.发散, 发光, 发热,radiate vt.放射, 辐射, 传播, 广播pay n.薪水, 工资repay v.偿还, 报答, 报复residence n.居住, 住处reside vi.居住rotten adj.腐烂的, 恶臭的,rot v.(使)腐烂, (使)腐败significance n.意义, 重要性signify vt.表示, 意味spark n.火花, 火星, sparkle v.发火花, (使)闪耀, ( sufficient adj.充分的, 足够的suffice vi.足够, 有能力pass n.经过, 关口, 途径,surpass vt.超越, 胜过terminal n.终点站, 终端, 接线端terminate v.停止, 结束, 终止terrible adj.很糟的, 极坏的,terrify vt.使恐怖, 恐吓plant n.植物, 庄稼, 工厂, 车间, 设备transplant v.移植, 移种, 移民, 迁移unity n.团结, 联合, 统一, 一致unify vt.统一, 使成一体visual adj.看的, 视觉的, visualize vt.形象, 形象化, 想象adjambition n.野心, 雄心ambitious adj.有雄心的, 野心勃勃的analysis n.分析, 分解analytic adj.分析的, 解析的appreciate vt.赏识, 鉴赏, 感激appreciable adj.可感知的, 可评估的authority n.权威, 威信, authoritative adj.权威的, 有权威的, 命令的colony n.殖民地, 侨民, colonial adj.殖民的, 殖民地的 compare v.比较, 相比, 比喻 n.比较comparable adj.可比较的, 比得上的compete vi.比赛, 竞争competitive adj.竞争的compose v.组成, 写作, 排字,composite adj.合成的, 复合的confident adj.自信的, 确信的confidential adj.秘密的, 机密的consequence n.结果, [逻]推理, 推论,consequent adj.作为结果的, 随之发生的corporation n.[律]社团, 法人, 公司, corporate adj.社团的, 法人的,custom n.习惯, 风俗, <动词单用>海关, customary adj.习惯的, 惯例的dead adj.死的, 无感觉的, deadly adj.致命的, 势不两立的,decision n.决定, 决心, 决议, decisive adj.决定性的destruction n.破坏, 毁灭destructive adj.破坏(性)的disaster n.灾难, 天灾, 灾祸disastrous adj.损失惨重的, 悲伤的east n.东方, 东, 东部地区eastward adv.向东eat v.吃, 腐蚀edible adj.可食用的elder n.年长者, 老人, 父辈elderly adj.过了中年的, 稍老的energy n.精力, 精神, 活力, [物]能量energetic adj.精力充沛的, 积极的enthusiasm n.狂热, 热心, 积极性,enthusiastic adj.热心的, 热情的error n.错误, 过失, 误差erroneous adj.错误的, 不正确的exception adv.排外地, 专有地exceptional adj.例外的, 异常的exclusively adv.排外地, 专有地exclusive adj.排外的, 孤高的,female n.女性, 女人, 雌兽feminine adj.妇女(似)的, 娇柔的,give n.弹性, 可弯性given adj.赠予的, 沉溺的, 特定的globe n.球体, 地球仪, 地球, 世界global adj.球形的, 全球的, 全世界的grace n.优美, 雅致, 优雅gracious adj.亲切的, 高尚的haste n.匆忙, 急忙hasty adj.匆忙的, 草率的historical adj.历史(上)的, 有关历史的historic adj.历史上著名的, 有历史性的horror n.惊骇, 恐怖, 惨事, 极端厌恶horrible adj.可怕的, 恐怖的, 讨厌的imagine vt.想象, 设想imaginative adj.想象的, 虚构的include vt.包括, 包含inclusive adj.包含的, 包括的indicate vt.指出, 显示, 象征, indicative adj.(～ of) 指示的, 预示的, 可表示的infect vt.[医] 传染, 感染infectious adj.有传染性的, 易传染的,instant adj.立即的, 直接的, instantaneous adj.瞬间的, 即刻的, 即时的instrument n.工具, 手段, 器械, 器具, 手段instrumental adj.仪器的, 器械的, 乐器的intention n.意图, 目的intent n.意图, 目的, 意向,valuable adj.贵重的, 有价值的invaluable adj.无价的, 价值无法衡量的legal adj.法律的, 法定的, 合法legitimate adj.合法的, 合理的, 正统的line n.绳, 索, 线路, 航线, 诗句linear adj.线的, 直线的, 线性的literary adj.文学(上)的, 从事写作的literal adj.文字的, 照字面上的margin n.页边的空白,marginal adj.记在页边的, 边缘的, 边际的mass n.块, 大多数, 质量, 群众, 大量massive adj.厚重的, 大块的, 魁伟的, 结实的metal n.金属metallic adj.金属(性)的might n.力量, 威力, 权力, 能, 可能mighty n.有势力的人military adj.军事的, 军用的militant adj.好战的, 积极从事或支持使用武力的minimum adj.最小的, 最低的minimal adj.最小的, 最小限度的mud n.泥, 泥浆, 泥泞muddy adj.多泥的, 泥泞的muscle n.肌肉, 臂力,muscular adj.肌肉的, 强健的neglect vt.忽视, 疏忽, 漏做negligible adj.可以忽略的, 不予重视的note n.笔记, 短信, (外交)照会notable adj.值得注意的, 显著的, 著名的number n.数, 数字, numerical adj.数字的, 用数表示的obey v.服从, 顺从obedient adj.服从的, 孝顺的permit n.通行证, 许可证, 执照permissible adj.可允许的, 可容许程度的period n.时期, 学时, periodic adj.周期的, 定期的persist vi.坚持, 持续persistent adj.持久稳固的mature adj.成熟的, premature adj.未成熟的, 太早的, 早熟的prevail vi.流行, 盛行, 获胜, 成功prevalent adj.普遍的, 流行的product n.产品, 产物, 乘积productive adj.生产性的, 生产的,profit n.利润, 益处, 得益profitable adj.有利可图的promise vt.允诺, 答应promising adj.有希望的, 有前途的prospect n.景色, 前景, 前途, 期望prospective adj.预期的quality n.质量, 品质, 性质qualitative adj.性质上的, 定性的quantity n.量, 数量quantitative adj.数量的, 定量的radiation n.发散, 发光, 发热,radiant adj.发光的, 辐射的, 容光焕发的reality n.真实, 事实, 本体, 逼真realistic adj.现实(主义)的republic n.共和国, 共和政体republican adj.共和国的, 共和政体的,residence n.居住, 住处residential adj.住宅的, 与居住有关的result n.结果, 成效, 计算结果resultant adj.作为结果而发生的, 合成的sex n.性别, 男性或女性, sexual adj.性的, 性别的, [生]有性的shade n.荫, 阴暗, 荫凉处,shady adj.成荫的, 多荫的, 阴暗的situation n.情形, 境遇, (situated adj.位于,被置于境遇,处于...的立场space n.空间, 间隔, 距离, spacious adj.广大的, 大规模的strategy n.策略, 军略strategic adj.战略的, 战略上的strike n.罢工, 打击, 殴打striking adj.打击的, 显著的,subject n.题目, 主题,subjective adj.主观的, 个人的supplement n.补遗, 补充, supplementary adj.附助的suspicion n.猜疑, 怀疑suspicious adj.(～ of) 可疑的, 怀疑的tolerance n.公差, 宽容, tolerant adj.容忍的, 宽恕的, 有耐药力的tragedy n.悲剧, 惨案, tragic adj.悲惨的, 悲剧的triumph n.胜利, 成功triumphant adj.胜利的, 成功的,verb n.[语]动词verbal adj.口头的virtually adv.事实上, 实质上virtual adj.虚的, 实质的,wear vt.穿, 戴weary adj.疲倦的, 厌倦的,wool n.羊毛, 毛织品, woolen adj.毛纺的advshore n.岸, 海滨, 支撑柱ashore adv.向岸地, 在岸上地bare adj.赤裸的, 无遮蔽的barely adv.仅仅, 刚刚, 几乎不能clock adj.赤裸的, 无遮蔽的, 空的clockwise adj.顺时针方向的incident n.事件, 事变incidentally adv.附带地, 顺便提及readily adv.乐意地, 欣然, 容易地ready adj.有准备的, 准备完毕的, 甘心的,seem vi.象是, 似乎seemingly adv.表面上地specific n.特效药, 细节specifically adv.特定的, 明确的normal n.正规, 常态, [数学]法线abnormal adj.反常的, 变态的able adj.能...的, 有才能的,disable v.使残废, 使失去能力, 丧失能力count v.数, 计算, 计算在内,discount n.折扣doubtful adj.可疑的, 不确的, 疑心的doubtless adj.无疑的, 确定的grade n.等级, 级别degrade v.(使)降级, (使)堕落, (使)退化infinite n.无限的东西finite adj.有限的, [数]有穷的place n.地方, 地点, displace vt.移置, 转移, 取代, 置换definite adj.明确的, 一定的indefinite adj.模糊的, 不确定的fortune n.财富, 运气, misfortune n.不幸, 灾祸。
上海环球金融中心英语介绍The Shanghai World Financial Center, often referred to as the SWFC, is an iconic skyscraper located in the Pudong district of Shanghai, China. Completed in 2008, it stands at a remarkable height of 492 meters (1,614 feet) and features 101 floors, making it one of the tallest buildings in the world. The structure is noted for its distinctive design, characterized by a large, rectangular opening at the top, giving it a unique silhouette that resembles a bottle opener. This innovative architectural choice was the result of a design competition in which the winning concept was developed by the architectural firm Kohn Pedersen Fox Associates.The SWFC is not only a stunning piece of modern architecture but also serves multiple purposes. It houses office spaces, luxury hotels, retail outlets, and observation decks. The building's lower floors are dedicated to retail,featuring high-end brands and dining options that cater to both tourists and locals. Above the retail level, thebuilding accommodates numerous offices that host both local and international firms, thereby establishing itself as a significant business hub in Shanghai.One of the most popular features of the Shanghai World Financial Center is its observation deck, located on the 94th floor. This deck offers visitors breathtaking panoramic views of the Shanghai skyline, including the nearby Oriental Pearl Tower, Jin Mao Tower, and the historic Bund area. The observation deck attracts millions of visitors each year, contributing to the building's reputation as a must-visit landmark in Shanghai.The SWFC is an exemplary representation of modern engineering and design. The building's construction involved advanced technologies and sustainable practices, emphasizing the importance of environmental consciousness in contemporaryarchitecture. Its glass facades and energy-efficient systems showcase efforts to minimize carbon footprints while maximizing natural light.In addition to its architectural appeal, the Shanghai World Financial Center plays a significant role in the economic landscape of Shanghai. It symbolizes the city’s rapid growth and its status as a global financial center. The building has also hosted various conferences, events, and exhibitions, further cementing its place in Shanghai’s dynamic business environment.Overall, the Shanghai World Financial Center stands as a testament to modern architectural innovation, urban development, and economic growth. It has become a defining feature of Shanghai's skyline and continues to attract visitors and businesses from around the world, embodying the city's ambitious spirit and forward-thinking vision.。
英语关于名胜古迹的手抄报名胜古迹手抄报（标题）Exploring Famous Landmarks（插图）图片插入多张著名名胜古迹的图片，如埃及金字塔、中国长城、法国埃菲尔铁塔、印度泰姬陵等。
（正文）Introduction:Famous landmarks are iconic structures and sites that represent a country's history, culture, and natural beauty. These landmarks attract millions of tourists every year, showcasing the wonders of human creation and natural marvels.1. Great Wall of China:The Great Wall of China is one of the world's most renowned architectural marvels. Stretching over 13,000 miles, it was built to protect China from invasions. It offers breathtaking views and a journey through history.2. Pyramids of Egypt:The pyramids of Egypt are mysterious and awe-inspiring. Built as tombs for ancient pharaohs, these grand structures leave visitors captivated. The famous pyramids of Giza, including the Great Pyramid, are astonishing feats of engineering.3. Eiffel Tower:The Eiffel Tower in Paris, France, is an iconic symbol of the cityand a marvel of modern engineering. Its towering iron structure attracts millions of visitors who enjoy panoramic views of Paris from its observation decks.4. Taj Mahal:The Taj Mahal, located in Agra, India, is a symbol of eternal love. This white marble mausoleum was built by Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved wife. Its intricate architectural details and stunning gardens make it a UNESCO World Heritage Site.（插图）为每个名胜古迹插入一幅配图。
Reference Architecture Representation Environment (RARE)A Tool to Support Object-Oriented Software ArchitectureDerivation and EvaluationK. S. Barber and T. GraserThe Laboratory for Intelligent Processes and SystemsElectrical and Computer EngineeringThe University of Texas at AustinAustin, TX 78712barber@phone: (512) 471-6152fax: (512) 471-3316AbstractSoftware architectures have received considerable attention in both research and practice for representing system stakeholder concerns during the software development process. While a number of architecture representations have been proposed to facilitate analysis at different levels of abstraction, tool support for deriving and evaluating these architectures is only just beginning to appear. This paper describes a research tool under development, Reference Architecture Representation Environment (RARE), designed to systematically guide the architect through derivation by applying object-oriented and software architecture heuristics associated with quality goals and evaluate the resulting architecture based on relevant static metrics. As a member of the Systems Engineering Process Activities (SEPA) tool suite, RARE helps address a number of challenges typically faced during the derivation process, including (1) developing an architecture that reflects quality goals identified by the architect (e.g., reusability, extensibility, comprehensibility, performance), (2) capturing and sharing architect expertise and rationale for a particular architecture, and (3) interpreting domain functionality and data requirements collected from many different stakeholder perspectives. The product is both a high-level software architecture designed to capture domain functionality and data requirements and a derivation log intended to document the derivation process and the architect’s rationale.KeywordsInformation Systems Development, Management Information Systems, Software Architecture Derivation, Software Architecture Evaluation, Object-Oriented Analysis, Domain-Specific Software Architectures1 Introduction1Software Architectures have been used to represent a variety of concerns in the software development process, including requirements, domain-specific knowledge, implementation structure, and component connectivity [1] [2]. These various concerns can be expressed in a software architecture as abstract, high-level views of a software system. While a significant amount of research has focused on representing these architectures and incorporating architectural analysis into the development cycle, research has only recently emphasized formalizing the derivation and concurrent evaluation of these architectures [3]. The objective 1 This research was supported in part by the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board Advanced Technology Program (ATP #003658-188-1999) and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (501325 and N66001-99-1-8903).of a formal derivation and analysis process is to generate an architecture capable of fulfilling a set of quality attributes (goals), such as reusability, reliability, performance, and comprehensibility. As with other software development activities where managing multiple concerns is an issue, software architecture derivation is an appropriate candidate for tool support.One of the fundamental reasons why improving the effectiveness of software engineering processes presents such a challenge is that software development activities (e.g., requirements capture, domain analysis, system design) are not always guided by hard and fast rules. This fuzziness is particularly evident during class derivation in object-oriented analysis, and similarly, architecture class derivation. Given an identical set of domain functionality, data, and timing requirements (i.e., domain requirements), it is highly probable that two architects will arrive at a completely different set of architecture classes. While this can be attributed to a number of reasons, this paper focuses on three considerations. First, different architects may deem different quality goals as important, and the architecture may take on different forms depending upon which goals are emphasized. One architect may have the opinion that reusability should strongly influence class definition, while another may place greater emphasis on the comprehensibility of the overall class model. A second significant factor dictating architecture derivation is the expertise and skill level of the architect. A more experienced architect will be able to draw upon successes and failures from prior projects, while the inexperienced architect is forced to work from gut feel and a weak understanding of the literature. Still another factor that may explain variations between architectures is an architect’s interpretation of domain requirements. Whether working from a single functional requirements document or a series of software modeling diagrams (e.g., task decompositions, data flow diagrams, entity-relationship diagrams, organizational charts), there is always the possibility two architects will interpret domain functionality and data differently. While no requirements analysis technique can guarantee to eliminate multiple interpretations, they are often a symptom of incomplete or inconsistent requirements. Reference Architecture Representation Environment (RARE), a process and supporting tool component of the Systems Engineering Process Activities (SEPA) tool suite under research at the University of Texas at Austin, seeks to systematically guide the architect in deriving a reference architecture designed to capture domain requirements (functionality, data, and timing). As part of comprehensive support for architecture derivation, the RARE approach seeks to address the considerations discussed above.•=Different quality goals emphasized by different architects: RARE incorporates a knowledge base of derivation heuristics associated with common quality goals, such as reusability, extensibility, comprehensibility, and performance. The architect selects and prioritizes goals for a particular architecture, and RARE adheres to these priorities assigned when suggesting architecture refinements. A significant aspect of RARE research is building, testing, and fine tuning this knowledge base.•=Varying levels of expertise among architects: Via the RARE knowledge base, RARE research captures the expertise of skilled architects and helps non-experienced architects apply this expertise. Knowledge base heuristics are derived from (1) object-oriented and software architecture literature, (2) project objectives from a variety of domains to which RARE is being applied2, and (3) extensive fine tuning and empirical analysis. In addition to providing a set of goals and heuristics generalized over many projects, RARE logs every refinement and captures associated rationale from the architect throughout the architecture derivation process. Thus, the decisions and expertise of the architect are captured for a specific project.•=Multiple interpretations of domain functionality and data requirements: As an activity in the SEPA process, the RARE tool and architecture derivation process has the benefit of a consistent computational domain model captured and refined during upstream SEPA activities [4]. A key feature of the SEPA methodology is its emphasis on the separation of concerns, including explicitly separating different types of requirements and isolating their analysis and refinement.2 The Systems Engineering Process Activities (SEPA) is being applied in a number of domains, including cancer treatment protocol development, emergency incident response, and joint military forces command and control [4][5][6].The following section introduces the SEPA Domain Reference Architecture (DRA), one in a series of separate but interrelated architectures used in the SEPA methodology. Having described the DRA, Section3 discusses the derivation approach used in RARE and outlines the steps performed for each derivation iteration. This discussion is interleaved with illustrations of selected screens from the RARE tool. Section4 discusses related work, and Section5 offers concluding remarks and comments on future work.2 Systems Engineering Process Activities DomainReference ArchitectureTo support the representation of multiple types of requirements, encourage reuse, and promote separationof concerns, The Systems Engineering Process Activities (SEPA) methodology suggests a comprehensive approach to represent yet separate different types of requirements and the architectures used to capture those requirements. These classes of requirements include (i) domain requirements (business process/functionality, data, and timing), (ii) application requirements (e.g., application look-and-feel, runtime performance requirements), and (iii) site requirements (e.g., available site hardware platforms, middleware and communications software). The Reference Architecture captures those requirements inherent to the domain that dictate WHAT processes, data and timing are required for operation but not HOW the system should be implemented or which technology should be deployed to deliver those domain requirements. The application and site requirements dictate design and implementation related concerns and drive the specification of Application and Implementation Architectures, respectively.This paper focuses on the derivation of the Domain Reference Architecture (DRA), an architecture designed to facilitate the analysis of domain requirements. The source of requirements represented in the DRA is the SEPA Domain Model (DM), a computational model which represents the requirements gathered from a variety of system stakeholders and synthesized into a series of graphical and textual models (e.g., data flow diagrams, task decompositions, concept maps, entity relationship diagrams).3 The DRA is derived by allocating DM functionality and data into architectural classes. These classes will become the blueprint that guides the development effort in terms of architectural structure as well as those functional, data, and timing requirements to be satisfied. Since it is likely classes will be instantiated by different implementation solutions each time the blueprint is reused for a new system development effort (e.g., computer programs, hardware devices, personnel), the DRA representation is highly implementation independent. Architecture evaluation at this level employs static metrics relevant to selected goals (e.g., reusability, maintainability, comprehensibility) to measure architectural content and structure (e.g., coupling between classes, size of classes, completeness of architecture as a percentage of DM content).Figure 1 - Domain Reference Architecture Class RepresentationThe DRA is a collection of Domain Reference Architecture Classes (DRACs) that declare “what” domain functionality, data, and timing an instantiation of the class must satisfy without specifying a particular3 For a more complete description of the SEPA process, the reader is referred to [4].implementation. Each DRAC is assigned responsibility for some portion of domain functionality and data. This assignment and the relationships between DRACs are represented in three sub-models (Figure 1): the Declarative Model (D-M) defines the data and event attributes and services that should be offered by an instance of the DRAC; the Behavioral Model (B-M) describes the behavior expected from an instance of the DRAC through a high-level state chart; and the Integration Model (I-M) defines the constraints and dependencies between DRAC instances resulting from the distribution of dependent functions across DRACs. These dependencies are based on input and output of data and events as well as the clustering of classes into subsystems to represent domain functionality typically co-located. All elements of the DRAC model are directly traceable to elements of the Domain Model. Given such a representation of domain requirements and a set of known applications associated with each class, stakeholders can answer questions regarding the specifications for intended applications as well as the suitability of existing applications in satisfying domain functionality.The remainder of this paper focuses on the approach used in RARE to guide the architect in deriving a Domain Reference Architecture that satisfies quality goals and capture the architect’s rationale as derivation proceeds.3 Domain Reference Architecture Derivation in RARE DRA derivation is an iterative process, where successive iterations represent increasing coverage of domain information and greater refinement of the DRA based on architectural quality goals. Since goals such as maintainability, reusability, extensibility, performance, comprehensibility, and reliability describe overall architectural qualities, their presence is not easily verified by direct observation. On the other hand, low-level architecture characteristics (e.g., class size, depth of inheritance tree, class coupling) that are easily measured do not always have a direct relationship to the high-level goals. In fact, there is often a many-to-many relationship between the high-level qualities and the low-level characteristics, such that no single metric provides conclusive evidence that a quality goal has been satisfied.By correlating high-level goals and low-level metrics through heuristics and strategies, RARE attempts to bridge the gap between high-level qualities and low-level characteristics. Each of these elements can be described as follows:•=Heuristic: A "rule of thumb" compiled from expert experience on past projects which assists the architect in making rational decisions in defining DRACs. For example, a well-known object-oriented heuristic recommends reducing coupling among classes to encourage reuse [7]. A goal is typically associated with multiple heuristics.•=Strategy: An architecture transformation procedure (sequence of actions) used to apply a given heuristic. Following the "reduce coupling" example, a strategy might explicitly state, "move service S1 from DRAC D1 to DRAC D2" to eliminate the need to exchange data between DRACs D1 and D2. More than one strategy may contribute to a heuristic, and a strategy may apply to more than one heuristic.•=Metric: A measurement of a particular characteristic of the architecture which provides an indication as to whether the architect adhered to a given heuristic. Continuing with the previous example, the DRAC inheritance hierarchy and/or number of data/event dependencies passed between DRACs (e.g., one service in one DRAC required as input data held by another DRAC) would provide some evidence as to the degree of coupling in the RA. Typically, multiple metrics are used in combination to evaluate an architecture in the context of a heuristic and its parent goal.Figure 2 - Sample Set of Goals, Heuristics, and Strategies from the RARE Knowledge BaseFigure 2 illustrates a sample set of goals, heuristics, and strategies represented in the RARE knowledge base. The quality goals depicted have been prioritized based on the architect’s understanding of the needs of the particular architecture: (1) “Reusability,” (2) “Implementation Performance and Scalability,” (3) “Usability and Comprehensibility,” and (4) “Maintainability and Extensibility.” Examining the “Reusability” goal more closely, four contributing heuristics have been defined, each associated with corresponding strategies. Metrics applicable to the “Reduce class coupling...” heuristic may include familiar object-oriented metrics such as “Coupling Between Objects” and “Degree of Cohesion” [8]. Since strategies and metrics may apply to more than one heuristic under more than one goal, the “Redistribute services...” strategy is an appropriate technique for both reducing coupling under the “Reduce class coupling...” heuristic and reducing message passing under the “Reduce I/O performance bottlenecks…” heuristic. Strategies are triggered by relevant preconditions detected in the reference architecture, includingconditions measured by related metrics. For example, “Redistribute services...” under the “Reduce class coupling…” heuristic could be triggered, in part, by an unsatisfactory value for metric “Coupling Between Objects.”Figure 3 - DRA Derivation among SEPA ActivitiesThe RARE architecture derivation process is positioned among SEPA activities as shown in Figure 3. As output from requirements acquisition, modeling, and refinement activities, the SEPA Domain Model provides RARE with a computational representation of domain functionality, data, and timing. To accurately reflect domain requirements, the SEPA methodology encourages acquiring requirements from multiple stakeholder viewpoints. SEPA requirements refinement activities include unifying these viewpoints into a single consistent picture of domain requirements, the Domain Model. RARE then restructures the information in the Domain Model by defining a collection of object-oriented classes (DRACs discussed in Section 2) to which domain functionality and data are assigned. Thus, the derivation process boils down to two essential questions: (1) what information must be extracted from the Domain Model (i.e., what functions, data concepts, events, resources, etc.) and (2) where this information should be placed (i.e., in what classes). The resulting classes and their relationships provide a specification for developers to implement new applications or identify existing solutions to satisfy domain requirements. Subsequent SEPA tools provide assistance in creating system designs that employ these solutions.Figure 4 outlines the steps associated with the each iteration of the architecture derivation process in RARE. These steps are described in the following subsections.Figure 4 - Process Flow for Reference Architecture Derivation1. Establish Goals: The architect identifies the quality goals targeted for the architecture. Goals aretypically chosen in accordance with characteristics of the domain (e.g., if applications must be modified often, “extensibility” may be an emphasis) and unique requirements of the development effort.2. Prioritize Goals: The goals selected determine which heuristics guide the derivation process andwhich metrics will be used to evaluate the architecture. It is possible, however, that two or more goals may be in conflict with regard to the “derivation direction” of the RA, based their associated strategies and heuristics. For example, comprehensibility might suggest collecting classes to reduce the total number of classes needed to be understood by the reader, while maintainability might recommend a contrary approach, dividing class responsibility whenever possible. Assigned goal priorities assist conflict resolution between strategies in the event that different strategies lead the derivation in opposite directions. Figure 5 depicts the RARE screen used to establish and prioritize goals. The goals selected are Increase Class Reusability, Increase Class Extensibility, Enhance Implementation Performance, and Increase Model Comprehensibility. Each goal is associated with relevant heuristicsand respective strategies and metrics. For example, Increase Class Reusability suggests one heuristic, Reduce DRAC Coupling.Figure 5 - RARE Goal Selection Screen3. Prune Metrics and Strategies under Selected Goals: A goal stored in the RARE knowledge base maybe associated with many heuristics that in turn refer to any number of strategies and metrics. The architect has the option of pruning heuristics, strategies, and metrics from the goals selected for the derivation iteration.4. Determine the Acceptable Ranges for Each Metric: Each metric identified under a goal is associatedwith an acceptable value range. Where a metric value falls in this range helps determine (1) how well the architecture meets selected goals and (2) what subsequent refinements should be applied to better satisfy selected goals.5. Identify Applicable Strategies for This Iteration: RARE determines which strategies to “fire” for aparticular iteration. Each strategy has an associated precondition that defines under what conditions the strategy applies. Conditions can involve the current state of the architecture (e.g., a strategy which runs only during the initial iteration when the architecture is empty) and characteristics of the Domain Model (e.g., certain data concepts are present which contain sub-concepts).6. Resolve Strategy Conflicts: The applicable strategies identified in Step 5 may be totally compatible.On the other hand, if analysis determines that the anticipated characteristics of the resulting Reference Architecture contradict, it becomes necessary to resolve strategy conflicts. Resolution may be as simple as ordering the sequence of strategy execution based on goal priorities, or it may involve modifying or removing one or more strategies. A collection of documented rules advise the architect on how to resolve conflicts given certain situations.7. Apply Strategies: RARE modifies the current Reference Architecture by applying the strategies fromStep 6. Each strategy results in one or more “actions” which can be reviewed by the architect as they are applied. All actions are recorded in the derivation log. Figure 6 shows the RARE strategy selection window, where all pending strategies are displayed for review by the architect.Figure 6 - RARE Pending Strategy Verification Screen8. Calculate Metrics: Calculate the values for all metrics under selected goals. Figure 7 depicts theRARE metric calculation window. Based on the allowable metric deviations (set in Step 4), RARE indicates whether metrics are in or out of range. These indicators are rolled up to corresponding goals and help the architect determine how well goals have been satisfied (Step 9 below). The red, yellow, and green indicators signify that the corresponding metric or goal is out of range, near acceptable, or acceptable, respectively.Figure 7 - RARE Metric and Goal Index Calculation Screen9. Determine if Goals Have Been Satisfied: RARE combines metric values under each goal into a“quality index” for that goal. The weighted average quality index shown in Figure 7 is calculated as a weighted average across all metrics under a goal, yielding a number from 0-10, where 10 represents maximum satisfaction.10. Determine the Next Action: After reviewing the metrics and goal indices calculated in the previoussteps, the architect selects one of the following actions:♦=End the derivation process if the current state of the Reference Architecture is satisfactory based on goal indices and observation.♦=Run the next iteration using the new architecture as a starting point, if the architecture does not yet meet goals but is closer to those goals than the architecture from the previous iteration.♦=Readjust goals before proceeding, if the new architecture is further from meeting selected goals than the architecture from the previous iteration. Readjusting goals can entail•=eliminating one or more selected goals (Step 1),•=rearranging goal priorities (Step 2),•=pruning strategies and metrics in a different manner (Step 3), and/or•=adjusting the manner in which strategies are merged (Step 6).Figure 8 shows the RARE message log window that displays all messages generated from actions executed during a single derivation iteration. This window provides the architect with the option of “committing” (marking as satisfactory) the results of the current iteration after reviewing the goal and metric values. The activity log shown becomes one portion of the architect’s rationale retained.Figure 8 - RARE Derivation Log Display ScreenThe steps described above represent a single iteration. Typically, a number of iterations are run before a satisfactory reference architecture is reached (partly dependent on the size of the domain model). The graph in Figure 9 depicts a sample derivation run, showing the goal evaluation indices over 20 iterations for four goals, (1) “Reusability,” (2) “Maintainability and Extensibility,” (3) “Implementation Performance andScalability,” and (4) “Usability and Comprehensibility.” It is evident that the highest priority goal, “Reusability,” received the most emphasis throughout the derivation process.Figure 9 - RARE Derivation based on Four Goals4 Related WorkAs the architecture discipline has matured, a variety of Architectural Description Languages (ADLs) have been introduced, supporting different levels of abstraction and analysis [9]. As with the ADLs designed to capture low-level component details, SEPA’s Implementation Architecture contains a broad range of implementation-related information (e.g., component installation specifications, component interconnections, architectural styles) and is capable of supporting dynamic analysis of architectural qualities through simulation. On the other hand, the DRA is considerably more abstract, as it is intended to capture domain requirements independent of specific implementation details. The SEPA Reference Architecture compares similarly with the Domain Specific Software Architectures (DSSA) approach [10, 11]. As with DSSA, SEPA emphasizes the development of a reusable reference architecture by separating information related to the problem domain from that concerned with the solution space. SEPA extends the DSSA approach through enhanced representations of problem space and solution space architectures and a formal process and tool suite to support derivation, analysis, and tradeoff evaluation at each step.While systematic architectural derivation has received little attention in the past, recent research has begun to focus on this issue starting from a requirements specification with ongoing evaluation against quality attributes. A comprehensive approach to architecture derivation and analysis is discussed in [3], and a corresponding case study is presented in [12]. This research suggests the need for many of the features designed into the SEPA approach, including distinct recognition of domain-related functional requirements and quality requirements (architectural properties), emphasis on a wide range of quality requirements, quantitative assessment, architectural transformation approaches, and experience-based reasoning. As a member of the overall SEPA methodology and tool suite, RARE is able to offer a systematic approach to initial architectural derivation from a requirements “specification,” using the unified, verified SEPA Domain Model as the source for domain requirements. In addition, RARE extends this research by providing tool features to manage conflicts at different levels. RARE research has identified static metrics from a number of sources, although many do not apply since they focus on implementation-level concerns. Sources include architectural analysis efforts such as [13] and more traditional object-oriented analysis metrics [8] [14] and heuristics [7].The research community has introduced a number of tools to complement software architecture research efforts. A large share of these tools focus on architectural representation, usually in the context of specific ADLs [15]. Tools have also been developed to support scenario-based analysis [16].In addition to language and evaluation support, tools are also available to assist architecture derivation, many of which are rooted in research into object-oriented analysis and design. In [17], Robbins et al discuss Argo, a tool that provides suggestions to the architect during derivation based on “critics” that continually monitor the architecture regarding qualities such as completeness, correctness, optimization, and evolvability. Metrics based analysis and evolution of object-oriented designs can be found in [18] [19]. In [18] the authors discuss an approach for metric data interpretation to generate more meaningful feedback information, employing the concept of “alarmers” that trigger when metric values trigger certain conditions. In [19], the authors describe a tool that integrates heuristics, metrics, and transformation rules to improve object-oriented designs. RARE combines features from these derivation tools by incorporating architecture transformation based on static metrics concerning object-oriented and architectural principles. RARE has the added benefit of drawing domain requirements from the unified Domain Model, allowing RARE to enhance evaluation to include such concerns as completeness.5 ConclusionWhile software architectures have demonstrated to be an effective means for capturing stakeholder requirements and prescribing software system structure, the derivation of software architectures starting from requirements elicitation is a significant challenge. This paper presents a process and supporting tool, Reference Architecture Representation Environment (RARE), designed to guide the software architect in deriving a high-level reference architecture capturing domain requirements (e.g, functionality, data, timing). Many of the challenges encountered during architecture derivation are similar to those associated with class derivation during object-oriented analysis. Most notably, there is no specific formula to arrive at the “right” set of classes – architects may apply different rationale to arrive at completely different class arrangements. Differences in architect decisions may be the result of (1) emphasis on a different set of quality goals (e.g., reusability over extensibility vs. extensibility over reusability), (2) expertise of the architect, and (3) different interpretations of domain functional and data requirements acquired from domain experts. To avoid coercing a particular architecture approach, RARE does not dictate a set of architecture classes but systematically suggests strategies associated with object-oriented and architecture heuristics to help guide the architect in meeting selected quality goals. A quantitative evaluation of goal satisfaction is achieved through the use of acceptable ranges for associated metrics. Quality goals and associated heuristics commonly emphasized in research and practice are defined in the RARE knowledge base, thereby bottling the expertise of experienced architects and allowing less experienced architects to make full use of their knowledge. RARE also records the architect’s decisions and rationale by logging all transformations to the architecture and their justifications as derivation proceeds.As an integral activity of the System Engineering Process Activities (SEPA) methodology and tool suite being developed at the University of Texas at Austin, RARE benefits from upstream processes designed to aid requirements capture and analysis. The product of this effort is a single, consistent domain model that unifies the perspectives of multiple stakeholders. These upstream processes encourage the resolution of ambiguity, inconsistency, and incompleteness, thereby reducing the risk of multiple interpretations during architecture derivation.As SEPA architecture research and RARE development proceed, the RARE knowledge base continues to be extended and refined based on research and experimentation. Particular emphasis is being placed on defining the criteria for selecting robust metrics that represent accurate indicators of high-level quality goals in any domain. Initial experiments conducted using requirements from actual domains have exhibited anticipated tradeoffs between goals and heuristics. As experimentation continues, various conflict management approaches are being tested and results from these tests are helping to fine tune the RARE knowledge base.。
