Dynamic changes in radial oxygen loss and iron plaque

Förster resonance energy transferFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, searchJablonski diagram of FRET with typical timescales indicatedFörster resonance energy transfer (FRET), fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), resonance energy transfer (RET) orelectronic energy transfer (EET) is a mechanism describing energy transfer between two light-sensitive molecules (chromophores).[1] A donor chromophore, initially in its electronic excited state, may transfer energy to an acceptor chromophore through nonradiative dipole–dipole coupling.[2] The efficiency of this energy transfer is inversely proportional to the sixth power of the distance between donor and acceptor, making FRET extremely sensitive to small changes in distance.[3]Measurements of FRET efficiency can be used to determine if two fluorophores are within a certain distance of each other.[4] Such measurements are used as a research tool in fields including biology and chemistry.FRET is analogous to near-field communication, in that the radius of interaction is much smaller than the wavelength of light emitted. In the near-field region, the excited chromophore emits a virtual photon that is instantly absorbed by a receiving chromophore. These virtual photons are undetectable, since their existence violates the conservation of energy and momentum, and hence FRET is known as a radiationless mechanism. Quantum electrodynamical calculations have been used to determine that radiationless (FRET) and radiative energy transfer are the short- and long-range asymptotes of a single unified mechanism.[5][6]Contents[hide]∙ 1 Terminology∙ 2 Theoretical basis∙ 3 Experimental co nfirmation of the Förster resonance energy transfer theory∙ 4 Methods to measure FRET efficiencyo 4.1 Sensitized emissiono 4.2 Photobleaching FRETo 4.3 Lifetime measurements∙ 5 Fluorophores used for FRETo 5.1 CFP-YFP pairso 5.2 BRETo 5.3 Homo-FRET∙ 6 Applicationso 6.1 Biology∙7 Other methods∙8 See also∙9 References∙10 External linksTerminology[edit]Förster resonance energy transfer is named after the German scientist Theodor Förster.[7] When both chromophores are fluorescent, the term "fluorescence resonance energy transfer" is often used instead, although the energy is not actually transferred by fluorescence.[8][9]In order to avoid an erroneous interpretation of the phenomenon that is always a nonradiative transfer of energy (even when occurring between two fluorescent chromophores), the name "Förster resonance energy transfer" is preferred to "fluorescence resonance energy transfer;" however, the latter enjoys common usage in scientific literature.[10] It should also be noted that FRET is not restricted to fluorescence. It can occur in connection with phosphorescence as well.[8]Theoretical basis[edit]The FRET efficiency () is the quantum yield of the energy transfer transition, i.e. the fraction of energy transfer event occurring per donor excitation event:[11]where is the rate of energy transfer, the radiative decayrate, and the 's are the rate constants of any other de-excitation pathways.[12]The FRET efficiency depends on many physical parameters that can be grouped as follows:∙The distance between the donor and the acceptor (typically in the range of 1-10 nm)∙The spectral overlap of the donor emission spectrum and the acceptor absorption spectrum.∙The relative orientation of the donor emission dipole moment and the acceptor absorption dipole moment.depends on the donor-to-acceptor separation distance with an inverse 6th power law due to the dipole-dipole coupling mechanism:with being the Förster distance of this pair of donor andacceptor, i.e. the distance at which the energy transfer efficiency is 50%.[12]The Förster distance depends on the overlap integral of the donor emission spectrum with the acceptor absorption spectrum and their mutual molecular orientation as expressed by the following equation.[13][14]where is the fluorescence quantum yield of the donor in the absence of the acceptor, κ2 is the dipole orientation factor, is the refractive index of the medium, is Avogadro's number, and is the spectral overlap integral calculated aswhere is the normalized donor emission spectrum, and is the acceptor molar extinction coefficient.[15] The orientation factor κ is given by,Where denotes the normalized transition dipole moment of therespective fluorophore and denotes the normalized inter-fluorophore displacement. κ2 =2/3 is often assumed. This value is obtained when both dyes are freely rotating and can be considered to beisotropically oriented during the excited state lifetime. If either dye is fixed or not free to rotate, then κ2 =2/3 will not be a valid assumption. In most cases, however, even modest reorientation of the dyes results in enough orientational averaging that κ2 = 2/3 doesnot result in a large error in the estimated energy transfer distance due to the sixth power dependence of R0 on κ2. Even when κ2 is quite different from 2/3 the error can be associated with a shift in R0 and thus determinations of changes in relative distance for a particular system are still valid. Fluorescent proteins do not reorient on a timescale that is faster than their fluorescence lifetime. In this case 0 ≤ κ2≤ 4.[15]The FRET efficiency relates to the quantum yield and the fluorescence lifetime of the donor molecule as follows:[16]where and are the donor fluorescence lifetimes in the presenceand absence of an acceptor, respectively, or aswhere and are the donor fluorescence intensities with and without an acceptor, respectively.Experimental confirmation of the Förster resonance energy transfer theory[edit]The inverse sixth-power distance dependence of Förster resonance energy transfer was experimentally confirmed by Wilchek, Edelhoch and Brand[17][18] using tryptophyl peptides. Stryer, Haugland and Yguerabide[19] also experimentally demonstrated the theoretical dependence ofFörster resonance ene rgy transfer on the overlap integral by using a fused indolosteroid as a donor and a ketone as an acceptor. However, a lot of contradictions of special experiments with the theory was oserved. The reason is that the theory has approximate character and gives overstimated distances of 50-100 Angstrems (Vekshin N.L. Energy Transfer in Macromolecules, SPIE, 1997; Vekshin N.L. Photonics of Biopolymers, Springer, 2002).Methods to measure FRET efficiency[edit]In fluorescence microscopy, fluorescence confocal laser scanning microscopy, as well as in molecular biology, FRET is a useful tool to quantify molecular dynamics in biophysics and biochemistry, such as protein-protein interactions, protein–DNA interactions, and protein conformational changes. For monitoring the complex formation between two molecules, one of them is labeled with a donor and the other with an acceptor. The FRET efficiency is measured and used to identify interactions between the labeled complexes. There are several ways of measuring the FRET efficiency by monitoring changes in the fluorescence emitted by the donor or the acceptor.[20]Sensitized emission[edit]One method of measuring FRET efficiency is to measure the variationin acceptor emission intensity.[14] When the donor and acceptor are in proximity (1–10 nm) due to the interaction of the two molecules, the acceptor emission will increase because of the intermolecularFRET from the donor to the acceptor. For monitoring protein conformational changes, the target protein is labeled with a donor and an acceptor at two loci. When a twist or bend of the protein brings the change in the distance or relative orientation of the donor and acceptor, FRET change is observed. If a molecular interaction or a protein conformational change is dependent on ligand binding, this FRET technique is applicable to fluorescent indicators for the ligand detection.Photobleaching FRET[edit]FRET efficiencies can also be inferred from the photobleaching rates of the donor in the presence and absence of an acceptor.[14] This method can be performed on most fluorescence microscopes; one simply shines the excitation light (of a frequency that will excite the donor but not the acceptor significantly) on specimens with and without the acceptor fluorophore and monitors the donor fluorescence (typically separated from acceptor fluorescence using a bandpass filter) over time. The timescale is that of photobleaching, which is seconds to minutes, with fluorescence in each curve being given bywhere is the photobleaching decay time constant and depends on whether the acceptor is present or not. Since photobleaching consists in the permanent inactivation of excited fluorophores, resonance energy transfer from an excited donor to an acceptor fluorophore prevents the photobleaching of that donor fluorophore, and thus high FRET efficiency leads to a longer photobleaching decay time constant:where and are the photobleaching decay time constants of thedonor in the presence and in the absence of the acceptor, respectively. (Notice that the fraction is the reciprocal of that used for lifetime measurements).This technique was introduced by Jovin in 1989.[21] Its use of anentire curve of points to extract the time constants can give it accuracy advantages over the other methods. Also, the fact that time measurements are over seconds rather than nanoseconds makes it easierthan fluorescence lifetime measurements, and because photobleaching decay rates do not generally depend on donor concentration (unless acceptor saturation is an issue), the careful control of concentrations needed for intensity measurements is not needed. It is, however, important to keep the illumination the same for the with- and without-acceptor measurements, as photobleaching increases markedly with more intense incident light.Lifetime measurements[edit]FRET efficiency can also be determined from the change in the fluorescence lifetime of the donor.[14] The lifetime of the donor will decrease in the presence of the acceptor. Lifetime measurements of FRET are used in Fluorescence-lifetime imaging microscopy.Fluorophores used for FRET[edit]If the linker is intact, excitation at the absorbance wavelength of CFP (414nm) causes emission by YFP (525nm) due to FRET. If the linker is cleaved by a protease, FRET is abolished and emission is at the CFP wavelength (475nm).CFP-YFP pairs[edit]One common pair fluorophores for biological use is a cyan fluorescent protein (CFP) – yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) pair.[22] Both are color variants of green fluorescent protein (GFP). Labeling with organic fluorescent dyes requires purification, chemical modification, and intracellular injection of a host protein. GFP variants can be attached to a host protein by genetic engineering which can be more convenient. Additionally, a fusion of CFP and YFP linked by a protease cleavage sequence can be used as a cleavage assay.[23]BRET[edit]A limitation of FRET is the requirement for external illumination to initiate the fluorescence transfer, which can lead to background noise in the results from direct excitation of the acceptor or to photobleaching. To avoid this drawback, Bioluminescence Resonance Energy Transfer (or BRET) has been developed.[24] This technique uses a bioluminescent luciferase (typically the luciferase from Renilla reniformis) rather than CFP to produce an initial photon emission compatible with YFP.Homo-FRET[edit]In general, "FRET" refers to situations where the donor and acceptor proteins (or "fluorophores") are of two different types. In many biological situations, however, researchers might need to examine the interactions between two, or more, proteins of the same type—or indeed the same protein with itself, for example if the protein folds or forms part of a polymer chain of proteins[25] or for other questions of quantification in biological cells.[26]Obviously, spectral differences will not be the tool used to detect and measure FRET, as both the acceptor and donor protein emit light with the same wavelengths. Yet researchers can detect differences in the polarisation between the light which excites the fluorophores andthe light which is emitted, in a technique called FRET anisotropy imaging; the level of quantified anisotropy (difference in polarisation between the excitation and emission beams) then becomes an indicative guide to how many FRET events have happened.[27]Applications[edit]Biology[edit]FRET has been used to measure distance and detect molecular interactions in a number of systems and has applications in biology and chemistry.[28] FRET can be used to measure distances between domains in a single protein and therefore to provide information about protein conformation.[29] FRET can also detect interaction between proteins.[30] Applied in vivo, FRET has been used to detect the location and interactions of genes and cellular structures including intergrins and membrane proteins.[31] FRET can be used to obtain information about metabolic or signaling pathways.[32] FRET is also used to study lipid rafts in cell membranes.[33]FRET and BRET are also the common tools in the study of biochemical reaction kinetics and molecular motors.The applications of Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) have expanded tremendously in the last 25 years, and the technique has become a staple technique in many biological and biophysical fields. FRET can be used as spectroscopic ruler in various areas such as structural elucidation of biological molecules and their interactions in vitro assays, in vivo monitoring in cellular research, nucleic acid analysis, signal transduction, light harvesting and metallic nanomaterial etc. Based on the mechanism of FRET a variety of novel chemical sensors and biosensors have been developed.[34]Other methods[edit]A different, but related, mechanism is Dexter Electron Transfer.An alternative method to detecting protein–protein proximity is the bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) where two halves of a YFP are fused to a protein. When these two halves meet they form a fluorophore after about 60 s – 1 hr.[35]See also[edit]∙Förster coupling∙Surface energy transfer∙Dexter electron transfer∙Time-resolved fluorescence energy transferReferences[edit]1.Jump up ^ Cheng, Ping-Chin (2006). "The Contrast Formation in OpticalMicroscopy". In Pawley, James B. 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Retrieved 24 June 2012.[dead link]21.Jump up ^Szöllősi, János; Alexander, Denis R. (2007). "The Application ofFluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer to the Investigation ofPhosphatases". In Klumpp, Susanne; Krieglstein, Josef. ProteinPhosphatases. Methods in Enzymology, Volume 366. Amsterdam: Elsevier.pp. 203–24. doi:10.1016/S0076-6879(03)66017-9. ISBN 978-0-12-182269-9. 22.Jump up ^ Periasamy, Ammasi (July 2001). "Fluorescence resonance energytransfer microscopy: a mini review". Journal of Biomedical Optics6 (3): 287–291. Bibcode:2001JBO.....6..287P. doi:10.1117/1.1383063.PMID 11516318.23.Jump up ^ Nguyen, AW; Daugherty, PS (March 2005). "Evolutionaryoptimization of fluorescent proteins for intracellular FRET.". Naturebiotechnology23 (3): 355–60. doi:10.1038/nbt1066. PMID 15696158.24.Jump up ^ Bevan, Nicola; Rees, Stephen (2006). "Pharmaceutical Applicationsof GFP and RCFP". In Chalfie, Martin; Kain, Steven R. Green FluorescentProtein: Properties, Applications and Protocols. 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Climate change is one of the most pressing global issues of our time,with farreaching implications for the environment,economy,and society.The effects of climate change are multifaceted and can be observed in various aspects of life on Earth.1.Environmental Impact:The most evident impact of climate change is on the environment.Rising temperatures have led to the melting of polar ice caps and glaciers, causing sea levels to rise.This not only threatens coastal cities and lowlying islands but also disrupts the habitats of many species,leading to a loss of biodiversity.Additionally, climate change has been linked to more frequent and severe weather events,such as hurricanes,floods,and droughts,which can devastate ecosystems and human settlements.2.Agricultural Effects:Agriculture is heavily dependent on stable climate conditions. Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can lead to reduced crop yields, affecting food security globally.Droughts can decimate harvests,while floods can destroy crops and soil fertility.Moreover,warmer temperatures can shift the ranges of pests and diseases,complicating agricultural practices.3.Health Implications:Climate change can have direct and indirect effects on human health.Direct effects include heatrelated illnesses and deaths during heatwaves.Indirect effects are more complex and can include the spread of vectorborne diseases as warmer climates expand the habitats of diseasecarrying insects.Additionally,air quality can be affected by higher temperatures,exacerbating respiratory issues.4.Economic Consequences:The economic impacts of climate change are significant and varied.Industries such as agriculture,fisheries,and tourism are particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change.Insurance costs may rise due to an increase in natural disasters,and infrastructure may require costly adaptations to withstand extreme weather events.On the other hand,some regions may experience economic benefits from a longer growing season or access to new shipping routes.5.Social and Political Ramifications:Climate change can exacerbate social inequalities and lead to political instability.Displacement of populations due to environmental disasters can create refugee crises,straining international relations and local resources. Additionally,competition for dwindling resources like water and arable land can lead to conflicts.6.Mitigation and Adaptation Efforts:In response to the impacts of climate change,there is a growing emphasis on mitigation and adaptation strategies.Mitigation involves reducing greenhouse gas emissions to slow the rate of climate change,while adaptation involves adjusting to the effects that are already occurring.This can include developingmore resilient infrastructure,investing in renewable energy,and implementing policies that promote sustainable development.cation and Awareness:Raising awareness about the impacts of climate change is crucial for driving societal and political cation plays a key role in informing the public about the science behind climate change,its consequences,and the steps that can be taken to mitigate its effects.8.International Cooperation:Addressing climate change requires a coordinated global response.International agreements,such as the Paris Agreement,aim to unite countries in efforts to reduce emissions and support those most vulnerable to climate change impacts.In conclusion,the impacts of climate change are widespread and interconnected, affecting every aspect of life on Earth.It is essential that individuals,communities,and nations work together to mitigate these effects and adapt to the changes that are already underway.。

荷花耐深水评价体系及耐深水鉴定李祥志;刘兆磊;陈发棣;丁跃生;高迎;王宏辉【摘要】[目的]为发掘耐深水荷花(Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn),建立荷花苗期耐深水性评价体系.[方法]根据逐步增加水深过程中盆栽荷花表型变化,将深水胁迫指数划分为7个等级;采用叶色、叶形态、叶柄高度、叶柄粗度、成活率5个外观形态指标,进行定量分级,制定等级得分标准,然后以各指标的得分总和对耐深水性进行综合评价,建立评价体系,对20个荷花品种耐深水性鉴定.[结果]不同荷花品种对水深要求差异较大,初步筛选结果为:极不耐深水品种2个,分别为“红飞天”和“贵妃醉酒”;不耐深水品种8个,分别为“友谊牡丹莲”、“欢庆”、“粉牡丹”、“红台莲”、“金碧辉煌”、“伯里之子”、“似彩云”和“似粉黛”;较耐深水品种8个,分别为“深情”、“新统帅”、“上海一号”、“普者黑白荷”、“碧云”、“梨花白”、“金色年华”和“红巨子”;高度耐深水品种2个,分别为“台城拂翠”和“秦淮花灯”.耐深水荷花以1.2m水深为宜.[结论]该研究初步筛选出2个高度耐深水荷花品种“台城拂翠”和“秦淮花灯”,可为荷花耐深水育种奠定基础.【期刊名称】《安徽农业科学》【年(卷),期】2014(000)003【总页数】4页(P679-682)【关键词】荷花;耐深水性;形态指标;评价体系【作者】李祥志;刘兆磊;陈发棣;丁跃生;高迎;王宏辉【作者单位】南京农业大学园艺学院,江苏南京210095;南京农业大学园艺学院,江苏南京210095;南京农业大学园艺学院,江苏南京210095;南京艺莲苑花卉有限公司,江苏南京210000;南京农业大学园艺学院,江苏南京210095;南京农业大学园艺学院,江苏南京210095【正文语种】中文【中图分类】S682.32荷花(Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn)是睡莲科莲属多年生大型挺水植物，又名莲或莲花，原产我国。

目前有中国莲种系、中国莲亚种莲种系和中美杂种莲种系3个种系[1]。

腊梅花的根、茎、叶作文英文回答：Roots of the Plum Blossom:The roots of the plum blossom are an essential part of the plant's structure and function. They anchor the plant in the soil and absorb water and nutrients necessary for growth. The roots of the plum blossom are typically fibrous and spread out in a radial pattern from the base of the plant. They have a strong grip on the soil, allowing the plant to withstand strong winds and other external forces. The roots also play a role in storing carbohydrates and other essential nutrients, which are used by the plant during periods of dormancy or when resources are limited.Stems of the Plum Blossom:The stems of the plum blossom are upright and woody, providing support for the plant's leaves and flowers. Theytransport water and nutrients from the roots to the rest of the plant. The stems also serve as a pathway for the movement of sugars and other organic compounds produced during photosynthesis. In addition to their structural and transport functions, the stems of the plum blossom can also undergo secondary growth, allowing the plant to increase in height and girth over time. This secondary growth is facilitated by the presence of vascular tissues, such as xylem and phloem, which are responsible for the transport of fluids and nutrients within the plant.Leaves of the Plum Blossom:The leaves of the plum blossom are typically ovate or lanceolate in shape and have a smooth texture. They are arranged alternately along the stems and are attached to the branches by petioles. The leaves play a crucial role in the process of photosynthesis, where they capture sunlight and convert it into energy. They contain chlorophyll, which gives them their green color and enables them to absorb light. The leaves also have small openings called stomata, which allow for the exchange of gases, such as oxygen andcarbon dioxide, with the surrounding environment. This exchange is important for the plant's respiration and the regulation of water loss through transpiration.中文回答：腊梅花的根部：腊梅花的根部是植物结构和功能的重要组成部分。

An operational remote sensing algorithm of land surface evaporationKenlo NishidaInstitute of Agricultural and Forest Engineering,University of Tsukuba,Tsukuba,JapanRamakrishna R.Nemani and Steven W.RunningNumerical Terradynamic Simulation Group(NTSG),School of Forestry,University of Montana,Missoula,Montana,USAJoseph M.GlassyLupine Logic,Inc.,Missoula,Montana,USAReceived5January2002;revised17October2002;accepted27January2003;published7May2003.[1]Partitioning of solar energy at the Earth surface has significant implications in climatedynamics,hydrology,and ecology.Consequently,spatial mapping of energy partitioningfrom satellite remote sensing data has been an active research area for over twodecades.We developed an algorithm for estimating evaporation fraction(EF),expressedas a ratio of actual evapotranspiration(ET)to the available energy(sum of ET and sensibleheat flux),from satellite data.The algorithm is a simple two-source model of ET.Wecharacterize a landscape as a mixture of bare soil and vegetation and thus we estimate EFas a mixture of EF of bare soil and EF of vegetation.In the estimation of EF of vegetation,we use the complementary relationship of the actual and the potential ET for theformulation of EF.In that,we use the canopy conductance model for describing vegetationphysiology.On the other hand,we use‘‘VI-T s’’(vegetation index-surface temperature)diagram for estimation of EF of bare soil.As operational production of EF globally is ourgoal,the algorithm is primarily driven by remote sensing data but flexible enough to ingestancillary data when available.We validated EF from this prototype algorithm usingNOAA/AVHRR data with actual observations of EF at AmeriFlux stations(standard errorffi0.17and R2ffi0.71).Global distribution of EF every8days will be operationallyproduced by this algorithm using the data of MODIS on EOS-PM(Aqua)satellite.I NDEX T ERMS:1818Hydrology:Evapotranspiration;3322Meteorology and AtmosphericDynamics:Land/atmosphere interactions;3360Meteorology and Atmospheric Dynamics:Remote sensing;K EYWORDS:MODIS,Aqua,evapotranspirationCitation:Nishida,K.,R.R.Nemani,S.W.Running,and J.M.Glassy,An operational remote sensing algorithm of land surface evaporation,J.Geophys.Res.,108(D9),4270,doi:10.1029/2002JD002062,2003.1.Introduction[2]Accurate characterization of evapotranspiration(ET, or latent heat flux;in this paper,in W mÀ2)is essential for understanding climate dynamics and the terrestrial ecosys-tem productivity[Churkina et al.,1999;Nemani et al., 2002]because it is closely related to energy transfer processes.It also has applications in such areas as water resource management and wild fire assessment.[3]As a result of historical efforts,accurate estimation of ET is becoming available via a number of methods using surface meteorological and sounding observations.How-ever,the ground observation networks cover only a small portion of global land surface.Therefore many attempts have been made to minimize the use of ground observations for estimating spatial distribution of ET at regional to global scales.Satellite remote sensing is a promising tool for this purpose.Nevertheless,most of the existing techniques of ET estimation from satellite remote sensing are not satis-factory,because they still depend on ground observations. Therefore consistent estimation of up-to-date global ET distribution with satellite remote sensing independent of ground observations remains a challenging task.One pos-sible approach is the utilization of the reanalysis data from global circulation model(GCM)as a surrogate for ground observations,but it is still problematic because the accuracy of the reanalysis also depends on the ground observation network.In addition,the grid scale of the reanalysis data is usually too coarse to be combined with finer scale satellite observations.[4]One popular approach for estimation of ET from a satellite is using a combination of vegetation index(VI)and the surface radiant temperature(T s).We call this approach the VI-T s method.Nemani and Running[1989]showed the utility of a scatterplot of VI and T s of a group of pixels inside a fixed square region(we call it‘‘window’’)in a satellite image.Figure1is an illustration of VI-T s scatterJOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH,VOL.108,NO.D9,4270,doi:10.1029/2002JD002062,2003Copyright2003by the American Geophysical Union.0148-0227/03/2002JD002062$09.00ACL5-1diagram.In general,a VI-T s diagram shows a linear or triangular distribution with a negative correlation between VI and T s.Changes in the slope of VI-T s scatterplot(s) during a growing season have been found to track modeled surface conductance in a semiarid ecosystem[Nemani and Running,1989].Generally speaking,s assumes a negative value because dense vegetation(with high VI)has lower T s. As the surface becomes drier,sparse vegetation and bare soil become warmer relative to vegetation resulting in larger negative values of s.[5]Since then,studies on VI-T s methods made rapid progress.Carlson et al.[1995]and Gillies et al.[1997] established an inversion technique of their SV AT model to estimate available soil moisture(M0)from VI-T s triangle (named as the‘‘Triangle Method’’)distributions without meteorological data.Moran et al.[1994]developed an algorithm to estimate‘‘water deficit index(WDI)’’through a simple geometric consideration on the VI-T s diagram (which they call vegetation index-temperature trapezoid, VITT)with a theoretical basis of crop water stress index (CWSI)proposed by Jackson et al.[1981].Jiang and Islam [2001]developed another VI-T s method by linear decom-position of the triangular distribution of VI-T s diagram and estimated the‘‘a’’parameter of the Priestley-Taylor’s equa-tion.This method has clear advantages of simplicity and consistency.It does not require any surface meteorology data.[6]However,there are several difficulties to the above VI-T s methods.First,some of them still need surface meteorological data.Second,inversion of numerical model may require large amount of computational resources when applied at global scales.Third,on a dense vegetation,T s is close to the air temperature(T a)because of small aerody-namic resistance of the vegetation canopy,making it diffi-cult to estimate ET from a gradient of temperature.Fourth,some concepts are based on a single-source big-leaf model, which may be difficult to apply to complex landscapes with mixed land covers.[7]In this study,we propose a new version of VI-T s method for global ET estimation using moderate-resolution ($1km)optical remote sensing data such as Aqua/MODIS sensor.Taking the above problems into account,we estab-lished five policies for the development of the proposed algorithm.[8](1)‘‘Stand alone.’’It can operate without surface meteorological data(e.g.,wind speed,vapor pressure deficit (VPD),air temperature,boundary layer stability).In gen-eral,the VPD and the wind speed(or the aerodynamic resistance)are difficult to be estimated from remote sensing, yet critical for ET estimation.Therefore we tried to mini-mize the influence of these two meteorological elements in our algorithm.[9](2)‘‘Flexibility.’’If meteorological data are available, the algorithm should be flexible enough to incorporate them.It should also incorporate other ancillary data such as albedo,emissivity,and roughness when they are avail-able.Therefore we must describe these variables explicitly in the algorithm.[10](3)‘‘Simplicity.’’It is simply constructed in order to save computational resources.[11](4)‘‘Scalability.’’It provides information not only about instantaneous but also about daily ET.This is because daily ET is more interesting for many users than instanta-neous one.Moreover,because the NASA EOS project operates the two MODIS sensors onboard the EOS-AM (Terra)satellite and the EOS-PM(Aqua)satellite[Running et al.,1994]and they observe each land surface twice a day (morning and afternoon),the algorithm should consistently process these multiple data sources if required.Figure1.The VI-T s diagram and the concept of estimation of T soil max,T veg,and T soil for equation(27). ACL5-2NISHIDA ET AL.:OPERATIONAL REMOTE SENSING[12](5)‘‘Versatility.’’It should operate regardless of the type of vegetation,land cover,season,and climate.2.Algorithm2.1.Evaporation Fraction(EF)[13]We introduce‘‘evaporation fraction(EF)’’as an index for ET after Shuttleworth et al.[1989]:ET ET=Q;ð1Þwhere Q is the available energy(W mÀ2)which can be transferred directly into atmosphere as either sensible heat flux(H;in W mÀ2)or latent heat flux.In other words,Q HþET:ð2ÞBecause of energy conservation,we can also describe Q as the difference between the net radiation(R n)and the ground heat transfer(G):Q¼R nÀG:ð3ÞEF is directly related to the Bowen Ratio(=H/ET)by EF= 1/(1+BR).However,we do not use BR because(1)BR is a nonlinear parameter for ET and(2)BR does not have upper limit(if ET approaches zero,BR goes to infinity). [14]Our goal is estimation of EF rather than ET.This is due to three reasons:(1)EF is a suitable index for surface moisture condition,(2)EF is useful for temporal scaling, and(3)accurate estimation of Q is difficult.We explain each one of them hereafter.[15]First,EF is more suitable index for surface moisture condition than ET.ET cannot be easily interpreted as an index for the soil moisture or drought status because it is a function not only of the surface moisture but some of the environmental factors such as the incoming radiation(or the available energy Q).On the contrary,EF is more directly related to the land surface conditions because of Q,the denominator of EF.Although in some exceptional cases ET may exceed Q(especially when a dry warm air mass flows onto a wet surface),Q is the possible upper limit of ET in most cases.Therefore dividing ET by Q results in a simple and rational way to represent the surface moisture condition or drought.[16]Second,EF is useful for scaling instantaneous obser-vations to longer time periods.Satellites(except the geo-stationary satellites)observe each land surface only a few times in a day.ET,however,generally shows large diurnal changes responding to the Sun angle and cloud coverage. Therefore even if we can estimate ET at the moment of satellite overpass,it cannot be directly related to the daily or daytime total ET.On the contrary,EF is nearly constant during most daytime in many cases[Shuttleworth et al., 1989;Sugita and Brutsaert,1991;Crago,1996].Therefore if we can estimate the daily or daytime average Q,we can estimate the daily or daytime average ET by using instanta-neous EF derived by a satellite.[17]Finally,accurate estimation of Q requires input data which are not easily available via optical remote sensing,such as atmospheric water vapor content and aerosol.Although we estimate Q during the process of estimating EF,we eventually normalize it in order to reduce errors because we cannot trust the accuracy of a simple radiative transfer algorithm of Q for a reliable estimation of ET.[18]With reference to the first reason,we should further discuss‘‘potential evaporation(PET).’’PET is the maxi-mum possible ET under specific climate and surface con-dition.Although many types of PET have been proposed, Penman’s PET(PET PM;equation(4))and Priestley and Taylor’s PET(PET PT;equation(5))[Priestley and Taylor, 1972]are the most widely acceptedET PM¼ÁQþr C Pðe*ÀeÞ=r aÁþgð4ÞandET PT¼aÁþgQ;ð5ÞwhereÁis derivative of the saturated vapor pressure in terms of temperature(Pa KÀ1),g is the psychrometric constant(Pa KÀ1),r is the air density(kg mÀ3),C P is the specific heat of air under constant pressure(J kgÀ1KÀ1),e* is the saturated vapor pressure(Pa)at the air temperature,e is the vapor pressure in the atmosphere(Pa),and r a is the aerodynamic resistance(s mÀ1).The VPD is e*Àe.The a in equation(5)is called‘‘Priestley-Taylor’s parameter.’’Although still controversial[e.g.,De Bruin,1983],1.26is generally accepted as the value of a.[19]Because PET as well as Q set the upper limit of ET, PET can normalize ET and yield relative magnitude of ET. In fact,many studies use ET/PET instead of EF because PET represents a more realistic upper limit of ET than Q. For example,Granger and Gray[1989]used ET/PET PM to see direct relationship between ET and VPD.Choudhury et al.[1994]used ET/PET PT to see a relationship between vegetation index and ET.Jiang and Islam[2001]also used PET PT as a normalization factor for ET.However,some-times it is difficult to estimate PET as it requires meteoro-logical information such as temperature,VPD,and wind speed.Therefore even if we get accurate value of ET/PET,it is difficult to convert it to the actual ET without such information.This is the main reason why we do not use ET/PET.The well-known diurnal stability of EF,which we mentioned previously,is another reason to use EF.The relation between EF and ET/PET is discussed in Appendix A as it played key role in the theoretical development of the algorithm.2.2.Linear Two-Source Model of EF[20]In our algorithm,we simplify a landscape as a mixture of two elements,namely,vegetation and bare soil. The proportion of vegetation is the fractional vegetation cover,namely,f veg which takes a value between0and1. Assuming a negligible coupled energy transfer between vegetation and bare soil,we describe ET from a pixel as a linear combination of ET from vegetation and ET from bare soil:ET¼f veg ET vegþ1Àf vegÀÁET soil:ð6ÞNISHIDA ET AL.:OPERATIONAL REMOTE SENSING ACL5-3The subscripts‘‘veg’’and‘‘soil’’denote vegetation and bare soil,respectively.This linear model is invalid when ET varies significantly within each component.Such situation happens in a fragmented landscape with a markedly different surface temperature,moisture,and roughness between the two components[e.g.,Oke,1987]. Additionally,we can describe each of ET veg and ET soil by using EF:ET veg¼Q veg EF vegð7ÞandET soil¼Q soil EF soil:ð8ÞThe difference between Q veg and Q soil comes from differences in thermal emission,solar reflectance,and ground heat flux between bare soil and vegetation.By dividing equation(6)with the available energy over the entire modeled landscape[Q=f veg Q veg+(1Àf veg)Q soil] and using equations(7)and(8),we describe EF on the entire landscape(EF)as:EF¼ETQ¼f vegQ vegQEF vegþ1Àf vegÀÁQ soilQEF soil:ð9Þ3.Estimation of Core Variables[21]In equation(9),the most important variables(Core Variables)are f veg,EF veg,and EF soil.In this section,we describe how to estimate these core variables.Most of the formulations of the core variables are not likely to change even if we get other ancillary data.However,in the estimation of the core variables,we need other variables such as air temperature,wind speed,incoming radiation etc. We call them as‘‘basic variables’’and they may be provided by other reliable data sources.We describe how we estimate the basic variables in section4.3.1.Fractional Vegetation Cover(f veg)[22]The fractional vegetation cover(f veg)is estimated from the spectral vegetation index.Although there are many types of vegetation indices,we can use normalized differ-ence vegetation index(NDVI)as an example.NDVI is defined as a ratio of red(R red)and near-infrared(R nir) reflectancesNDVI¼R nirÀR redðÞ=R nirþR redðÞ:ð10ÞIf we can assume that NDVI is linearly related to f veg,we can say:f veg¼NDVIÀNDVI minðÞ=NDVI maxÀNDVI minðÞ;ð11Þwhere NDVI max and NDVI min are NDVI of full vegetation (f veg=1)and bare soil(f veg=1).The assumption of linearity of NDVI in terms of f veg is not valid when the sum of two channels of reflectance(R nir+R red)is significantly different between vegetation and bare soil.We can minimize such influence by using advanced VIs such as SA VI[Huete,1988]or EVI[Huete et al.,1999]if some additional information is available.3.2.Estimation of the EF of Vegetation(EF veg) [23]Because of active turbulent diffusion,dense vegeta-tion(especially forest)shows little difference between T a and T s regardless of the magnitude of ET.It makes estima-tion of ET difficult over dense vegetation using a temper-ature gradient(T s-T a)or some of the existing VI-T s methods. The isolines of ET or soil moisture in such VI-T s methods converge into one point at dense vegetation under the temperature gradient logic.In other words,from the stand-point of using temperature gradient,dense vegetation becomes a mathematically singular point.Jiang and Islam [2001]avoided this problem by assigning the maximum value of‘‘a’’parameter[i.e.,(Á+g)/Á]to the dense vegetation canopy assuming that the entire available energy is dissipated as ET over the dense vegetation.However,they are not always true because even a dense vegetation canopy responds to environmental conditions and does not always transpire at the potential rates.Therefore we have to con-sider physiology of the vegetation.For this reason,we introduce the surface resistance of the canopy in the formulation of EF veg as follows.[24]Let us consider ET veg by using Penman-Monteith equation(12):ET veg¼ÁQþr C Pðe*ÀeÞ=r aÁþg1þr c=r aðÞ;ð12Þwhere r c is surface resistance of the vegetation canopy(s mÀ1).In this equation,the most difficult parameters to be obtained by a satellite are VPD(that is e*Àe)in the numerator and the wind speed,which controls r a in both numerator and denominator.Therefore we want to minimize the influence of these two factors by modifying this equation.Dividing equation(12)by equation(4),we can remove the VPD term in the numerator to obtain:ET vegPM veg¼Áþgc a;ð13Þwhere PET PM veg is Penman’s PET(equation(4))on vegetation(W mÀ2).Assuming the complementary rela-tionship formulated by the Brutsaert and Stricker’s[1979] advection aridity(Appendix A),we can convert ET veg/ PET PM veg to EF veg by solving equation(A5)and equation (13)and then get:EF veg¼aÁÁþg1þr c=2r aðÞ:ð14ÞNote that equation(14)becomes equivalent to Priestley-Taylor’s PET(equation(5))if r c is zero.Although there is still an influence of VPD and wind speed in equation(14) because r c depends on VPD and r a depends on wind speed, the influence is less direct than equation(12).We use equation(14)to estimate EF veg from satellite data. [25]In this equation,Áand g are available from the air temperature T a(although g depends on atmospheric pres-ACL5-4NISHIDA ET AL.:OPERATIONAL REMOTE SENSINGsure as well,the effect is usually small).We describe how to estimate T a in section 4.1.[26]We also need r a and r c to solve equation (14).In order to estimate r a ,we use the following empirical for-mulae [Kondo ,2000,143pp.;Kondo ,1994,137pp.]:1=r a ¼0:008U 50mforforest canopy ;ð15Þ1=r a ¼0:003U 1m for grassland and croplands ;ð16Þwhere U 50m and U 1m are wind speeds at 50and 1.0m heights,respectively (m s À1).We estimate U 50m by using VI-T s diagram,as described in section 4.3.We estimate U 1m from U 50m by using the logarithm profile of wind:U ¼u *ln z Àd ðÞ=z 0½ =k ;ð17Þwhere u *is the shear velocity (m s À1),z is the height (m),d is the surface displacement (m),z 0is the roughness length (we assumed z 0=0.005m for bare surface and 0.01m for grassland after Kondo [2000]),and k is the von Karman’s constant and we assume 0.4as its value.Equation (17)is valid only under near-neutral condition.However,we can easily modify it if stability parameter (such as z /L ;L is the Monin-Obukhov length)is available.[27]For estimation of r c in equation (13),we assume the environmental factors,namely temperature,VPD,photo-synthetic active radiation (PAR),soil water potential,and atmospheric CO 2concentration control stomatal conduc-tance [Jarvis ,1976]in the following form:1=r c ¼f 1T a ðÞf 2PAR ðÞf 3VPD ðÞf 4y ðÞf 5CO 2ðÞ=r c MIN þ1=r cuticle ;ð18Þwhere y is the leaf-water potential (Pa),r c MIN is the minimum resistance (s m À1),and r cuticle is the canopy resistance related to diffusion through cuticle layer of leaves (s m À1).Among the environmental factors in equation (18),only temperature and PAR can be estimated from satellite remote sensing and radiative transfer calcu-lation,whereas VPD and y are hard to estimate from satellite data.However,some studies pointed out that temperature could sometimes be a surrogate for VPD.For example,Tanaka et al.[2000]reported in his field observation of deciduous conifer forest in Siberia that the behavior of the canopy conductance against VPD and temperature is mostly parallel to each other so that either one of them is sufficient to describe r c .Toda et al.[2000]also reported a similar situation in a mixed landscape in Thailand where the distinctive rainy season and dry season exist.However,a severe soil water stress can often lead to a complete degradation of canopy.For example,Hipps et al.[1996]reported a rapid response of arid shrub foliages to soil water depletion in the Great Basin ecosystem.In such cases,change of f veg (or vegetation index)and EF soil should account for the drought.Therefore we decided to drop the terms of VPD,y ,and CO 2(f 2,f 4,and f 5)from equation (17)in the actual implementation although in some cases such simplifications may inevitably introduce large errors.However,if estimates of VPD become available from other data sources,we can easily incorporate them in equation (18).[28]We adopted the following equations [Jarvis ,1976;Kosugi ,1996]to estimate each of the components in equation (18):f 1T a ðÞ¼T a ÀT n T o ÀT nT x ÀT a T x ÀT oT x ÀT o ðÞ=T o ÀT n ðÞ½;ð19Þf 2PAR ðÞ¼PAR;ð20Þwhere T n ,T o ,T x are minimum,optimal,and maximum temperatures for stomatal activity,respectively.The para-meter concerning photon absorption efficiency at low light intensity is A .These four parameters as well as r c MIN determine the characteristics of the stomata behavior.Although they can change depending on species,structure of canopy,and adaptation to regional environment etc.,we chose a set of representative values for all biomes for simplicity.We took the values of r c MIN of Kelliher et al.[1995].They showed that the maximum canopy conductance (reciprocal of r c MIN )of dense vegetation is approximately 2.7times of maximum leaf conductance.They further concluded that the maximum canopy conductance is approximately 0.020m s À1(as a resistance,50s m À1)for natural vegetation and 0.033m s À1(as a resistance,33s m À1)for agricultural crops.For r cuticle ,we adopted the value used in Biome-BGC model [White et al.,2000].For T n ,T o ,T x ,and A ,we adopted an experimental result of Kosugi [1996].She determined these parameters for leaves of three tree species (Quercus glauca ,Cinnamomum camphora ,and Pasania edulis )without parameterization of VPD and y (f 2and f 4).We took the average of each parameter in her experiment.Table 1shows the settings of these parameters.Figure 2shows dependency of EF veg on temperature,wind speed,and vegetation types.3.3.Estimation of EF at Bare Soil (EF soil )[29]In order to estimate EF soil ,we consider energy budget of a bare soil.First,we express the net radiation with radiation components as follows:R n ¼1Àref ðÞR d þL d Àes T 4s ;ð21Þwhere ref is the albedo,R d is the downward short-wave radiation (W m À2),L d is the downward long-wave (thermal infrared)radiation (W m À2),e is the emissivity,and s is theTable 1.Parameters for the Canopy Conductance ModeAbbreviation DefinitionParameter R c MIN Minimum resistance (natural)50s m À1R c MIN Minimum resistance (crop)33s m À1R cuticle Cuticle resistance 100,000s m À1T n ,Minimum temperature 2.7°C T o ,Optimal temperature 31.1°C T x Maximum temperature 45.3°CA(Related to light use efficiency)152m mol m À2s À1NISHIDA ET AL.:OPERATIONAL REMOTE SENSINGACL 5-5Stefan-Boltzmann constant (W m À2K À4).If we apply equation (21)to bare soil and expand the last term ofequation (21)in terms of T soil ÀT a ,we get es T soil4%e soil s T a 4+4e soil s T a 3(T soil ÀT a ).Then we can modify equation (21)to separate the effect of surface temperature and get:R n %R n 0À4es T 3a T soil ÀT a ðÞ;ð22Þwhere R n 0[=(1Àref)R d +L d Àes T a 4]is the net radiation if T soil is equal to T a .[30]Meanwhile,we can express the ground heat flux on a bare soil as:G ¼C G R n ;ð23Þwhere C G is an empirical coefficient ranging from 0.3for wet soil to 0.5for dry soil [Idso et al.,1975].Then we can rewrite the energy budget (equation (3))over bare soil:Q soil ¼R n ÀG ¼1ÀC G ðÞR n %1ÀC G ðÞR n 0À4es T 3a T soil ÀT a ðÞÂüH þET ¼r C P T soil ÀT a ðÞ=r a soil þET :ð24ÞFrom equation (24),we can then describe the surface temperature of bare soil as:T soil ¼Q soil 0ÀET4es T 3a 1ÀC G ðÞþr C P =r a soilþT a ;ð25Þwhere Q soil 0[=(1ÀC G )R n 0]is the available energy (Wm À2)when T soil is equal to T a .This equation means the surface temperature of bare soil is linearly related to ET as long as other variables are invariant.T soil becomes the highest (T soil max )if ET is zero:T soil max ¼Q soil 04es T a 1ÀC G ðÞþr C P =r a soilþT a :ð26ÞBy combination of equations (25)and (26),we get:T soil max ÀT soil T soil max ÀT a ¼ET soil Q soil 0¼Q soilQ soil 0EF soil :ð27ÞIn order to use equation (27)as a means to estimateEF soil ,we need to know the maximum possible temperature (T soil max )and the actual temperature (T soil )of bare soil as well as the air temperature (T a ).We evaluate them by using the VI-T s diagram.[31]If we can assume that a window for the VI-T s diagram contains dry land surface,we can estimate the maximum possible temperature at bare soil (T soil max )by looking at the left upper corner of the VI-T s diagram (Figure 1).We can extrapolate the upper edge of the diagram to the minimum VI to estimate T soil max .We call this upper edge the ‘‘warm edge’’after Carlson et al.[1995].This approach assumes that T s can be described as a linear combination of surface temperature of vegetation cover and bare soil as:T s ¼f veg T veg þ1Àf veg ÀÁT soil :ð28ÞThis is not true because the intensity of infrared radiationfrom the land surface (which is observable by satellite)depends on surface temperature in a nonlinear manner.However,as long as the difference between T veg and T soil is small in comparison to the absolute value of T s (in K),equation (28)is approximately valid.[32]Equation (27)may seem to be applicable to not only bare soil but also to any type of land surface,and in fact,Moran et al.[1994]took this approach in their VI-T s algorithm (called ‘‘VITT’’).However,we apply it to bare soil alone.This is because equation (27)assumes homoge-neity of T s and sensible heat transfer (H )inside a pixel.In other words,equation (27)is a single-source model.If the landscape is a mixture of vegetation and bare soil,we cannot define a representative temperature for a single source of sensible heat to derive equation (24).Additionally,if we apply equation (27)to a full vegetation canopy (replacing T soil with T veg ),we can hardly estimate EF veg because,as mentioned in section 3.2,the gradient of temperature over vegetation (especially forests)due to ET is much smaller in comparison to bare soil.[33]It is important to note that equation (27)is only approximately valid because albedo (in Q soil 0),emissivityFigure 2.Dependency of EF veg on air temperature,windspeed,and vegetation type.In these graphs,PAR was set to 1000m mol m À2s À1.Broken lines are EF of Priestley-Taylor’s PET,which is a limit of EF veg with the canopy conductance close to zero or wind speed close to zero.ACL 5-6NISHIDA ET AL.:OPERATIONAL REMOTE SENSING。

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Endodermis：The innermost layer of the cortex that forms a sheath around the vascular tissue of roots and some stems.内皮层：皮层的最内层，在根、茎的导管组织周围形成一道叶鞘（茎衣）。

Exodermis：【植】外皮层, 下皮；各种兰类的木栓质表皮的下层细胞。

Suberin：A waxy waterproof substance present in the cell walls of cork tissue in plants.软木脂：植物木栓层中细胞之间细胞壁中的一种蜡状水密物质。

Casparian strip：[植]凯氏带。

In plant anatomy, the Casparian strip is a band of cell wall material deposited on the radial and transverse walls of the endodermis, which is chemically different from the rest of the cell wall. It is used to block the passive flow of materials, such as water and solutes into the stele of a plant. The band was first recognized as a wall structure by Robert Caspary (1818–1887)./imgres?q=casparian+band&hl=zh-CN&newwindow=1&safe=strict&sa =X&tbm=isch&prmd=ivns&tbnid=ECxlCW_eZjx9xM:&imgrefurl=/con tent/51/344/547.full&docid=fPYNIvnNGP6R5M&w=129&h=200&ei=E_RiTtOVFKqriAfB8NiVCg&z oom=1&iact=hc&dur=424&page=1&tbnh=137&tbnw=88&start=0&ndsp=31&ved=1t:429,r:21,s:0 &tx=81&ty=75&vpx=1125&vpy=108&hovh=143&hovw=92&biw=1440&bih=721/2010/07/expert-eye-carbohydrates-and-amino-acid-products/ Endodermis and Exodermis in Roots/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0002086.htmlRoots of terrestrial plants are designed to take up water and nutrients. At the same time, uptake of unwanted compounds, for example toxic, and infection by soil borne pathogens must be avoided. Specific unicellular tissues, the endodermis and the exodermis, allow roots to establish and maintain this selectivity. The endodermis represents an unicellular cell layer separating the central cylinder of the root from the cortex. The exodermis represents an unicellular cell layer located at the outer surface of the root directly below the root epidermis. Both tissues are characterised by specific cell wall modifications. In early developmental stages the anticlinal radial walls exhibit Casparian bands, composed of the polymers suberin and lignin. In a subsequent developmental state a suberin lamella is deposited on the inner surface of endo- and exodermal cell walls. These apoplastic barriers, mainly composed of suberin, significantly affect radial uptake of water and dissolved nutrients and radial loss of oxygen.Key Concepts:∙Casparian bands, composed of lignin and suberin, form characteristic cell wall modifications in radial walls of endodermal and exodermal cells.∙Suberin lamellae are deposited onto the inner surface of endodermal and exodermal cell walls.∙Apoplastic barriers in roots are established by the deposition of suberin into and onto the cell wall.∙Suberised apoplastic barriers in roots help to establish root selectivity in nutrient uptake.∙The endodermis, forming an ‘inner’ apoplastic barrier in the root, is important in preventing nutrients actively concentrated in the xylem from passively diffusing back to the soil.∙The exo dermis, forming an ‘outer’ apoplastic barrier at the root surface, mainly establishes the root/soil interface between the root and the soil environment surrounding the root.∙As an adaptation to various environmental stress factors (e.g. drought, salt, heavy metal stress, oxygen deficiency, etc.) suberisation of apoplastic barriers is significantly modified.Fatty acid elongases and cytochrome P450 hydroxylases represent important key enzymes in suberin biosynthesis.Keywords: apoplastic barrier; Casparian band; endodermis; exodermis; hypodermis; nutrient uptake; plant root; suberin; transport。

励磁器excitor 电压voltage 电流current升压变压器step-up transformer 母线bus 变压器transformer空载损耗：no-load loss 铁损：iron loss 铜损：copper loss空载电流：no-load current 无功损耗：reactive loss 有功损耗：active loss 输电系统power transmission system高压侧high side 输电线transmission line高压: high voltage 低压：low voltage 中压：middle voltage功角稳定angle stability 稳定stability 电压稳定voltage stability暂态稳定transient stability 电厂power plant 能量输送power transfer交流AC 直流DC 电网power system落点drop point 开关站switch station 调节regulation高抗high voltage shunt reactor 并列的：apposable 裕度margin故障fault 三相故障three phase fault 分接头：tap切机generator triping 高顶值high limited value 静态static (state)动态dynamic (state) 机端电压控制***R 电抗reactance电阻resistance 功角power angle 有功（功率）active power电容器：Capacitor 电抗器：Reactor 断路器：Breaker电动机：motor 功率因数：power-factor 定子：stator阻抗电压：阻抗：impedance 功角：power-angle 电压等级：voltage grade有功负载: active load/PLoad 无功负载：reactive load 档位：tap position电阻：resistor 电抗：reactance 电导：conductance电纳：susceptance 上限:upper limit 下限：lower limit正序阻抗：positive sequence impedance 负序阻抗：negative sequence impedance零序阻抗：zero sequence impedance无功（功率）reactive power 功率因数power factor 无功电流reactive current斜率slope 额定rating 变比ratio参考值reference value 电压互感器PT 分接头tap仿真分析simulation analysis 下降率droop rate 传递函数transfer function框图block diagram 受端receive-side 同步synchronization保护断路器circuit breaker 摇摆swing 阻尼damping无刷直流电机：Brusless DC motor 刀闸(隔离开关)：Isolator 机端generator terminal变电站transformer substation永磁同步电机：Permanent-magnet Synchronism Motor异步电机：Asynchronous Motor三绕组变压器：three-column transformer ThrClnTrans双绕组变压器：double-column transformer DblClmnTrans固定串联电容补偿fixed series capacitor compensation双回同杆并架double-circuit lines on the same tower单机无穷大系统one machine - infinity bus system励磁电流：magnetizing current 补偿度degree of compensation Electromagnetic fields 电磁场失去同步loss of synchronization装机容量installed capacity 无功补偿reactive power compensation故障切除时间fault clearing time 极限切除时间critical clearing time强行励磁reinforced excitation 并联电容器：shunt capacitor< 下降特性droop characteristics 线路补偿器LDC(line drop compensation) 电机学Electrical Machinery 自动控制理论Automatic Control Theory电磁场Electromagnetic Field微机原理Principle of Microcomputer电工学Electrotechnics Principle of circuits 电路原理Electrical Machinery 电机学电力系统稳态分析Steady-State Analysis of Power System电力系统暂态分析Transient-State Analysis of Power System电力系统继电保护原理Principle of Electrical System's Relay Protection 电力系统元件保护原理Protection Principle of Power System 's Element 电力系统内部过电压Past V oltage within Power system模拟电子技术基础Basis of Analogue Electronic Technique数字电子技术Digital Electrical Technique电路原理实验Lab. of principle of circuits电气工程讲座Lectures on electrical power production电力电子基础Basic fundamentals of power electronics高电压工程High voltage engineering电子专题实践Topics on experimental project of electronics电气工程概论Introduction to electrical engineering电子电机集成系统electronic machine system电力传动与控制Electrical Drive and Control火电厂英语专业词汇acid cleaning 酸洗interstage leakage 级间漏汽coal bunker 原煤斗intervetion/disturbing/bump 扰动excess air 过量空气inverter 转换开关induced draft fan 引风机isolate 相互隔离steam drum 汽包item 物品、元件sub-distribution transformer 低压厂用变journal bearing 支持轴承6kv station board 6KV公用配电屏kilo-volt 千伏6kv unit board 6KV配电屏low pressure cylinder/casing(LP) 低压缸A: ampere 安培large scale integrate circuit 大规模集成电路actuator 执行机构LED 发光二极管adapter 转接器、接头、light/ignite 点火air circuit breaker 空气断路器linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) 线性差动变压器air dry 分析基linearization 线性化air preheater 空气预热器liquid 液态air-insulated 空气绝缘的live steam 主蒸汽algorithms 算法load tap-changing 有载调压的alignment 平直度log 记录、日志alteration 改造longitudinal 纵向的alternating current 交流电lug 吊耳ammonia 氨major pant item 主要辅机amplitude 幅度making current 关合电流analogue 模拟量malfunction 误动作Analogue to Digital conversion 模数转换mechanism 操作机构annex 附属部分medium 媒介、介质annular 环状的membrane panel/wall 膜式壁annunciator 报警器microgovernor 微型调速器anthracite 无烟煤mill 铁素体apex 顶点millivolt 毫伏archive buffer 文件缓冲器Mimic 模拟图armature 电枢MMC: motor control center 电动机控制中心as received 应用基Modulation 调节、调制ash 灰分modulation-demodulation 调制解调ASM 模拟子模块moisture 水分Attemperator 减温器monitor mode 监控方式Automatic Boiler Controls 锅炉自动控制monitor/monitor unit 监控器automatic control system 自动控制系统monitoring 监测autonomous 独立存在的monoxide 一氧化碳auxiliary 辅助的motor starter 电动机启动装置axial 轴向的motor-operated 电动操纵的back-up 备用moving blades/ blading 动叶片bar 条形multifork root 叉型叶根bargraph 条形图Multi Function Process(MFP) 多功能处理器batch 成组的、成批的MV A: mega volt-ampere 兆伏安baud rate 波特率natural gas 天然气bay 隔间natural/thermal circulation 自然循环bearing house 轴承座network 电网bearing pad 轴瓦neutral point 中性点binary 二进制的nitrogen 氮binary cell 二进制单元node 节点binary counter 二进制计数器notch V形凹槽bit 比特、位ohm 欧姆bituminous 烟煤oil 石油blank 毛胚oiled-cable 油浸式电缆blow 熔断open loop 开环blow/purge 吹扫open-cycle 开环blowdown pipe 排污管operation 运行/操作boil 沸腾operation condition 运行工况boiler/steam generator 锅炉optimum control 最优控制Boil out 煮炉order polynomial 多项式breaking current 开断电流orientation 定位brown coal/lignite 褐煤outage 停运bubble 汽泡outdoor 户外的burner 燃烧器outer casing 外缸bus interface module(BIM) 总线接口模块overhaul 大修busbar/bus 母线overhead 架空的cable 电缆overhead transmission line 架空输电线calibration 检验overview 全貌、总的看法capacitance 电容oxidized condition/atmosphere 氧化气氛capacitive current 电容电流oxygen 氧capacitor 电容器palm terminal 星型capacity 容量panel 配电盘、屏、板carbon 碳parallel interface 并行接口cast resin transformer 树脂浇注变压器pedestal 轴承座casting 锻造pedestal 轴承座centerline 中心线peer 同类的central control room (CCR) 集控室permanent 长久的channel 通道、信道permanent magnet 永久磁铁character 符号字符permeability 磁导率charger 充电器PF burner/pulverized fuel burner 煤粉燃烧器chronological 按时间顺序的phase change 相变circuit breaker 断路器photo-electric 光电circular 圆形的pick-ups 采样器circumferential 周围的pilot exciter 副励磁机clearance 间隙pipe 管道closed loop 闭环plane 平面coal 煤plant-loop 厂环coal feeder 给煤机pneumatic pilot valve 启动控制阀coil 线圈power plant 电厂cold junction compensation 冷端补偿power station （水）电站collar 轴环power supplies 电源Commission 试运行pressure 压力commissioning operation 试运行pressure firing 正压燃烧common service system 公用系统pressure meter 压力表compatibility 兼容性、相容性probe 探针compatible 能共存的、兼容的Process Control Unit (PCU) 过程处理单元complete functional set 全功能组件programmable logic controller(PLC) 可编程逻辑控制器concentricity 中心度、同心度programmable read only memory(PROM) 可编程只读存储器condensate 凝结prolong outage 长期停机conductance 导纳protection and trip 保护和跳闸conductibility 电导率provision 备用conductor 导体proximate analysis 工业分析cone 锥体PT: potential /voltage transformer 电压互感器configure 组态pulverizer/mill 磨煤机conical 圆锥形的push button 按钮connected in star 星型连接push contact 按钮触点consumption 消耗pushbutton 按钮control accuracy 控制精度pyramid 锥体control action 控制作用quality 质量control and instrumentation(C&I) 控制仪表系统quench 灭弧control button(knob) 控制按钮radial 半径的、辐射状的control console(desk) 控制台Rotor 转子controller 控制器reactance 电抗convection pass 对流烟道reaction turbine 反动式汽轮机converter 变送器rear end 后端、末端cooling fin 散热片rectify 整流coordination control system(CCS) 协调控制系统reducing condition/atmosphere 还原气氛core 铁芯redundancy 冗余的coupling 联轴器redundancy bit 冗余位crack/cracking 裂纹redundancy testing 冗余测试creep 蠕变reheater 再热器critical pressure 临界压力reliability 可靠性CT :current transformer 电流互感器reserve 备用cubical 机柜resistance 电阻cylinder 汽缸resolution 分辨率cylindrical 圆柱形的reverse video 反相显示D.C. resistance 直流电阻roll 毛胚deaerator（D.A）除氧器roof tube 顶棚管decimal 十进制的root 叶根demineralized water 除盐水rotor 转子density 密度RTD 热电阻diaphragm 隔板stator 定子dielectric 不导电的、绝缘的saturated water 饱和水digit display 数字显示scheme: system 系统digit signal 数字信号screw 螺钉dimension 尺寸search coil 控制线圈diode 二极管semiconductor 半导体directed forced-oil and forced-air cooled(ODAF) serial access 串行存取disconnecter 隔离开关serial interface 串（行接）口discrete 不连续的serpentine tube 蛇形管distribute control system(DCS) 分散控制系统shadow 跟随distribution 配电shaft 轴diverter 分压器shroud/shrouding 围带division wall 分隔墙shunt 使分流double shell structure 双层缸结构shut down 停机double-flow 双向流动side wall 侧墙dowel 销钉signal conditioning 信号调节drain pipe 疏水管silicon 硅Drain 疏水single-flow 单向流动dry 干燥基slave module 子模块dry and ash free 可燃基Slipping 滑环dry -core cable 干式电缆Solenoid 电磁dual 双重的solid 固态duct 风道sootblower 吹灰器dump 转存sophisticated 高级的、先进的duodecimal 十二进制square root 平方根duplicate 复制的、备用的stabilization 稳定性duration 持续时间start up 启动dynamic stability 动稳定start up/standby transformer 启/备变eccentricity 偏心度state-of the-art 有目前发展水平的economizer 省煤器stationary blades/ blading 静叶片ECR:economic continuous rating 额定负荷stator frame 定子机座eddy current proximity detector 电涡流式检测器steady-state 稳态EHV :extra-high voltage 超高压steam air header 蒸汽热风器electric pressure converter 电压转换器steam/water vapor 水蒸气electrical equipment/apparatus 电气设备steam-water -mixture 汽水混合物electro-hydraulic 电动液压的stop/emergency valve 截止阀emergency 紧急的stress 应力energy 能量stud/stub 管接头engineering unit 工程单位sub system 子系统error checking and recovery 错误检验和恢复subbituminous 次烟煤error detector 错误指示器subcooled water 过冷水error rate 误差率substation 变电站evaluate 求出的数量suction firing 负压燃烧evaporate 蒸发suite 一组exception report 例外报告sulfur/sulphur 硫excite 励磁sulphur hexa fluoride 六氟化硫exciter 励磁机superconductor 超导体expansion 膨胀superheater 过热器expansion tank 油枕supervise 监督管理extinction 熄灭、灭火surge 浪涌facia/fascia 仪器仪表板surge diverter 避雷器facility 设备、工具switch block 开关组fatigue 疲劳、软化switch cabinet 开关柜feed back 反馈switcher 开关feeder speed 给煤机转速信号Switchgear 开关柜finish 光洁度symmetry 对称度fir-tree root 枞树形叶根synchronization 并网fixed carbon 固定碳tap 分接头flow meter 流量计tapping winding 分接头绕组flow rate 流量temperature 温度flue 烟道tenon 榫头flue gas 烟气terminal 终端、端子forced draft fan 鼓风机terminal box 端子箱、出线盒forced/pumped circulation 强迫循环terminal device 终端设备forced-oil and forced-air cooled(OFAF) the action of a magnetic field 磁场作用forging 铣制the bottom half 下半部fossil fuel 化石燃料the control room 控制室frame 机座the dew point temperature 露点free standing 独立的the front pedestal 操作台front/rear wall 前/后墙the horizontal joint 水平接合面fuel /flue 燃料/烟道the operations panel 控制屏furnace 炉膛the top half 上半部furnace tube 水冷壁thermal efficiency 热效率fuse 熔断器thermal power plant 热电厂galvanic isolation 绝缘thermal stress analysis 热应力分析gas air header 烟气热风器thermocouple 热电偶gaseous 气态thermocouple 热电偶gauge glass 水位计thermodynamic instrumentation 热工仪表generator 发电机thrust bearing 推力轴承generator transformer 主变tip 叶顶gland segment/packing 汽封片token 令牌governing valve 铸造tolerance 公差governor 调速器transformer 变压器gravity 重力transmitter 变送器grid 电网transport 传送、运输ground coal /pulverized fuel 粉状燃料transverse 横向的harmonious 协调的trap 阻波器header 联箱trip 切除、切断、脱扣heat 热量/加热tube 管子hexadecimal 十六进制tube bundle 管排hierarchical 分层（级）的tube seat 管座high pressure cylinder/casing(HP) 高压缸tube sheet 管板horizontal 水平的tubular 管形的hydraulic power plant 水电站turbine 汽轮机hydrazine 联氨turbine supervisory instrument(TIS) 汽机监视仪表hydrogen 氢turning gear 盘车装置hydrostatic test 水压实验two-tier terminals 双列端子排igniter 点火器ultimate analysis 元素分析impeller/wheel/disk 叶轮Uniform :the same 相同的impulse turbine 冲动式汽轮机Uninterruptible power supply(UPS) 不断电电源impulse withstand voltage 冲击耐受电压unit transformer 厂用变indoor 户内的utility boiler 公用锅炉inductance 感抗V: volt 伏特inductive 感应的vacuum contactor 真空断路器inductive current 电感电流Vane 导叶industrial boiler 工业锅炉Vertical 垂直的inner casing 内缸Via 经由INNIS 网络接口子模块Vibration 振动instrument 测试仪表visual (inquiry)display terminal 直观显示终端instrument board 仪器盘visual communication 可视通讯instrument correction 仪表校正visual display unit (VDU) 直观显示元件instrument range 仪表量程visual frequency 视频instrument sensitivity 仪表灵敏度visual scanner 视像扫描器instrument terminal 端子、接线柱volatile 挥发分insulator 绝缘子volt free contact 电压自由触点integration 使完整W: watt 瓦特interconnection 相互water 水interface 接口water level 水位interlock 联锁wet-steam 湿蒸汽interlocking contact 联锁触点wind box 风箱interlocking signal 联锁信号winding 绕组interlocking switch system 联锁开关系统workhouse 模块intermediate pressure cylinder/casing(IP) 中压缸Zener diode 齐纳二极管internally 内部的zig-zag rod Z型拉筋interruption 开断acid cleaning 酸洗interstage leakage 级间漏汽coal bunker 原煤斗intervetion/disturbing/bump 扰动excess air 过量空气inverter 转换开关induced draft fan 引风机isolate 相互隔离steam drum 汽包item 物品、元件sub-distribution transformer 低压厂用变journal bearing 支持轴承6kv station board 6KV公用配电屏kilo-volt 千伏6kv unit board 6KV配电屏low pressure cylinder/casing(LP) 低压缸A: ampere 安培large scale integrate circuit 大规模集成电路actuator 执行机构LED 发光二极管adapter 转接器、接头、light/ignite 点火air circuit breaker 空气断路器linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) 线性差动变压器air dry 分析基linearization 线性化air preheater 空气预热器liquid 液态air-insulated 空气绝缘的live steam 主蒸汽algorithms 算法load tap-changing 有载调压的alignment 平直度log 记录、日志alteration 改造longitudinal 纵向的alternating current 交流电lug 吊耳ammonia 氨major pant item 主要辅机amplitude 幅度making current 关合电流analogue 模拟量malfunction 误动作Analogue to Digital conversion 模数转换mechanism 操作机构annex 附属部分medium 媒介、介质annular 环状的membrane panel/wall 膜式壁annunciator 报警器microgovernor 微型调速器anthracite 无烟煤mill 铁素体apex 顶点millivolt 毫伏archive buffer 文件缓冲器Mimic 模拟图armature 电枢MMC: motor control center 电动机控制中心as received 应用基Modulation 调节、调制ash 灰分modulation-demodulation 调制解调ASM 模拟子模块 moisture 水分Attemperator 减温器monitor mode 监控方式Automatic Boiler Controls 锅炉自动控制monitor/monitor unit 监控器automatic control system 自动控制系统monitoring 监测autonomous 独立存在的monoxide 一氧化碳auxiliary 辅助的motor starter 电动机启动装置axial 轴向的motor-operated 电动操纵的back-up 备用moving blades/ blading 动叶片bar 条形multifork root 叉型叶根bargraph 条形图Multi Function Process(MFP) 多功能处理器batch 成组的、成批的MV A: mega volt-ampere 兆伏安baud rate 波特率natural gas 天然气bay 隔间natural/thermal circulation 自然循环bearing house 轴承座network 电网bearing pad 轴瓦neutral point 中性点binary 二进制的nitrogen 氮binary cell 二进制单元node 节点binary counter 二进制计数器notch V形凹槽bit 比特、位ohm 欧姆bituminous 烟煤oil 石油blank 毛胚oiled-cable 油浸式电缆blow 熔断 open loop 开环blow/purge 吹扫open-cycle 开环blowdown pipe 排污管operation 运行/操作boil 沸腾operation condition 运行工况boiler/steam generator 锅炉optimum control 最优控制Boil out 煮炉order polynomial 多项式breaking current 开断电流orientation 定位brown coal/lignite 褐煤outage 停运bubble 汽泡outdoor 户外的burner 燃烧器outer casing 外缸bus interface module(BIM) 总线接口模块overhaul 大修busbar/bus 母线overhead 架空的cable 电缆overhead transmission line 架空输电线calibration 检验overview 全貌、总的看法capacitance 电容oxidized condition/atmosphere 氧化气氛capacitive current 电容电流oxygen 氧capacitor 电容器palm terminal 星型capacity 容量panel 配电盘、屏、板carbon 碳parallel interface 并行接口cast resin transformer 树脂浇注变压器pedestal 轴承座casting 锻造pedestal 轴承座centerline 中心线peer 同类的central control room (CCR) 集控室permanent 长久的channel 通道、信道permanent magnet 永久磁铁character 符号字符permeability 磁导率charger 充电器PF burner/pulverized fuel burner 煤粉燃烧器chronological 按时间顺序的phase change 相变circuit breaker 断路器photo-electric 光电circular 圆形的pick-ups 采样器circumferential 周围的pilot exciter 副励磁机clearance 间隙pipe 管道closed loop 闭环plane 平面coal 煤plant-loop 厂环coal feeder 给煤机pneumatic pilot valve 启动控制阀coil 线圈power plant 电厂cold junction compensation 冷端补偿power station （水）电站collar 轴环power supplies 电源Commission 试运行pressure 压力commissioning operation 试运行pressure firing 正压燃烧common service system 公用系统pressure meter 压力表compatibility 兼容性、相容性probe 探针compatible 能共存的、兼容的Process Control Unit (PCU) 过程处理单元complete functional set 全功能组件programmable logic controller(PLC) 可编程逻辑控制器concentricity 中心度、同心度programmable read only memory(PROM) 可编程只读存储器condensate 凝结prolong outage 长期停机conductance 导纳protection and trip 保护和跳闸conductibility 电导率provision 备用conductor 导体proximate analysis 工业分析cone 锥体PT: potential /voltage transformer 电压互感器configure 组态pulverizer/mill 磨煤机conical 圆锥形的push button 按钮connected in star 星型连接push contact 按钮触点consumption 消耗pushbutton 按钮control accuracy 控制精度pyramid 锥体control action 控制作用quality 质量control and instrumentation(C&I) 控制仪表系统 quench 灭弧control button(knob) 控制按钮radial 半径的、辐射状的control console(desk) 控制台Rotor 转子controller 控制器reactance 电抗convection pass 对流烟道reaction turbine 反动式汽轮机converter 变送器rear end 后端、末端cooling fin 散热片rectify 整流coordination control system(CCS) 协调控制系统reducing condition/atmosphere 还原气氛core 铁芯redundancy 冗余的coupling 联轴器redundancy bit 冗余位crack/cracking 裂纹redundancy testing 冗余测试creep 蠕变reheater 再热器critical pressure 临界压力reliability 可靠性CT :current transformer 电流互感器reserve 备用cubical 机柜resistance 电阻cylinder 汽缸resolution 分辨率cylindrical 圆柱形的reverse video 反相显示D.C. resistance 直流电阻roll 毛胚deaerator（D.A）除氧器roof tube 顶棚管decimal 十进制的root 叶根demineralized water 除盐水rotor 转子density 密度RTD 热电阻diaphragm 隔板stator 定子dielectric 不导电的、绝缘的saturated water 饱和水digit display 数字显示scheme: system 系统digit signal 数字信号screw 螺钉dimension 尺寸search coil 控制线圈diode 二极管semiconductor 半导体directed forced-oil and forced-air cooled(ODAF) serial access 串行存取disconnecter 隔离开关serial interface 串（行接）口discrete 不连续的serpentine tube 蛇形管distribute control system(DCS) 分散控制系统shadow 跟随distribution 配电shaft 轴diverter 分压器shroud/shrouding 围带division wall 分隔墙shunt 使分流double shell structure 双层缸结构shut down 停机double-flow 双向流动side wall 侧墙dowel 销钉signal conditioning 信号调节drain pipe 疏水管silicon 硅Drain 疏水single-flow 单向流动dry 干燥基slave module 子模块dry and ash free 可燃基Slipping 滑环dry -core cable 干式电缆Solenoid 电磁dual 双重的solid 固态duct 风道sootblower 吹灰器dump 转存sophisticated 高级的、先进的duodecimal 十二进制square root 平方根duplicate 复制的、备用的stabilization 稳定性duration 持续时间start up 启动dynamic stability 动稳定start up/standby transformer 启/备变eccentricity 偏心度state-of the-art 有目前发展水平的economizer 省煤器stationary blades/ blading 静叶片ECR:economic continuous rating 额定负荷stator frame 定子机座eddy current proximity detector 电涡流式检测器steady-state 稳态EHV :extra-high voltage 超高压steam air header 蒸汽热风器electric pressure converter 电压转换器steam/water vapor 水蒸气electrical equipment/apparatus 电气设备steam-water -mixture 汽水混合物electro-hydraulic 电动液压的stop/emergency valve 截止阀emergency 紧急的stress 应力energy 能量stud/stub 管接头engineering unit 工程单位sub system 子系统error checking and recovery 错误检验和恢复subbituminous 次烟煤error detector 错误指示器subcooled water 过冷水error rate 误差率substation 变电站evaluate 求出的数量suction firing 负压燃烧evaporate 蒸发suite 一组exception report 例外报告sulfur/sulphur 硫excite 励磁 sulphur hexa fluoride 六氟化硫exciter 励磁机superconductor 超导体expansion 膨胀superheater 过热器expansion tank 油枕supervise 监督管理extinction 熄灭、灭火surge 浪涌facia/fascia 仪器仪表板surge diverter 避雷器facility 设备、工具switch block 开关组fatigue 疲劳、软化switch cabinet 开关柜feed back 反馈switcher 开关feeder speed 给煤机转速信号Switchgear 开关柜finish 光洁度symmetry 对称度fir-tree root 枞树形叶根synchronization 并网fixed carbon 固定碳tap 分接头flow meter 流量计tapping winding 分接头绕组flow rate 流量temperature 温度flue 烟道tenon 榫头flue gas 烟气terminal 终端、端子forced draft fan 鼓风机terminal box 端子箱、出线盒forced/pumped circulation 强迫循环terminal device 终端设备forced-oil and forced-air cooled(OFAF) the action of a magnetic field 磁场作用forging 铣制the bottom half 下半部fossil fuel 化石燃料the control room 控制室frame 机座the dew point temperature 露点free standing 独立的the front pedestal 操作台front/rear wall 前/后墙the horizontal joint 水平接合面fuel /flue 燃料/烟道the operations panel 控制屏furnace 炉膛the top half 上半部furnace tube 水冷壁thermal efficiency 热效率fuse 熔断器thermal power plant 热电厂galvanic isolation 绝缘thermal stress analysis 热应力分析gas air header 烟气热风器thermocouple 热电偶gaseous 气态thermocouple 热电偶gauge glass 水位计thermodynamic instrumentation 热工仪表generator 发电机thrust bearing 推力轴承generator transformer 主变tip 叶顶gland segment/packing 汽封片token 令牌governing valve 铸造tolerance 公差governor 调速器transformer 变压器gravity 重力transmitter 变送器grid 电网 transport 传送、运输ground coal /pulverized fuel 粉状燃料transverse 横向的harmonious 协调的trap 阻波器header 联箱trip 切除、切断、脱扣heat 热量/加热tube 管子hexadecimal 十六进制tube bundle 管排hierarchical 分层（级）的tube seat 管座high pressure cylinder/casing(HP) 高压缸tube sheet 管板horizontal 水平的tubular 管形的hydraulic power plant 水电站turbine 汽轮机hydrazine 联氨turbine supervisory instrument(TIS) 汽机监视仪表hydrogen 氢turning gear 盘车装置hydrostatic test 水压实验two-tier terminals 双列端子排igniter 点火器ultimate analysis 元素分析impeller/wheel/disk 叶轮Uniform :the same 相同的impulse turbine 冲动式汽轮机Uninterruptible power supply(UPS) 不断电电源impulse withstand voltage 冲击耐受电压unit transformer 厂用变indoor 户内的utility boiler 公用锅炉inductance 感抗V: volt 伏特inductive 感应的vacuum contactor 真空断路器inductive current 电感电流Vane 导叶industrial boiler 工业锅炉Vertical 垂直的inner casing 内缸Via 经由INNIS 网络接口子模块Vibration 振动instrument 测试仪表visual (inquiry)display terminal 直观显示终端instrument board 仪器盘visual communication 可视通讯instrument correction 仪表校正visual display unit (VDU) 直观显示元件instrument range 仪表量程visual frequency 视频instrument sensitivity 仪表灵敏度visual scanner 视像扫描器instrument terminal 端子、接线柱volatile 挥发分insulator 绝缘子volt free contact 电压自由触点integration 使完整W: watt 瓦特interconnection 相互 water 水interface 接口water level 水位interlock 联锁wet-steam 湿蒸汽interlocking contact 联锁触点wind box 风箱interlocking signal 联锁信号winding 绕组interlocking switch system 联锁开关系统workhouse 模块intermediate pressure cylinder/casing(IP) 中压缸Zener diode 齐纳二极管internally 内部的zig-zag rod Z型拉筋interruption 开断。

矿山词汇（5）温度保护temperature protection污风polluted air污染控制设备pollution control equipment污酸contaminated acid无触点自动补偿automatic contactless compensation无缝钢管seamless steel pipe无功补偿容量reactive compensation无功电度reactive watt-hour无功功率reactive power无轨设备trackless equipment无轨设备维修trackless equipment maintenance无轨设备维修厂房trackless equipment maintenance building无轨设备维修硐室trackless equipment repair chamber无轨设备维修设施trackless equipment maintain facilities无轨维修间trackless equipment maintenance workshop无轨斜坡道trackless ramp无线电信号radio signal无线方式wireless mode无线泄漏通信系统wireless leak communication system无线泄漏通信主机wireless leak communication host无形及递延资产净值net value of invisible and deferred assets五防功能five-prevention function物料单重unit weight of material物料的混合mix物料的搅拌agitate物相分析mineragraphic analysis物相组成phase composition西回风井west upcast shaft西回风井井口坐标west return air shaft pithead coordinate西矿体west orebody西矿体初步设计联络会议纪要summary of preliminary design liaison meeting of the west orebody西偏北侧west by north吸水槽suction tank系统提示system prompt系统最大静张力maximum static tension of system细泥slime细砂fine tailings细碎tertiary crushing细碎机tertiary crusher细碎破碎机tertiary crusher细碎圆锥破碎机tertiary cone crusher细碎振动给矿机vibro-feeder of tertiary crusher细尾矿fine tailings细尾砂fine tailings下风向leeward下罗恩Lower Roan下罗恩组lower Roan Group：下盘基底岩石footwall basement rock下盘矿体footwall orebody下盘砾岩footwall conglomerate下盘片岩footwall schist下盘疏干沿脉长dewatering drift at footwall下石英岩夹层quartzite band先浮后浸工艺利润profits from leaching after floatation process现场地形资料topographic information of site area现场考察site visit现场控制箱local control box现浇钢筋混凝土箱形结构cast-in-place r.c. box structure现金流入cash inflows现有峰值负荷present peak load陷落subsidence相间分布distributed alternatively箱形结构box structure向上回采upward stoping巷道drift巷道长度drift length巷道代码drift code巷道的通风断面积ventilation sectional area of drift巷道探矿drift prospecting巷道通风断面的周边长度perimeter length of drift ventilation section 巷道通风摩擦阻力fractional resistance of drift ventilation巷道通过的风量air flow of drift巷口drift portal项目投资capital cost项目自有资本equity capital消防车fire vehicle消能池energy dissipation tank消声器silencer销售费用sales expenses销售收入sales income（revenue）小齿轮轴承润滑站pinion bearing lub. station小的结核small nodules小断面巷道small section drifts小轿车car小时来料含水量water content in filling material per hour小时来料量hourly amount of filling material小时来料量（干砂）Hourly filling material amount (dry tailings)小时提升人数hourly hoisting men小型试验bench scale test小型试验laboratory test斜井decline斜坡道ramp （与井口相连，slope不与井口相连）斜坡道电动卡车运矿ore transportation by electric-wheel truck in ramp 斜坡道硐口ramp portal斜坡道工程ramp works斜坡道开拓ramp development斜坡道口ramp exit斜巷dip switch谐波干扰harmonic interference携带式磁粉探伤机portable magetic flaw detector泄漏电缆leaky cable泄水drainage泄水沟drainage ditch泄水井drainage shaft泄水钻孔drainage boreholes卸矿ore unloading卸矿仓ore unloading bin卸矿口discharge opening卸料小车tripper新风段fresh air section新鲜风流fresh air flow新增additional新增仪表校验装置additional instrument calibration device行政技术办公区administration & technical office area行政生活用车administration and domestic vehicles型钢罐道shaped steel guide型号model型号及规格type and specification醒目标志eye-catching signs需要搅拌槽数量number of agitating tanks required需要系数demand factor需要扬程required head絮凝剂添加装置flocculent/focculant feeding unit蓄水池reservoir悬吊式suspended悬挂载荷suspended load旋流器沉砂underflow选别工业试验full-scale separation test。