Taiwan Journal of Linguistics
V ol. 3.1, 101-132, 2005
BREATH-GROUP THEORY VS. DECLINATION THEORY:
EVIDENCE FROM CHINESE APHASICS?
Wen-Hui Sah
ABSTRACT
This study explores in what way the breath-group theory and the declination theory manifest themselves in Chinese aphasic speech and detects the extent to which aphasics exert control over sentential F0 c ontours concerning different sentence lengths and tones. Four Broca’s aphasics, four Wernicke’s aphasics and four age-matched normal controls are tested. The results indicate that aphasic subjects have impairments in processing these sentential F0patterns. Yet, neither the declination nor the breath-group pattern can serve as the criterion in differentiating these two aphasic populations. The breath-group pattern is the better option than the declination pattern in delineating sentential F0 c ontour in Mandarin Chinese speech, from which we note that the predictive power of the declination theory deserves reconsideration.
1. INTRODUCTION
Lieberman (1967) associates speech with respiration by stating that speech is planned in terms of the expiratory airflow from the lungs. He regards the “breath-group” as the basic unit for intonation and points out its chief function in segmenting speech signals into chunks. He also ?I am grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments, which led to improvement of this paper. All gaps, mistakes and misunderstandings are my own responsibility.
101
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102 makes a distinction between the unmarked breath-group pattern and the marked one.1 At the end of each unmarked breath-group, the fundamental frequency (hereafter as F 0) will fall along with the decreasing pulmonary air pressure if the laryngeal tension is not deliberately increased.2 According to Lieberman, the archetypal normal, or unmarked, breath-group is characterized by the terminal F 0 fall rather than the prosodic pattern before the terminal point. As he states (p. 26):
It is a universal of human speech that, except for certain predictable cases, the fundamental frequency of phonation and the acoustic amplitude fall at the end of a sentence.
Lieberman and Blumstein (1988) state that most unemphatic, declarative sentences are produced by means of the unmarked pattern for its minimal muscular effort. In contrast, the “marked” pattern will be formed if the tension of the laryngeal muscles is increased at the end of the sentence with the pulmonary air pressure decreasing as usual. This pattern is the phonetic output of the normal yes-no question and that of the non-terminal breath-group of a long declarative sentence.3
Several later studies take the position different from that of the breath-group theory (Maeda, 1976; Liberman and Pierrehumbert, 1984; Sorensen and Cooper, 1980; Thorsen, 1986). These studies propose that the declination pattern characterized by linear decrease in pitch throughout the course of a declarative utterance is a near-universal tendency of intonation. In an earlier perceptual study by Cohen and 'T Hart (1967), a “declination line” is presented to characterize Dutch intonation. Similarly, Maeda (1976) uses the “trapezoidal shape” of localized movements superposing on the gradual falling “baseline” to describe the intonation of English declarative sentences.4 He proposes
1
The notations –breath-group and +breath-group are used to represent the unmarked pattern and the marked one, respectively. 2
The studies on language development and infants' initial vocalizations lead Lieberman to conclude that the terminal F 0 fall of the breath-group is innately determined and that children may acquire the idiosyncratic pattern of the breath-group of their mother tongue during the first year of life (Lieberman, 1967). 3
Due to physiological constraints, a longer sentence is often divided into more than one breath-group. The non-terminal breath-group uses non-falling F 0 contour of the marked pattern to signal continuation.
4
The baseline refers to the line connecting all the F 0 valleys of a sentence.
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five attributes and several rules to represent F 0 contours and conducts perceptual experiments to test the validity of the schematized F 0 patterns.5 According to him, the magnitude of F 0 falling as well as the F 0 value at the terminal point of the breath-group is roughly constant for an individual speaker. Maeda notes that the terminal F 0 fall is primarily determined by the shortening of the vocal-fold length subsequent to the decrease in lung volume, whereas the subglottal air pressure is only partially responsible for the F 0 fall.
In contrast to Maeda's baseline, the Pierrehumbert and Liberman version of the declination theory proposes the topline (Pierrehumbert, 1977, 1979, Liberman and Pierrehumbert, 1984).6 They claim that both topline and baseline display the declination effect, and that the former declines at a more rapid rate than the latter. Sorensen and Cooper (1980) assert that the topline is the better choice in capturing the essence of F 0 declination. In a later study, they formulate the topline rule and test the validity of it in predicting declination (Cooper and Sorensen, 1981). They claim that the magnitude of F 0 fall is proportional to the length of the entire sentence and that the higher F 0 value for the first peak accompanies the longer sentence (i.e., the P1 effect).7 Moreover, they use the floor effect to explain the small deviation of the terminal F 0 value. Similarly, Thorsen (1986) observes the positive correlation between sentence length and the magnitude of F 0 f all. Yet, he questions the validity of the floor effect.
While the declination theory strictly defines a gradual fall in F 0 t hroughout a declarative sentence, the breath-group theory specifies only the terminal F 0 f all without characterizing the exact prosodic pattern before the terminal fall. As Tseng (1990) points out, the declination theory can be regarded as a special case of the breath-group theory. In contrast to the near-universal claim of the former, the latter offers no
5 These five attributes are baseline , rise , lowering , peak , and rise on the plateau . 6
The topline refers to the line connecting all F 0 p eaks of a sentence. 7
P1 stands for the first F 0 peak of a sentence. The P1 effect refers to the higher F 0 values of the first peak in the longer sentence compared with that in the shorter sentence. For instance, comparing the P1 F 0 v alue of two sentences, we find this effect for the normal speaker, with P1 F 0 v alue several hertz greater in the longer sentence than in the shorter sentence. The differences in P1 F 0 values in the long versus short utterances demonstrate normal speakers' look-ahead mechanism which programs the P1 F 0 value by taking into consideration the overall length of the upcoming utterance (Cooper and Paccia-Cooper, 1980, Cooper and Sorensen, 1981).
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104 claims of universality. Thus, the breath-group theory is less powerful in making prediction, yet it can more flexibly characterize the possible intonation contours for simple declarative sentences.8
To test if the above-mentioned theories properly represent the intonation pattern for simple declarative Mandarin sentences, Tseng (1990) analyzes the overall intonation contours of spontaneous speech of two female Mandarin speakers. According to her, the declination pattern only captures the essence of a very small portion (20 %) of the data, whereas 74 % of the data can be characterized by the breath-group pattern. Accordingly, the predictability of the declination theory is questioned. In consonance with Tseng, Liu (1990) claims that the breath-group pattern can more properly describe the intonation contours of read speech than the declination pattern.9 Moreover, 86% of her data exhibit the lowest valley F 0 value at the final target-word, whereas merely 69 % of the data demonstrate the lowest peak F 0 value at the final target-word. Thus, Liu suggests that the primary feature of the breath-group in Mandarin Chinese speech is the lowering of the valley F 0 value of the terminal word and asserts that the baseline rather than the topline can better characterize the declination pattern in Mandarin speech. Liu's subject shows no correlation between the magnitude of the F 0 lowering and sentence length, but exhibits negative correlation between the magnitude of F 0 lowering and the complexity of the sentence structure.10
Maeda (1976) uses the floor effect to explain that the sentence-final valley F 0 v alue is a relatively invariant characteristic of a speaker’s voice. Similarly, Liberman and Pierrehumbert (1984) state that the sentence-final low point F 0 values in both of their experiments are essentially the same. They note that the final low value is rather constant for each individual speaker. However, in Liu's research, the speech output of the male Mandarin speaker does not exhibit the floor effect,
8
According to Umeda (1981, 1982), the declination pattern has a discourse function. A speaker may use the declination intonation pattern to introduce a new topic for a discourse. However, during the course of the discourse, the archetypal breath-group pattern is used. The difference in discourse functions carried by these two intonation patterns is another interesting topic. Yet, it is beyond the scope of the present study. 9
The term “read speech” is used by Lieberman et al. (1985) to refer to the prepared speech or the reading mode of speech. 10
The negative correlation: The simpler the sentence structure is, the greater magnitude at which the F 0 falls.
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since both the peak and valley F 0 values of the terminal word vary across a large range.
Within the last few decades, the intact and disordered elements of prosody have become increasingly useful media for making inferences about language representation and speech planning (Danly and Shapiro, 1982; Shapiro and Nagel, 1995; Blonder et al., 1995; Baum et al., 1997; Gandour and Dardarananda, 1984; Gandour and Petty, 1989; Gandour et al.; 1994, Schirmer et al.; 2001, Kimelman, 1999; Vijayan, 1998) he presence or absence of F 0 declination in aphasics allows us to assess patients' ability in programming sentential F 0 patterns. From three experiments using Broca's and normal subjects, Danly and Shapiro (1982) detect that patients' F 0 declination is present in short and simple sentences but does not occur over longer domains and that patients do not exhibit the P1 effect. They suggest that the declination might be attenuated by the extreme length of time that patients require to produce the sentences. Furthermore, they present a significant correlation between the declination slope and the degree of language disorder in Broca's aphasics; that is, the presence or absence of the downdrift reflects the severity of aphasia. On the other hand, Cooper, Danly and Hamby (1979) detect that Wernicke's speakers exhibit F 0 declination, though the obtained slope does not adhere to the topline rule precisely. There is no interaction between literal paraphasia and F 0 declination, which indicates that declination planning is independent of proper phoneme selection. In a later study, Danly, Cooper and Shapiro (1983) demonstrate that F 0 declination of Wernicke's aphasics is comparable to that of normal controls (except in the severest cases), and shows no interaction with verbal paraphasia or degree of impairment. According to them, Wernicke's aphasics are able to take into consideration the sentence length and declination slope to produce an initially higher F 0 value for longer sentences than for shorter ones.
In an earlier study, Sah (2004) explore the sentence-final peak-to-valley (hereafter as P-V) F 0 fall and the P1 effect in Chinese aphasic speech. Previous studies on English aphasics claim that the sentence-final P-V F 0 f all is the largest fall in magnitude. Surprisingly, Sah’s work shows that the terminal P-V F 0 fall is not the largest F 0 f all for Mandarin Chinese speakers, normal or aphasic. The discrepancy between Chinese and English speakers concerning the largest terminal P-V F 0 fall is attributed to the difference in sentence lengths used in different studies. The analysis regarding the P1 effect aims to examine
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106 whether the aphasic subjects can encode sentence length by appropriately planning the initial F 0 value. The results indicate that Broca's aphasics are impaired in programming this prosodic feature. In contrast, Wernicke’s patients remain intact in this ability, which means that they are able to combine the factors of sentence length and F 0 contour in order to produce higher values of P1 for longer sentences. The issue closely relates to the sentence-final P-V F 0 fall and the P1 effect is the applicability of the breath-group theory and that of the declination theory.
Previous studies have explored the breath-group and the declination patterns for simple declarative Mandarin sentences from normal speakers. The present work differs from earlier investigations in including not only normal but also aphasic speakers in our subject pool. Despite widespread interest in the prosodic disturbances in aphasic patients, we lack information on how the breath-group and the declination patterns manifest themselves in aphasic speech. To fill a gap that currently exists in this respect, we aim to examine whether these F 0 patterns properly represent the intonation contours for simple declarative sentences from Mandarin Chinese speakers, normal and/or aphasic.
2. METHODS
The acoustic methodology reveals things about aphasics’ internal code more directly than perceptual judgements (Cooper and Paccia-Cooper, 1980; Ryalls, 1982; Cruttenden, 1986; Baum and Boyczuk, 1999); therefore, the present study adopts the acoustic method to obtain a more objective assessment of the planning of sentential F 0 contours in Chinese aphasic speech.
We use the breath-group and the declination patterns as the criteria to examine aphasic patients’ F 0 c ontours for simple declarative sentences.11 Two research questions will be addressed:
11
Since the previous studies mentioned above and the present work all focus on simple declarative sentences, only the unmarked breath-group intonation pattern is considered and explored in the following discussion. The marked pattern is beyond the scope of the present investigation.
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(1) How do the breath-group and the declination patterns manifest
themselves in Chinese aphasic speech?
(2) To what extent do aphasics exert control over sentential F 0
contours concerning different sentence lengths and tones?
2.1 Subjects
Eight aphasics and four age-matched normal controls serve as subjects in the experiment. All subjects are male and predominantly right-handed. The patient group comprises four Broca’s and four Wernicke’s aphasics; all of them suffer unilateral left-hemisphere damage subsequent to cerebral vascular disease or brain trauma, and have neither auditory nor visual disturbance. The diagnosis of aphasia is based upon a Chinese adaptation of the BDAE; the sites of lesions are determined by neurologists and corroborated by Computerized Tomography (CT) scan. The aphasic subjects are tested at least three months post onset. The normal controls roughly match in age and educational level to the aphasic subjects. All subjects are native speakers of Mandarin Chinese. Their personal background and medical data are illustrated in Table 1 (for Tables, see Appendix A).
2.2 Stimuli
Four groups, each with eight sentences, are constructed to test the subjects. Each group comprises four pairs; the target words in each pair represent one distinct Mandarin tone. Sentences range in length from six to fourteen syllables (Appendix B). The target words are the second syllable of disyllabic words which are all content words of high frequency.12 One sample set appears below with the target words in parentheses. Filler sentences that match with the real target sentences in terms of length, phonetic environment and syntactic structure are used as the first and the last sentences of each recording session to minimize initiation and completion effects.
Ala
12
As previous studies demonstrate, there are more phonological errors on content words than on function words and the speech production of Broca’s aphasics is predominantly full of content words and often omits function ones (Blumstein, 1973).
Sah, Wen-Hui
108 Bla )
Cla
Dla
2.3 Procedures
The test sentences are randomized across the subjects. An interval of approximately three seconds exists between the presentation of each sentence. The subjects were asked to read the test materials as naturally as possible and not to place contrastive or emphatic stress on any word. Before recording, the sentence was presented to the subject who was asked to read it aloud to ensure that he recognized the words and to practice it several times until at least one clearly articulated version of the completed sentence was produced.13The whole process of performing the task was audio-taped.
2.4 Data measurement and analysis
For each target-word, we use Visi-Pitch to measure the F0values of the tone-bearing unit at the peak and the valley. Two sentential F0 c ontour patterns are examined: the breath-group and the declination patterns. For ease of comparison with the results from previous studies, we set up four categories based on Liu's definitions (1990) for these F0patterns, as stated below.
Category I: If the peak F0value of the terminal word is the lowest compared to the peak value(s) of the preceding target-word
(s), the sentence is called the breath-group sentence.
Category II: If the valley F0value of the terminal word is the lowest compared to the valley value(s) of the preceding
target-word(s), the sentence is classified as the breath-group
sentence.
Category III: If the line connecting the F0peaks of all target
13The Broca’s aphasic HT could not read sentences D2b and D4b on his own, so he was asked to repeat after the experimenter. He did not present any difficulty in repeating. Among the data collected, only these two are the repeated sentences. Owing to the scarcity of the repeated sentences, the possible practice effects of the repeated sentences are not considered here.
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words, i.e., the topline , decreases throughout the sentence, the sentence belongs to the declination group.
Category IV : If the line connecting the F 0 valleys of all target words, i.e., the baseline , decreases from the beginning to the
end of the sentence, the sentence is considered to be the declination sentence.
The F 0 c ontour patterns serve as dependent variables, while independent variables include both linguistic and non-linguistic factors: subject group (normal vs. aphasic speakers), sentence length (sentences of various lengths) and tone (four tones of Mandarin Chinese). Because the effects investigated in this study are analyzed in terms of frequency of occurrence, viz., on an all-or-none, discrete scale, we use overall and individual log-linear tests and the supplementary proportional z-test to assess the data. For the log-linear test, the probability (p) value has to be smaller than 0.05 to reach the significant level, while the z-score has to be larger than 1.96 to reach significance.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Lieberman (1967) suggests that the breath-group pattern can properly represent the intonation contour for simple declarative sentences, while others believe that the declination pattern is a better candidate. In terms of the above-mentioned four categories, we first present the frequency distribution of sentences that can be characterized by the breath-group or the declination pattern, discuss subject group, sentence length and tone main effect on the distribution of these two intonation patterns (Section 3.1) and then assess which pattern most properly delineates the intonation contours for simple declarative Mandarin sentences (Section 3.2).
3.1 Frequency distribution of breath-group and declination patterns
There are 201 of the total 360 sentences classified into Category I (55.83 %). On the other hand, 217 of total utterances fall into Category II (60.28 %), with the frequency percentage larger than that of the former group. Tables 2 through 9 display the frequency distributions of Category I and II for individual independent variables and for
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110 cross-sections of all these variables.
For sentences of Category I, we note that occurrence rate for normals (44.78 %) is obviously larger than that for Broca's (26.87 %) and for Wernicke's (28.36 %) subjects. The frequency difference between two-target- word sentences and sentences of other lengths also deserves attention. The results of the individual test of the log-linear analysis demonstrate significantly larger occurrence rate for two-target-word than for five-target-word sentences (χ24 = 10.44, p = .001), but fail to demonstrate significant differences among subject groups, among tones or significant interactions among variables. By means of supplementary proportional z-test, we find significant differences between normals and Broca's aphasics (z = 3.73) and between normals and Wernicke's subjects (z = 3.30), but nonsignificant difference between Wernicke's and Broca's aphasics (z = .33). As for the sentence length, there are significant differences between two- and three- (z = 2.57), between two- and four- (z = 3.61), and between two- and five-target-word (z = 3.99) sentences.
Regarding sentences of Category II, the occurrence rate for normals (45.62 %) is obviously larger than that for Broca's (26.27 %) and Wernicke's (28.11 %) aphasics. The overall test of the log-linear analysis also exhibits significant subject main effect (χ22 = 13.60, p = .001). Nevertheless, due to the insensitivity of the test to the limited data, the individual test fails to further display significant frequency differences among subject groups, among sentence-lengths, or among tones. As in the above case, the z-scores present significant differences between normal and Broca's subjects (z= 4.2) and between normal and Wernicke's subjects (z = 3.78), but nonsignificant difference between Broca's and Wernicke's subjects (z = .43). The significant frequency differences are also established between two- and four- (z = 3.17) and between two- and five-target-word (z =2.32) sentences.
The criteria for Category III and IV characterize the declination patterns. There are 133 of the total 360 utterances (36.94 %) exhibiting the topline effect (Category III), whereas 143 of the total utterances (39.72 %) demonstrate the baseline effect (Category IV). Tables 10 through 17 demonstrate the frequency distribution of Categories III and IV for individual major variables and for cross-sections of all three variables.
With respect to Category III, normals (51.13 %) exhibit larger frequency of the topline effect than Broca's (21.05 %) and Wernicke's (27.82 %) aphasics; the two-target-word sentences (52.63 %) reveal
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111
obviously larger frequency than sentences of other lengths (Table 10). By means of the overall test of the log-linear analysis, significant subject main effect (χ22= 9.01, p =.011) and sentence length main effect (χ23= 23.11, p =.000) are obtained, whereas neither tone main effect (p =.860) nor any interaction among variables is revealed. Due to its insensitivity to the limited data, the individual log-linear test fails to reveal significant differences between Broca's and normal subjects (p = .232), between Wernicke's and normal subjects (p = .325), or among various sentence lengths. Again, the supplementary proportional z-test is used as an alternative to assess the data. The resulting z-scores reveal significant frequency differences between normal and Broca's subjects (z=5.12), between normal and Wernicke's subjects (z = 3.90), and between two- and three- (z =5.21), between two- and four- (z = 7.17) and between two- and five-target-word (z = 7.87) sentences, which confirm the tendency shown above in percentages.
As illustrated in Table 14, normals (50.35 %) demonstrate larger frequency of the baseline effect than Broca's (24.48 %) and Wernicke's (25.17 %) aphasics; the frequency of two-target-word (48.25%) sentences is conspicuously larger than that of other sentence lengths. The results of the overall test of the log-linear analysis present subject main effect (χ22 = 10.77, p =.005) and sentence length main effect (χ23= 26.54, p = .000), while neither tone main effect (p= .428) nor any significant interaction among variables is displayed. The individual test further indicates that the frequency of the baseline effect for two-target-word sentences is significantly larger than that for five-target-word sentences (χ24 = 23.96, p = .000); however, this test fails to exhibit significant frequency differences between Broca's and normal subjects (p = .255), between Wernicke's and normal subjects (p= .301) and among other length-pairs. On the other hand, the supplementary proportional z-test reveals significant frequency differences between normal and Broca's subjects (z = 4.5) and between normal and Wernicke's subjects (z = 4.39), but nonsignificant difference between Wernicke's and Broca's subjects (z = .13). According to z-scores, the occurrence rate of the baseline effect for the two-target-word sentences is significantly larger than that for three- (z = 3.57), for four- (z = 6.71), and for five-target-word (z = 8.86) sentences.
As indicated in statistics and larger percentage of frequencies in preceding paragraphs, normals exhibit more pronounced than aphasic
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112 speakers the tendency of employing declination and breath-group patterns as the general feature in programming intonation contours for simple declarative sentences of Mandarin Chinese. On the other hand, aphasic speakers are impaired in this regard as reflected by the significant differences between normals and aphasics, both in percentages and in z- scores. Nevertheless, the frequency differences between Broca's and Wernicke's subjects concerning both patterns do not reach significance, which implies that neither the declination nor the breath-group pattern can serve as a criterion in differentiating these two aphasic populations.
Clinically, Broca’s and Wernicke’s speakers are contrasted in terms of their control of melodic line over an entire sentence. Broca’s aphasics are characterized by dysprosody, while Wernicke’s patients are considered to have normal prosody. Yet, our aphasic groups fail to display significant differences in prosodic control over the breath-group or the declination pattern, which leads us to question the validity of differentiating Broca’s from Wernicke’s aphasia in terms of “prosody.” The discrepancy between clinical classification and our findings may be attributed to the heterogeneity of prosody. It is also the task of the present work to show how acoustic study might clarify the notion about prosody in clinical application.
The statistics for all four categories show that tones fail to exert significant influence on the frequency distribution of both intonation patterns. Regarding sentence lengths, there is significant distributional difference in these F 0 contours between sentences of two-target-words and those of other lengths. Inspection of data shows that the length effect mainly comes from the aphasic group, which reflects the negative correlation between F 0 programming and sentence length. The negative correlation between the increase in the sentence length and the decrease in the occurrence rate of both intonation patterns implies that it is more difficult for the aphasics to produce these F 0 contours in longer sentences (Tables 3, 7, 11, and 15).
The length effect shown above is consonant with the earlier finding by Danly and Shapiro (1982), which states that Broca’s patients’ F 0 declination is present in short and simple sentences but absent in longer ones. Previous studies on English aphasics also claim that Wernicke’s aphasics exhibit F 0 declination comparable to normal speakers (Cooper, Danly and Hamby, 1979; Danly, Cooper and Shapiro, 1983). Surprisingly, our results show that Chinese Wernicke’s aphasics are
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impaired in processing F 0 contours. The discrepancy between Chinese and English Wernicke’s subjects concerning the F 0 contours can be attributed to the difference in sentence lengths used in different studies. The test sentences in studies on English speakers are restricted to five-syllable sentences containing two target words. In contrast, the test sentences used in the present work are comparatively longer, ranging from six to fourteen syllables and containing more target words. Logically speaking, the shorter the sentences are, the more easily the speakers can process the sentential F 0 contours. To verify Wernicke’s aphasics’ ability in this regard, future research needs to employ longer test sentences for English Wernicke’s aphasics and to collect more data from Chinese Wernicke’s patients. Despite such a discrepancy, both declination and breath-group patterns do exist in Chinese aphasic speech, but aphasics have difficulties in planning F 0 contours over relatively long stretches of speech.
3.2 Breath-group or declination pattern for simple declarative Mandarin
sentences
In the following discussion, we focus on the frequency distribution of the declination and the breath-group patterns within each subject group to assess which pattern is used more often in simple declarative Mandarin sentences.14 In accordance with the findings in the previous section, normals reveal more robust the tendency in using these two intonation patterns (including all four categories) than aphasic speakers (Table 18). Except for the frequency of Category III (28.91 %) being slightly larger than that of Category IV (28.13 %) in Wernicke's speech, the numbers in other columns, with respect to each subject group, reveal that Category II exhibits larger frequency than Category I (54.80% vs. 51.92%; 47.66 vs. 44.53%; 77.34% vs. 70.31), and that Category IV shows larger frequency than Category III (33.65% vs. 26.92%; 56.25% vs. 53.13%). In addition, for each subject group, the frequencies of Category I and Category II are obviously larger than those of Category III and Category IV . The total amount of occurrence rate with regard to each F 0 p attern displays the same trend (i.e., 55.83 % and 60.28 % are larger than 36.94 % and 39.72 %).
14
The percentages are computed by dividing the number of sentences demonstrating each pattern by the total number of sentences from each subject group.
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114 Moreover, there are 48.33 % of total utterances that meet the criteria for both Category I and II, whereas only 30 % for both Category III and IV . Therefore, it seems feasible for us to suggest that Chinese speakers, whether normals or aphasics, use both breath-group and declination patterns as organizing principles in programming intonation contours, and that they tend to produce the former pattern more often than the latter one. As indicated, the valley F 0 value of the terminal word (Category II) and the baseline (Category IV) can better capture the essence of the breath-group and the declination patterns than their counterparts, respectively, and the frequency difference between these two features (60.28 % vs. 39.72 %) is significant (z = 5.52), which again suggests that the breath-group pattern is more pronounced than the declination pattern in Mandarin Chinese speech.
For ease of comparison, results of the present study and those of two previous research (Tseng, 1990; Liu, 1990) on the breath-group and the declination theories are listed in Table 19.15 Whether for normals or aphasics, our data suggest that the breath-group is the better alternative in characterizing intonation pattern for simple declarative Mandarin sentences, which supports Tseng's and Liu's findings. As stated earlier, the declination pattern is more strictly defined and is thus considered to be a special case of the breath-group pattern. Accordingly, all the sentences displaying the declination pattern can also be delineated by the breath-group pattern, which leads to the superiority of the breath-group pattern over the declination pattern in characterizing intonation contours for declarative sentences. As Tseng claims, the declination pattern does exhibit in Chinese speech, but its occurrence rate is significantly lower than that of the breath-group pattern. Likewise, studies on the intonation of American English, British English and Mandarin Chinese fail to locate the declination pattern in many utterances (Lieberman and Blumstein, 1988). Therefore, we conclude that the predictive power of the declination theory with respect to F 0 planning is not as strong as claimed by its proponents.
With regard to normal subjects, the frequencies for both intonation patterns in Tseng's, Liu's and the present studies indicate that both patterns are more pronounced in read speech than in spontaneous speech
15
Since Category II and Category IV can better characterize the breath-group and the declination patterns respectively, we compare the frequency distribution of these two features, instead of four, of Liu’s and our studies.
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(73 % or 56 vs. 20 % for declination pattern; 86 % or 77 % vs. 74 % for breath-group pattern), which supports the claim of Lieberman et al. (1985). As Liu elucidates, these intonation patterns tend to occur in read speech more often, because speakers know where the utterance will end and it is easier for them to plan ahead the intonation pattern. In spontaneous speech, the context will exert great influence on intonation pattern of the target sentence and thus mask the pattern that shown. If we focus on occurrence rate for all subjects of the present study, including both normal and aphasic speakers, we will find that, as expected, the declination pattern is also more pronounced in read speech than in spontaneous speech (40 % vs. 20 %). For the breath-group pattern, Liu’s study displays similar superiority of read speech over spontaneous speech (86% vs. 74%). However, the reverse tendency is detected in our study, in which the breath-group pattern is more pronounced in spontaneous speech than in read speech (74% vs. 60%). We are uncertain whether this deviant tendency shown in our data is attributed to the disturbances in aphasic speech or to the different subject categories involved in these studies.16 Before any conclusion is reached, more empirical data is needed to provide a clearer picture about this issue. Nevertheless, it is hoped that such a discrepancy will have implications for studies on F 0 contours concerning different speech mode.
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Using sentence reading task, we assess in what way the breath-group and the declination patterns manifest themselves in Chinese normal and aphasic speech. The data presented in earlier discussions inform us the following points.
(1) Aphasic subjects do not exhibit so robust the tendency as normals in producing the breath-group and the declination patterns for simple declarative sentences. Compared with normals, aphasic speakers are impaired in this regard. Yet, neither the declination nor the breath-group pattern can serve as a criterion in differentiating these two
16
Tseng uses two female native speakers of Mandarin Chinese; Liu applies her test to one male speaker. In the present work, our male subjects include eight aphasic and four normal speakers.
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116 aphasic groups. In addition, aphasics show more difficulty in producing them for longer sentences. No tone effect is detected in the processing of these F 0 patterns.
(2) Both aphasic and normal Chinese speakers do employ both F 0 patterns in their speech, though the breath-group pattern is the better option in delineating sentential F 0 contour for simple declarative Mandarin sentences, from which we note that the predictive power of the declination theory deserves reconsideration, as suggested by Tseng (1990) and Liu (1990). According to Lieberman (1967), the terminal falling contour of the breath-group is innately determined; what is more, the breath-group helps to disambiguate sentences. It is thus assumed that the breath-group pattern has more advantages over the declination pattern in language processing, which leads to the more pronounced status of the former pattern in Chinese speech.
(3) Our results indicate that the baseline and the terminal valley F 0 value can better capture the essence of the declination and the breath-group phenomena, respectively. The superiority of the baseline over the topline in Liu's (1990) and our studies implies that the topline proposed by Sorensen and Cooper (1980) does not necessarily hold advantages over its counterpart in all languages.
(4) In consonance with the findings of Lieberman et al.(1985), the results from our normal subjects reveal that these two F 0 patterns are more pronounced in read than in spontaneous speech for the ease of preplanning in the former condition. As Cooper and Paccia-Cooper (1980) comment, the results from read speech is more indicative of the speaker's planning abilities than those from spontaneous conversation.
In a series of studies, we examined Chinese Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasics’ ability in sentence-final lengthening, the sentence-final peak-to-valley F 0 f all and the P1 effect (Sah 2001, 2004). In the present work, we note that both Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasics have disturbances in processing F 0 contours.17 Taken together, the findings show that our aphasic subjects demonstrate different behavior with respect to different prosodic features (Table 20). Clinically, Broca’s and Wernicke’s speakers are contrasted in terms of verbal fluency and the control of melodic line of an entire sentence. According to this view,
17
The present study employs the same subjects and test materials as those used in earlier experiments.
Breath-Group Theory vs. Declination Theory
117
speech prosody in Wernicke’s aphsics is considered to remain intact, whereas Broca’s aphasics are characterized by dysprosody (Hecaen and Albert, 1978). The information listed in Table 20 reminds us that the speech prosody of Wernicke’s aphasics is not strictly normal. Although the intonational contour of Wernicke’s aphasics sounds quite normal to the clinician, it may contain certain deficits, such as the abnormalities in F 0 c ontours, which may be imperceptible. The results also document an apparent dissociation of prosodic impairments.18 The dissociable prosodic impairments suggest that “prosody” should be regarded as a heterogeneous collection. The problem with the clinical impression of dysprosody or normal prosody may be that the concept about prosody is used in a too general way. When we use prosody as the criterion for clinical assessment, we have to specify which prosodic feature is actually involved to make the classification or the comparison viable.
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18
As Baum and Boyczuk (1999) mention, the dissociation of impairments can be interpreted in the context of the autosegmental theory, proposed by Goldsmith (1976, 1990). Adopting the multi-tier approach, Levelt (1989) proposes a possible architecture of speech production. He hypothesizes that there exist autonomous multi-tiers in charge of different prosodic features. Under this framework, the dissociation of prosodic deficits in aphasic speech is explicable, since various events (e.g., temporal control, the terminal P-V F 0 fall, the P1 effect, or sentential F 0 c ontours) may take place at the different tier without necessarily having any effect on what goes on at another tier. Thus, an aphasic speaker may remain intact in the tier which processes one prosodic feature (e.g., the sentence-final P-V F 0 f all), while he may have deficits in other tiers which program certain other features (e.g., the P1 effect or the sentential F 0 c ontour).
Though such interpretation seems rather plausible, we need more experiments to show that there is really a hierarchical relationship between these F 0 a ttributes, to show the difference among these tiers, and to show how these prosodic parameters are conceived as structural constructs in the competence model such as the autosegmental theory. These research questions are beyond the scope of the present work. Before any valid interpretation can be made, we need more investigations to further explore these issues.
Sah, Wen-Hui
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119
Sah, Wen-Hui
120 Vijayan, Aparna. 1998. Speech Production after Unilateral Brain Damage: Aspects of
Linguistic Prosody . Purdue University dissertation.
Wen-hui Sah
Department of English
National Chengchi University w hsah@https://www.doczj.com/doc/1e12640891.html,.tw
APPENDIX A
Table 1. Personal Data of Aphasic and Normal Subjects
Subject Category* Name Sex Age yrs Educ. yrs Post
Onset Etiology Lesion Site CT
B T
C M 34 12 3;1 CV A Frontal B CC M 38 16 3;8 Trauma frontal- temporal-parietal B HT M 74 12 1;11 CV A frontal B FL M 75 19 0;4 CV A frontal- temporal W SM M 16 9 2;8 Trauma frontal- temporal W LM M 51 12 2;7 Trauma temporal W MN M 54 6 0;11 CV A frontal W ML M 58 16 1;10 CV A frontal-parietal
Mean 50.00 12.75
SD 18.83 3.90 N PC M 75 9 N WM M 56 12 N TL M 38 12 N KP M 24 17
Mean 48.25 12.5
SD 19.16 2.87
B=Broca's aphasics W=Wernicke's aphasics N=Normals
语言-认知障碍评定系列表 汉语失语症检查表（ABC法） 姓名：性别：年龄：科室：床号：住院号：主诉： 诊断：检查日期：一．谈话（流畅度9－27分、信息量0－6分） 流畅度___ /27分 信息量___ /6分 二．理解 （一）是/否问题（共60分）
（9）我是男的/女的吗否2（10）这个房间的灯亮着吗是2（11）这个房间的门是关着的吗否2（12）这儿是旅馆吗否2（13）这儿是医院吗是2（14）你穿的衣服是红/蓝色的吗否2（15）纸在火中燃烧吗是4（16）每年中秋节在端午节前先过吗否4（17）您吃香蕉时先剥皮吗是4（18）在本地七月下雪吗否4（19）马比狗大吗是4（20）农民用斧头割草吗否4（21）一斤面比二斤面重吗否4（22）冰在水里会沉吗否4总分 /60 实物<5’ ’ 2分>5’ ’ 1分 0分图形<5’ ’ 2分 >5’ ’ 1分 0分图画<5’ ’ 2分 >5’ ’ 1分 0分 梳子圆钥匙铅笔方火柴钥匙三角梳子火柴螺旋铅笔花五星花 动作<5’ ’ 2分>5’ ’ 1分 0分颜色<5’ ’ 2分 >5’ ’ 1分 0分家具<5’ ’ 2分 >5’ ’ 1分 0分 吸烟红窗户喝水黄椅子跑步蓝电灯睡觉绿桌子摔倒黑床 身体<5’ ’ 2分>5’ ’ 1分 0分身体<5’ ’ 2分 >5’ ’ 1分 0分身体<5’ ’ 2分 >5’ ’ 1分 0分 耳朵中指右耳鼻子胳膊 肘 左眼 肩膀眉毛左拇 指眼睛小指右手 腕手腕拇指右中 指听辨认总分： /90分。
（三）口头指令（共80分） 三．复述（共100分） 1.词复述（共24分） 2.句复述（共76分）
汉语标准失语症检查(CRRCAE)说明 李胜利 一、整体注意事项 1.对象： 成人失语症患者 2.前提条件： 标准失语症打分是由参加过失语症培训班并熟悉检查内容的检查者来进行，使用前要掌握正确的检查方法，不要自行对患者的反应进行解释，而要依据失语症检查规则进行。 3.患者的状态： 尽量使患者在自然状态下接受检查，不要过于死板，要在整个过程注意此点。 4. 检查者的说话方式和态度： 检查者与患者接触时，说话的方式不要零乱和死板，要充分考虑到患者病前的生活环境和文化背景，态度要亲切，以求得患者能放松安心接受检查。5.患者进行有关检查方面的说明： 事先不对患者说明就进行检查会使患者反感，检查前要向患者说明检查的目的，求得理解，检查之后，多数患者关心自己的结果，因此，要对患者及家属进行适当的说明。 6.检查场所： 选择能使患者情绪稳定接受检查的场所，避开噪音及人多的地方。 7.陪同人员： 失语症患者通常不愿让人知道自己的语言缺陷，所以，即使妻子或丈夫有时也尽量不要陪伴，采取一对一的检查方式。 8.患者的疲劳情况： 失语症检查中，在超过30分钟以上，患者常出现疲劳而不能表现出实际的问题，此时宜中断，采取分数次进行。 9.终止检查： 有时出现失败或拒绝检查的局面，此时应暂时终止，待患者安静下来后再继续检查，出现保持状态时，通常是由于患者疲劳过度引起的。这时可改时间进行。 10.检查时间： 由开始到结束两周时间。 11.检查顺序： 此检查是通过不同语言模式（Modality）来观察患者的反应，在一些项目中使用了相同的词语，为尽量减少由此造成的对检查内容的熟悉，在图的位置安排上有一些变化，并设了终止标准。 检查要按顺序从项目1开始，但Ⅸ（计算）、Ⅰ（听）、Ⅱ（说）、Ⅲ（阅读），四大项目之间，从哪一项开始均可。 12.检查用具： (1)使用说明 (2)记录用表（包括计算用纸） (3)图片，词卡
对外汉语教学理论 一、填空题（10分） 说明：第1—10题是填空题，每题有一空，每空1分，共10分。请仔细阅题，并在划线处填入恰当的答案。 1、把第二语言的目标设定为培养学生运用目的语进行交际的能力。 2、教学计划与是教材编写的直接依据。 3、，是教材评估工作的目标，也是教材评估的两个基本要求。 4、从测验编制的角度看，命题针对性强，测试点容易明确。 5、对外汉语教学中的文化教学，大概可以分成三个层次：、基本国情和文化背景知识和专门文化知识。 6、语法翻译法忽视了言语交际技能，尤其是。 7、代表了传统媒体和现代媒体间的根本区别，是计算机辅助教学的重要特征。 8、反馈作用是指对教学所产生的影响，反馈作用有消极和积极之分。 9、CCAI的设计原则有内容正确规范、、交互方式恰当。 10、、功能、文化相结合，是一条重要的教学原则。 答案：1、功能法 2、教学大纲 3、追求高信度和高效度4、分立式命题5、语言中的文化因素 6、听说能力的培养 7、交互性 8、测试 9、媒体素材的有效性 10、结构 二、选择题（共10分） 说明：第11—20题诗单项选择题，每题只有一个可选项，请根据题目要求选择适切的选项，每题1分 11、以模仿为主的教学流派是（） A、结构法 B、直接法 C、功能法 D、任务教学法 12、以下选项不是阐述功能法优点的是（） A、教学过程交际化。 B、有助于培养学生使用语言进行交际的能力 C、注重口语教学，有利于培养学生的言语能力 D、从学生的实际需要出发，确定学习目标 13、要教规范通用的语言，这属于教材编撰的（） A、科学性原则 B、知识性原则 C、实用性原则 D、针对性原则 14、语言测试的种类很多，其中对信度和效度没有太高要求的是：（） A、水平测试 B、潜能测试 C、成绩测试 D、诊断测试
第一节、失语症的概述 一、定义 由于大脑受损导致的语言功能受损或丧失。失语症是一种获得性语言障碍，表现为患者意识清楚，无精神障碍、无严重认知障碍、无感觉缺失、无口、咽喉、舌等发音器官肌肉瘫痪及共济失调，却听不懂别人及自己的讲话，说不出要表达的意思，不理解或写不出病前会读会写的字句。 二、病因 失语症可由多种脑部疾病引起，常见病因有脑血管意外、脑外伤、脑部肿瘤、感染等，最常见的为脑血管病，我国的研究资料显示至少三分之一以上的脑卒中患者会产生各种言语障碍。 三、失语症语言症状 由各种原因引起的失语症可表现为自发谈话、听理解、复述、命名、阅读、书写等六种基本障碍。 （一）口语表达障碍是指患者语言陈述过程困难，表现为找词、语音、词汇、句法、语法等方面的障碍。 1找词困难；2.命名障碍；3.说话费力；4.杂乱语；5.刻板语言；6.模仿语言；7.复述障碍；8.持续症；9.语法障碍；10发音障碍；11.错语 （二）听理解障碍是指患者对口语的理解能力降低或丧失，主要表现在对字词、短语、长句和文章等不同程度的理解障碍。 1. 语义辨认障碍不能理解，却能正确辨认，准确复述。 2.语音辨认障碍不能正确辨认听到的语音。 （三）阅读障碍又称失读症，是大脑损伤导致对已经获得的文字的阅读能力丧失或受损，伴或不伴朗读障碍。1.形、音、义失读；2.形、义失读；3.形、音失读，不能正确朗读文字，却能理解文字的意义。 （四）书写障碍书写是一种语言表达方式，除了语言本身外，还涉及视觉、听觉、运动觉、视空间功能和运动的参与。包括失语性书写障碍、非失语性书写障碍两种。常见表现有：1.完全书写不能；2.构字障碍；3.象形书写；4.镜像书写；5.惰性书写；6.书写过多；7.错误语法书写；8.视空间性书写障碍 失语症的分类和评定方法 直到今天，人们对失语症的分类仍然没有取得完全一致的意见。由于历史上对失语症研究的学派很多，观点不尽一致，因此对于失语症的分类方法也是多种多样。对失语症分类的不同，反应了各个时期对产生失语障碍的不同看法。下面我们就来一起研究一下，失语症的分类和评定方法。 19世纪下半叶，语言功能定位联系学说占主流，认为不同病变部位是产生不同失语类型的基础；20世纪前半叶，功能整体学说占主流，此时期否定语言功能定位学说，抛弃从语言障碍探寻大脑受损部位的方法，以语言活动过程受损进行分类；20世纪后半叶至今，随着科技的发展，功能定位学说再次受到重视。 现在认为，大脑某一部位的损害，会造成一组完全或不完全的语言临床症状较高频率的出现，如果损伤较局限，多表现为典型的失语症状，如果范围较广，会呈现出非典型的失语
对外汉语教学理论模拟一 一、填空题（共10分） 说明：第1—10题是填空题，每题有一空，每空1分，共10分。请仔细阅题，并在划线处填入恰当的答案。 1.在第二语言学习过程中，当学习者的第一语言和第二语言一致时，学习者会很快掌握第二语言，这种迁移被称为。 2.教师教了“把”字句，给学生讲了“把”字句的基本规则，为了检验教学效果，教师自己出一些题目让学生做，了解学生哪些规则掌握了，哪些还弄不清楚，以便进行恰当的补救。这样的测试是。 3. 编写与评估对外汉语教材需遵循的基本原则是实用性、知识性、科学性和。 4. 对外汉语教学是对的汉语作为第二语言的教学。 5. 中介语是由美国语言学家提出的。 6. 以社会语言学、人本主义心理学和心理语言学为基础的第二语言教学法，它是目前为止影响最大，最富有生命力的外语教学法，对我国教学法影响最大。 7. 在课堂教学中，若干个教学步骤组成一个。 8. ICCAI 指的是汉语辅助教学。 9. 美国语言学家乔姆斯基认为人类先天具有一种习得语言的能力，他把这种能力称为。 10. 偏重语言形式的训练，忽视内容和意义的教学法是_________。 二、选择题（共10分） 说明：第11—20题是单项选择题，每题只有一个可选项，请根据题目要求选择恰当的选项，每题1分。 11. 中国第一部正式出版的对外汉语教材是（）。 A．《汉语教科书》B．《汉语课本》 C《基础汉语课本》D《学汉语》 12. 在影响第二语言学习的外部因素中，哪一项不涉及语言学习的外部环境（）。 A．语言环境 B．学习氛围 C．学习者的个性 D．学习者的文化背景 13. 偏误分析的理论基础是（）。
v1.0 可编辑可修改 2018 年对外汉语教师资格证考试真 题 第一部分 中国文化 一、填空题 2. “人性本恶”还是“人性本善”儒家中的孟子与荀子的观点存在着根本的对立， 持“人 3. 明代废爵 __著有《乐律全书》，他提出的“十二平均律”是对古代音乐理论的巨大贡献。 【答案】朱载堉 4. 封禅是古代帝王在泰山祭祀天地的仪式，历史上第一个封禅的皇帝是 _______ 。 【答案】 秦始皇 10. 历史上共有十个皇帝亲往曲阜祭祀孔子，最早的是 11. 汉族政权最早主动接受异族文化的重大事件是“ __________ 胡服骑射”。 【答案】赵武 灵王 12. 在殷墟王陵出土的 ______ 鼎，代表了殷商时期青铜器制作的最高水平。 【答案】司母 1. 自秦至今，我国一直沿用的行政区划单位是 答案】县 性本恶”观点的是 答案】荀子 5. 明清科考有三级考试，在北京外的各省城举行的考试称为 6. 被称为“最大的碑刻艺术博物馆”是西安 的 7. 现存最古老的宗祠是位于山西省闻喜县的 8. 被誉为“天下第一行书”的书法作品是《 9. 明代画家 __ 被称为“大写意”画家。 试”。 【答案】乡 ___ 。 【答案】碑林 ____ 祠。 【答案】裴氏 》。 【答案】《兰亭集序》 / 《兰亭序》 答 案】徐渭 答案】汉高祖 / 刘邦
13. 著名的蛋壳黑陶高柄杯是______ 文化时期制作的器物。【答案】龙山 14. 历史上，发生了四次大规模的灭佛事件，佛教称之为四次“法难”，而史学界简略地称 之为——“ ________ ”。【答案】三武一宗 15. 中国传统的祥瑞动物中，“四灵”指的是麟、龙、凤、龟，再加上__，则称为“五灵”。【答案】虎 16. 清代出现的以满族菜为主，沿袭明代宫廷风格的菜肴，被称为“ _____________ ”。【答案】满汉全席 17. 中国书画史上，将书、画、金、石结合在一起的杰出代表是清代书画家_______ 。【答案】吴昌硕 第二部分现代汉语 一、填空题 1．在语音四要素中，由外力大小或振幅大小决定的是。 2．在普通话语音系统中，“ bà（爸）”和“ pà（怕）”这两个音节起首辅音的发音区别在于。 3. “勇敢”中，“勇”的韵母属于呼。 4. 根据“六书”理论，“灯”字属于。 5. 从所记录的语言单位来看，现代汉字属于。 6. 在先秦汉语中，“兵”的基本义是“兵器”；而在现代汉语中，“兵”的基本义则是“ 7. 从句类角度来看，“谁也不可能两次踏进同一条河”这句话是。 8. 在现代汉语中，“香波”是外来词，所采取的翻译方法是。 9. 动态助词“着”的语法意义是。
汉语失语症评定量表ABC
语言-认知障碍评定系列表 汉语失语症检查表（ABC法） 姓名：性别：年龄：科室：床号：住院号： 主诉： 诊断：检查日期： 一．谈话（流畅度9－27分、信息量0－6分）1．问答（录音） 特征备注 回 答 （1）您好些吗？ （2）您以前来过这吗？ （3）您叫什么名字？ （4）您多大岁数了？ （5）您家住在什么地方？ （6）您做什么工作（或退休前 做什么工作）？ （7）您简单说说您的病是怎么 得起来的？或您怎么不好？ （8）让病人看图片，叙述。 流畅度___ /27分 信息量___ /6分
（4）你家住在前门/ 否 2 鼓楼吗？ 是 2 （5）你家住在（正 确地名）吗？ 否 2 （6）你住在通县/延 庆吗？ （7）你是大夫吗？否 2 （8）我是大夫吗？是 2 否 2 （9）我是男的/女的 吗？ 是 2 （10）这个房间的灯 亮着吗？ （11）这个房间的门 否 2 是关着的吗？ 否 2 （12）这儿是旅馆 吗？ 是 2 （13）这儿是医院 吗？ （14）你穿的衣服是 否 2 红/蓝色的吗？ 是 4 （15）纸在火中燃烧 吗？
（16）每年中秋节在 端午节前先过吗？ 否 4 （17）您吃香蕉时先 剥皮吗？ 是 4 （18）在本地七月下 雪吗？ 否 4 （19）马比狗大吗？是 4 （20）农民用斧头割 草吗？ 否 4 （21）一斤面比二斤 面重吗？ 否 4 （22）冰在水里会沉 吗？ 否 4 总分 /60 （二）听辨认（共90分，45项，每项2分） 实物<5 ’’ 2 分 >5 ’’ 1 分 分 图 形 <5 ’’ 2 分 >5 ’’ 1 分 分 图 画 <5 ’’ 2 分 >5 ’’ 1 分 分 梳圆钥
失语症检查法 一、医科大学附属一院神经心理研究室的汉语失语成套测验（Aphasia Battery of Chinese,ABC） 1、介绍 ABC是按照失语检查的基本原则由高素荣等在1988年编制的。主要参考西方失语成套测验（WAB），结合我国国情和临床经验，经过探索、修改而拟订的。此检查法按规化要求制定统一指导语，统一评分标准，统一图片及文字卡片及统一失语症分类标准。其容以国常见词、句为主，适量选择使用频率较少的词、句，无罕见词、句及难句。为减少文化水平的差异，ABC大多测试语句比较简单；阅读及书写检查较类似检查法少见。临床检验结果，其口语理解和听理解各亚项对不同文化水平者可完成91％以上。ABC可区别语言正常和失语症；对脑血管病语言正常者，也可查出某些语言功能的轻度缺陷，通过ABC不同亚项测试可作出失语症分类诊断。 2、量表 2．1原表 医科大学第一临床医学院神经心理研究室失语检查记录 ：性别：年龄：病历号：住址：邮政编码：籍贯：出生地及成长地(18岁前) 文化程度职业：检查日期：检查者 利手： (右)写字(左) (有)拿筷(左) (右)剪刀(左) (右)切菜(左)(右)刷牙(左) (右)提物(左) (右)穿针(左) (右)洗脸(左) (右)划火柴(左) (右)扫地(左) (右)炒菜(左) (右)持钉锤(左) 结论：右、左、混合 现病史： 既往史： 一般检查：血压 神经系统检查： 神志合作注意力：294 85274 7316 641873 (正叙) 定向力：时间地点人物 记忆力：紫红色图书馆足球场大白菜 颅神经 感觉系统 运动系统 反射 植物神经 一、谈话 将病人谈话录音，7、8应尽量鼓励多说，录音至少5—10分钟，病人连续说时不要打断他。一分钟无或偶有文法结构词为无文法结构。 (一)问答 您好些吗? 您以前来过这吗? 您叫什么名字?
汉语标准失语症检查表（中康法）编号：姓名：（男女）出生地： 发病日期：年月日年龄：岁 疾病诊断：文化程度： CT/MRI结果：职业： 语言诊断：利手： 瘫痪侧：左右双检查所用时间：时分 检查日期：年月日检查者： 根据检查结果，总结记录言语症状，要注意以下各项： 1.运动性构音障碍 2.言语失用 3.探索行动 4.错语 5.无意义语 6.韵律 7.语法障碍 8.说话量 9.镜像文字 10.自己更正 11.持续记忆 12.愿望 13.易疲劳性 14.注意力 言语症状的一般情况 检查前，通过问病人以下问题，了解病人的一般言语状况： 1姓名：7学历： 2住址：8爱好 3出生日期（年、月）9主诉 4年龄10发病前后语言状况
5家庭成员11发病时状况 6职业史12方言 一、听 1.名词的理解 说明：“请指出来是哪个图”？ 误答或15秒后无反应重复提问一次。6分：3秒内回答正确。 5分：15秒内回答正确。 3分：提示后回答正确。 1分：提示后回答不正确。 中止A：3分以下，连续错两题。 问题得分 1西瓜 2鱼 3自行车 4月亮 5椅子 6电灯 7火 8钟表 9牙刷 10楼房 中止B：全检 2动词的理解 说明和打分同上。 问题得分 1飞 2睡 3喝水 4跳舞
5穿衣 6敲 7坐 8游泳 9哭 10写 中止B：全检 3句子的理解 说明：“请指出来是哪个图”？ 误答或15秒后无反应重复提问一次。 6分：3秒内回答正确。 5分：15秒内回答正确。 3分：提示后回答正确。 1分：提示后回答不正确。 中止A：3分以下，连续错5题。 问题得分 1水开了。 2孩子们堆了一个大雪人。 3男孩洗脸。 4男孩付钱买药。 5老人扶着拐杖独自过人行横道。 6两个孩子在讨论书上的图画。 7男孩子在湖上划船。 8小男孩的左臂被车门夹住了。 9一个男演员边弹边唱。 10护士准备给男孩打针。 中止B：分项目1或2中6和5分在5题以下。 4 执行口头命令 （患者） 钢笔剪子牙刷镜子盘子
失语症检查法 一、北京医科大学附属一院神经心理研究室的汉语失语成套测验（Aphasia Battery of Chinese,ABC） 1、介绍 ABC是按照失语检查的基本原则由高素荣等在1988年编制的。主要参考西方失语成套测验（WAB），结合我国国情和临床经验，经过探索、修改而拟订的。此检查法按规范化要求制定统一指导语，统一评分标准，统一图片及文字卡片及统一失语症分类标准。其内容以国内常见词、句为主，适量选择使用频率较少的词、句，无罕见词、句及难句。为减少文化水平的差异，ABC大多测试语句比较简单；阅读及书写检查较类似检查法少见。临床检验结果，其口语理解和听理解各亚项对不同文化水平者可完成91％以上。ABC可区别语言正常和失语症；对脑血管病语言正常者，也可查出某些语言功能的轻度缺陷，通过ABC不同亚项测试可作出失语症分类诊断。 2、量表 2．1原表 北京医科大学第一临床医学院神经心理研究室失语检查记录 姓名：性别：年龄：病历号：住址：邮政编码： 籍贯：出生地及成长地(18岁前) 文化程度职业：检查日期：检查者 利手：(右)写字(左) (有)拿筷(左) (右)剪刀(左) (右)切菜(左)(右)刷牙(左) (右)提物(左) (右)穿针(左) (右)洗脸(左) (右)划火柴(左) (右)扫地(左) (右)炒菜(左) (右)持钉锤(左) 结论：右、左、混合 现病史： 既往史： 一般检查：血压 神经系统检查： 神志合作注意力：294 85274 7316 641873 (正叙) 定向力：时间地点人物 记忆力：紫红色图书馆足球场大白菜 颅神经 感觉系统 运动系统 反射 植物神经 一、谈话 将病人谈话录音，7、8应尽量鼓励多说，录音至少5—10分钟，病人连续说时不要打断他。一分钟内无或偶有文法结构词为无文法结构。 (一)问答 您好些吗? 您以前来过这吗? 您叫什么名字? 您多大岁数啦?
汉语国际教育硕士历年试题and 答案27页
1996对外汉语教学理论和语言学试卷 对外汉语教学理论 一、填空（每空1分，共14分） （一）对外汉语教学的全部教学活动可概括为_总体设计_、_教材编写_、课堂教学_、 _语言测试__ 等四大环节。 （二）对外汉语语言要素的教学包括_语音__、 _词汇__、 _语法_、汉字等四个方面。 （三）作为一项处理教与学关系的教学原则，对外汉语教学应以学生为_中心__，以教师为__主导__。 （四）对外汉语教师对不同民族的文化应采取客观、尊重的态度。 （五）HSK的全称_汉语水平考试__，是为_母语非汉语的学习者制订的，其初、中等共分__八__级。 二、选择正确答案（填上标号，每空1分，共6分） （一）我国正式出版的第一部对外汉语教材是______。 A．《基础汉语课本》 B．《基础汉语》C．《汉语教科书》 D．《实用汉语课本》 (二)外语教学听说法产生于______国，其语言学基础是______。 A．法国 B．美国 C．英国 D．加拿大E．结构主义语言学 F．转换生成语言学 G．历史比较语言学 H．机械语言学 （三）世界汉语教学学会的会刊是______，该刊物为______。 A．《汉语学习》 B．《世界汉语教学》 C．《语言教学与研究》D．《学汉语》 E．月刊 F．双月刊 G．季刊 H．双季刊 （四）学过800学时（在中国，相当于初等一年级）的零起点学生掌握的词汇量应约为______。 A．1000 B．1500 C．2000 D．3000 三、解释术语（任选3题，每小题5分，共15分） （一）第二语言教学与对外汉语教学——第二语言教学通常指在学习者掌握第一语言之后，通过各种教学手段，从培养学生最基本的言语能力开始，使学习者在学校环境（即课堂）中有意识地掌握第二语言。目的是使学生掌握语言交际工具，培养学生运用目的语进行交际的能力。对外汉语教学是对外国人进行的汉语作为第二语言的教学。 （二）言语技能与言语交际技能——言语技能就是听、说、读、写的技能，听、说用于口头交际，读、写用于书面交际。言语技能受语言规则的制约。言语交际技能就是用言语进行交际的技能，它以言语技能为基础。言语交际技能除了受语言规则的制约外，还要受语用规则的制约，保证言语的得体性。 （三）学习风格的场独立性与场依存性——场独立性与场依存性是人们对客观世界的信息进行加工的两种方式。 场依存性具体表现为：看待事物往往倾向于从宏观上着眼、从整体上审视，即使对于个别信息，也容易受到整体背景的影响和事物明显的特征的影响，知觉往往比较集中。 场独立性具体表现为：看待事物常常倾向于以微观为基点，善于对每一个具体信息做出分析和辨认，而较少地受到整体背景的影响。对事物做出判断时常信赖于个人的内部标准或利用个人的内部参照来进行。进行信息加工时，能较快地从整体中抽出部分来加以认识。 （四）成绩测试与水平测试——成绩测试是一门课程或一种课型的一定学习阶段的测试，所以也称之为课程测试。成绩测试用以检查测试对象在学习的一定阶段掌握所学课程的情况，测量他们的学习成绩，因此，成绩测试是教学中最常用的一种测试。它跟教学过程和教学对象紧密相关。水平测试的目的是测量测试对象的第二语言水平。水平测试的内容和方法以能够有效地测量测试对象的实际语言水平为原则。一般而言，水平测试有专门的考试大纲、统一的试题和统一的评分标准。它以尽可能客观的标准来测量考生的目的语水平，能够证明达到同样分数线的考生具有基本相同的目的语水平。它不以任何一个教学单位的教学大纲或某一种教材为依据，不考虑任何一个教学单位的课程特点。 四、回答问题（每题不超200字，任选2题，每题7分，共14分） （一）为什么说对外汉语教学的基本目的是培养学习者运用汉语进行交际的能力？ 对外汉语教学虽然也有受教育目的、学术目的、职业工具等各种不同的目的，但从根本上来说都是为了使学生学会听、说、读、写，能用语言进行交际。语言是交际工具，教语言就是让学习者掌握这个工具，培养学习者运用汉语进行交际的能力。因此，语言课是技能课、工具课。虽然语言教学中也要教语言知识和语言规律，但这是为了使学习者掌握语言、运用语言进行交际而进行的教学，根本目的是培养和提高他们运用语言进行交际的能力。如果我们在语言课上过多地讲解语言知识，例如讲词语的种种义项，讲语法知识，而忽视了语言技能的训练，这就是混淆了语言教学和语言学教学的目的，违背了语言教学的规律。 （二）对外汉语教学中文化因素的教学与语言教学的关系如何？文化因素教学主要体现在哪些方面？
汉语标准失语症检查表 案场各岗位服务流程 销售大厅服务岗： 1、销售大厅服务岗岗位职责： 1)为来访客户提供全程的休息区域及饮品; 2)保持销售区域台面整洁; 3)及时补足销售大厅物资,如糖果或杂志等; 4)收集客户意见、建议及现场问题点； 2、销售大厅服务岗工作及服务流程 阶段工作及服务流程 班前阶段1）自检仪容仪表以饱满的精神面貌进入工作区域 2）检查使用工具及销售大厅物资情况，异常情况及时登记并报告上级。 班中工作程序服务 流程 行为 规范 迎接 指引 递阅 资料 上饮品 （糕点） 添加茶水工作1）眼神关注客人，当客人距3米距离侯客迎询问客户送客户
注意事项 15度鞠躬微笑问候：“您好！欢迎光临！”2）在客人前方1-2米距离领位，指引请客人向休息区，在客人入座后问客人对座位是否满意：“您好！请问坐这儿可以吗？”得到同意后为客人拉椅入座“好的，请入座！” 3）若客人无置业顾问陪同，可询问：请问您有专属的置业顾问吗？，为客人取阅项目资料，并礼貌的告知请客人稍等，置业顾问会很快过来介绍，同时请置业顾问关注该客人； 4）问候的起始语应为“先生-小姐-女士早上好，这里是XX销售中心，这边请”5）问候时间段为8:30-11:30 早上好11:30-14:30 中午好 14:30-18:00下午好 6）关注客人物品，如物品较多，则主动询问是否需要帮助（如拾到物品须两名人员在场方能打开，提示客人注意贵重物品）； 7）在满座位的情况下，须先向客人致
待； 阶段工作及服务流程 班中工作程序工作 要求 注意 事项 饮料（糕点服务） 1）在所有饮料（糕点）服务中必须使用 托盘； 2）所有饮料服务均已“对不起，打扰一 下，请问您需要什么饮品”为起始； 3）服务方向：从客人的右面服务； 4）当客人的饮料杯中只剩三分之一时， 必须询问客人是否需要再添一杯，在二 次服务中特别注意瓶口绝对不可以与 客人使用的杯子接触； 5）在客人再次需要饮料时必须更换杯 子； 下班程 序1）检查使用的工具及销售案场物资情况，异常情况及时记录并报告上级领导； 2）填写物资领用申请表并整理客户意见；3）参加班后总结会； 4）积极配合销售人员的接待工作，如果下班
1 国际注册汉语教师资格等级考试模拟题 对外汉语教学理论（一） 一、填空题（共10分） 说明：第1—10题是填空题，每题有一空，每空1分，共10分。请仔细阅题，并在划线处填入恰当的答案。 1. 第二语言教学的根本目的是培养学习者运用 进行交际的能力。 2. 对比分析理论是在行为主义学习理论和 语言理论的共同影响下产生的。 3. 塞林克认为，导致中介语不同于目的语主要有语言的迁移、语言训练的迁移、学习策略的影响、交际策略的影响和 五个方面的因素。 4. 可能是有目的地学会的，也有可能是由于搬迁、移民等原因自然学会了的语言，它的外延要比“目的语”大一些。 5. 在语言教学改革的先行者中， 被认为是实践直接法的最早代表。 6. 一部好的汉语教科书应该具有科学性、 、 针对性和趣味性。 7. 由于对文化不适应而产生的心理上的深度焦虑感被称为 。 8. 对外汉语教学的学科理论主要包括 和教学法两部分。 9. 一些高年级的汉语学习者依然会说出“见面你”、“结婚他”之类的话来，是 现象。 10. 十九世纪中叶，从直接法开始，主张 ，把口语课摆到了主要的位置。 二、选择题（共10分） 说明：第11—20题是单项选择题，每题只有一个可选项，请根据题目要求选择恰当的选项，每题1分。 11. （ ）是自觉对比法和认知知法的本源，是第二语言教学法史上第一个完整的教学法体系，是最古老的教学法。 A ．功能发 B ．听说法 C ．直接法 D ．语法翻译法 12. 从评分角度来看，完成会话属于（ ）。 A ．理解性试题 B ．综合性试题 C ．主观性试题 D ．客观性试题 13.（ ）是指评估的内容是否就是教材评估所应考察的内容，也就是说评估的各项指标在多大程度上体现了评估的目的所在。 A ．信度 B ．效度 C ．纬度 D ．知识度
汉语失语症检查表ABC法
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汉语失语症检查表（ABC法） 姓名：性别：年龄：科室：床号：住院号： 主诉： 诊断： 一.谈话（流畅度9－27分、信息量0－6分） 1．问答（录音） 回答特征备注（1）您好些吗？ （2）您以前来过这吗？ （3）您叫什么名字？ （4）您多大岁数了？ （5）您家住在什么地方？ （6）您做什么工作（或退休前做什么工作）？ （7）您简单说说您的病是怎么得起来的？或您怎么不好？ （8）让病人看图片，叙述。 流畅度___ /27分 信息量___ /6分 2．系列语言 实数数备注 从1数到21 总分/21分 一．理解 （一）是/否问题（共60分） Ⅰ问题、答案、表达方式与评分 问题正 确 答 案 表达方式 评分言语特征言语手头闭眼 （1）你的名字是张小红吗？否 2 （2）你的名字是李华明吗？否 2 （3）你的名字是（真名）吗？是 2 （4）你家住在前门/鼓楼吗？否 2 （5）你家住在（正确地名）吗？是 2 （6）你住在通县/延庆吗？否 2 （7）你是大夫吗？否 2 （8）我是大夫吗？是 2 （9）我是男的/女的吗？否 2 （10）这个房间的灯亮着吗？是 2 （11）这个房间的门是关着的吗？否 2 （12）这儿是旅馆吗？否 2
（13）这儿是医院吗？是 2 （14）你穿的衣服是红/蓝色的吗？否 2 （15）纸在火中燃烧吗？是 4 （16）每年中秋节在端午节前先过吗？否 4 （17）您吃香蕉时先剥皮吗？是 4 （18）在本地七月下雪吗？否 4 （19）马比狗大吗？是 4 （20）农民用斧头割草吗？否 4 （21）一斤面比二斤面重吗？否 4 （22）冰在水里会沉吗？否 4 总分/60 （二）听辨认（共90分，45项，每项2分） 实物<5’’ 2分>5’’ 1分 0分图形<5’’ 2分 >5’’ 1分 0分图画<5’’ 2分 >5’’ 1分 0分 梳子圆钥匙铅笔方火柴钥匙三角梳子火柴螺旋铅笔花五星花 动作<5’’ 2分>5’’ 1分 0分颜色<5’’ 2分 >5’’ 1分 0分家具<5’’ 2分 >5’’ 1分 0分 吸烟红窗户喝水黄椅子跑步蓝电灯睡觉绿桌子摔倒黑床 身体<5’’ 2分>5’’ 1分 0分身体<5’’ 2分 >5’’ 1分 0分身体<5’’ 2分 >5’’ 1分 0分 耳朵中指右耳鼻子胳膊 肘 左眼 肩膀眉毛左拇 指眼睛小指右手 腕手腕拇指右中 指听辨认总分： /90分。 （三）口头指令（共80分）
汉语标准失语症检查表 姓名：（男女）出生地： 发病日期：年月日年龄：岁 疾病诊断：文化程度： CT/MRI结果：职业： 语言诊断：利手： 瘫痪侧：左右双检查所用时间：时分检查日期：年月日检查者： 中国康复研究中心 言语症状总结 根据检查结果，总结记录言语症状，要注意以下各项： 1.运动性构音障碍 2.言语失用 3.探索行动 4.错语 5.无意义语 6.韵律 7.语法障碍 8.说话量 9.镜像文字 10.自己更正 11.持续记忆 12.愿望 13.易疲劳性 14.注意力 言语症状的一般情况 检查前，通过问病人以下问题，了解病人的一般言语状况： 1姓名：7学历： 2住址：8爱好 3出生日期（年、月）9主诉 4年龄10发病前后语言状况 5家庭成员11发病时状况 6职业史12方言 一、听
1.名词的理解 说明：“请指出来是哪个图”？ 误答或15秒后无反应重复提问一次。 6分：3秒内回答正确。 5分：15秒内回答正确。 3分：提示后回答正确。 1分：提示后回答不正确。 中止B：全检 2动词的理解 中止B：全检 3句子的理解 说明：“请指出来是哪个图”？ 误答或15秒后无反应重复提问一次。6分：3秒内回答正确。 5分：15秒内回答正确。 3分：提示后回答正确。 1分：提示后回答不正确。 中止A：3分以下，连续错5题。
中止B：分项目1或2中6和5分在5题以下。 4 执行口头命令 说明：“请按我说的移动物品，请注意听”。超过两单位错误或15秒后无反应需提示（重复提问一次）。 6分：3秒内回答正确。 5分：15秒内回答正确。 4分：15秒内回答但有错误。 3分：提示后回答正确。 2分：提示后不完全反应。 1分：提示后回答不正确。 中止B：分项目2中6和5分在6题以下或3题中在5题以下。 二、复述
现代汉语知识练习题 一、填空题 1、现代汉语民族共同语又叫普通话，它是以北京语音为标准音，以北方方言为基本方言，以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的。 2.北方方言是分布地域最广、使用人口最多的汉语方言。 3、写出下列汉字和声母：拉_l__拿__n_扯__ch_私_s__锋_f__喝__h_轻_q__叫_j__拔__b_妙__m_泡__p_到__d_搞g__考_k__拖__t_修_x__水__sh_转 zh___让__r_村_c__央_没有__ 4、写出下列字的韵母：国_uo__、但__an_、胎_ai__、风__eng_、江_iang__、裕__ü_、盆_en_、九__iou_、轮__uen_、对__uei_。 5、将下列各字的声调归类：腰、远、望、婆、互、风、纸、举、验、完、把、题、努、喷、欧、诺、平、飘、浅、恰。 一声：______二声：_______ 三声：______四声：_______ 6、“儿子”的“儿”和“小孩儿”的“儿”用拼音表示应该是这样的：“儿子”拼写成__érzi_，“小孩儿”拼写成__xiǎoháir_。 7、y，w的用法之一是当i 自成音节时，加y；当i后面有别的韵母时，将i 变为y 。当u自成音节时，加w；当u后面有别的韵母时，将u变为w 。 8、《汉语拼音方案》规定y，w用法的目的是避免音节界限发生混淆。 9、ü行韵母跟声母j，q，x相拼时，写成ju qu xu，ü上两点去掉，这不会跟有关的韵母相混，因为声母j，q，x不跟 u行韵母相拼。因此juan，que，xu等音节里的u必定是ü而不是 u 。 10、“一”的本调是一声，在去声前念二声，在非去声前念四声，在重叠动词中间时念轻声。 11、根据实际发音给下列词语中的“一”标调： 一yì直一yì口一yì眼 一yí次一yí岁一yì模一yí样
一、自发谈话 将病人的谈话内容录音，尽量鼓励多说，不要打断病人，录音至少要求5分钟。然后根据录音判断一分钟有多少个字，是否有文法结构词，如果一分钟内不到一半语句有文法结构词为少，偶有或没有则为无文法结构。谈话内容如下： 1.您好些了吗？ 2.您以前来过这里吗？ 3.您叫什么名字？ 4.您多大岁数了？ 5.您家住在什么地方？ 6.您做什么工作的（或您以前是做什么工作的）？ 7.您简单的说说您的病是怎么得起来的？ 8.让病人看图片，说图片的内容 分型：非流利型9~13分中间型14~20分流利型21~27分 系列语言评测： 1.从1数到21。 2.十二生肖：鼠牛虎兔龙蛇马羊猴鸡狗猪。 3.唐诗吟诵：床前明月光，疑是地上霜。举头望明月，低头思故乡。 二、复述 “请您跟我学，我说什么您也说什么”。如病人未听清，可再重复一遍。如有构音障碍时只要能听出复述内容按正确记，每字记一分。错语扣分。 （一）词复述分数 1.门 1 2.床 1 3.尺 1 4.哥 1 5.窗户 2 6.汽车 2 7.八十 2 8.新鲜 2 9.天安门 3 10.四十七 3 11.拖拉机 3 12.活蛤蟆 3
（二）句复述分数 1.听说过 3 2.别告诉他 4 3.掉到水里啦 5 4.吃完饭就去散步7 5.办公室电话铃响着吧9 6.他出去以后还没有回来10 7.吃葡萄不吐葡萄皮8 8.当他回到家的时候，发现屋子里坐满了朋友18 最高分：100分患者分： 三、命名 （一）词命名按次序出示实物，问病人“这是什么？”（或图片“这个人在干什么？”）正确回答得2分。触摸后才正确回答得1分。如果触摸后5秒内仍不能正确说出正确答案，则提示三个名词其中包括正确答案让病人选择，选对则得1/2分，如仍说不出则提示正确答案的第一个音，能正确回答得1/2分，否则记0分。 五、阅读 （一）视读（每字1分） “请您念一下这些字” 妹肚鸭动村明和砂晴转 （二）听字—辨认 “请您指出每行字中，我念的是哪一个？”，每次只限指一个，划“√”。指两个以上无分，除非病人明确表示更正。 47 17 74 14 47 407 （水）田：由甲申电田 （喝）水：永水本木术 成（功）：茂成戌咸威 唱（歌）：倡昌唱畅常 （棉）被：背被披杯倍 （铅）笔：币必笔比毕 （您）好：佳良棒冠好 坏（人）：次差坏下来 （三）字—画匹配 “请您念一下每个词，再指出画上是哪一个。”如果读不出来，亦要求指出。每正确反应给1分。其中朗读20分，配画20分。
失语症的评价与训练 一、定义 失语症（a p h a s i a） 是指由于脑部的损伤使原已获得的语言能力受损或丧失的一种语言障碍综合症。表现为丧失了对语言信号意义的理解或表达能力，包括：对口语、文字的理解和表达困难，还有其他高级信号活动的障碍，如计算等。 前提：病人神志清醒，无精神衰退，无感觉缺失和发音肌肉瘫痪. 病因：脑血管意外、脑外伤、脑肿瘤、脑炎、脑囊虫病、脑脓肿、C O中毒等 二.失语症的言语症状 （一）听觉理解障碍 1．意义理解障碍： 患者能正确辨认语音，但不明词意，是由于音-意联系中断造成。重者完全不能理解，轻者对长句或复杂句不能完全理解。如问：苹果？ 2．语音辨识障碍： 听力正常，能听到声音，但对听到的声音不能辨认，给人一种似乎听不见的感觉，严重障碍者为纯词聋。常问：什么？ 3．听语记忆广度障碍：听语记忆广度是言语听觉痕迹系列的保持能力，单位容量为7±2，复述单个词时可能无困难，复述较长的句子时困难。 （二）口语表达障碍 1.发音障碍： ◆表现为发音错误，严重时仅可发声，可有韵律失调和四声障碍； ◆与运动性构音障碍不同，随意说话与尤以表达分离、模仿语言发声不如自发语言，发音错误 常不一致 2.说话费力 与发音障碍有关，表现为说话不流畅，常伴有叹气、面部表情和身体费力的表现 3.错语：不符合言语习惯和规则的音节、单词或句子。包括： 语音性错语：指词中音素被别的音素置换， 如“苹（p i n g）果”说成“x i n g果”； 词性错语：想表达的字词与另外的有意义的字词置换， 如“毛巾”说成“咸菜”； 新造语：用无意义词或新创造的词代替说不出的词， 如将“鼻子”说成“祖子”。 4.杂乱语（j a r g o n）：指说话时大量错语混有新词，杂乱无章，令人费解。 5.找词困难：指患者在言谈中产生恰当的词困难或不能。 迂回现象： 命名障碍：面对物品或图片不能说出其名称。 表达性命名不能：知道名称，但说不出正确的词，语音提示有效；
一、填空题 1、从国外各种外语教学法流派的发展史，我们可以清楚地看到，任何一种外语教学法流派 都具有相应的（语言学、心理学、教育学、教育心理学原理）的理论基础。 2、无论母语还是目的语，它们都受语言学的一般原理支配，都能归纳出语言的基本要素（语 音、词汇、语法） 3、对国外外语教学法流派加以综合分析，按其（语言教学特征）可以分为四大派：（1）、 强调自觉掌握的认知派，如（语法翻译法、自觉对比法）和（人知法）等；（2）、强调习惯养成的经验派，如（直接法、情景法、听说法、视听法）等；（3）、强调情感因素的人本派，如（团体语言学习法、默教法、暗示法）等；（4）、强调交集运用的功能派，如（交际法）等；如果按教学目标来区分，又可归纳成以（听说实践）为主和以（分析理解）为主的两大系统。前者如直接法、听说法、视听法、全身反应法等等；后者如语法翻译法、自觉对比法、认知法等等。 4、自觉对比法确定外语教学的程序应当是：（语言——言语——语言）。 5、课堂教学是一种相当严密的（教与学）的活动，也可以说是教师与学习者为达到某种教 学目的儿进行的一种认知活动过程， 6、课堂教学遵循这样的流程：（分析——实施——反馈）三个阶段。 7、课堂教学的基本要素系主要有：（教学单位、教学环节、教学步骤）和（教学方法）。 8、教学到位分为（教学课时、教学单元）和（教学阶段）。 9、教育家们在长期的教学实践中，根据感知、理解、巩固、运用的基本认知心理规律，总 结和归纳出五个教学环节（组织教学、复习检查、讲练新内容、巩固新内容、布置课外作业） 10、（讲练新内容）是课堂教学中最主要的环节。 11、教学步骤一般由（视、听、读、写、问、思、说、练）等诸要素根据教学需要组合而成。 12、（教学行为）指与教学有关的具体活动。踏实课堂教学中最基本的单位。 13、学习动机是直接推动学习者进行学习活动的一种内部动力。 14、（教学方案）是教师根据教学任务和教学目标拟定的具体执教计划，俗称（教案）。 15、（讲练结合）是协调教学节奏的好方法。 16、（语音教学）是对外汉语教学的第一个阶段，这个阶段的教学效果对外国留学生的汉语学习产生关键性的影响。 17、（发音示范）是最基本的展示声调的方法。 18、十九世纪中叶，从（直接法）开始，主张听说领先，把口语课摆到了主要的位置。 19、口语是一种语言输出活动，从理论上说，任何形式的语言输出必须奠基于（语言输入）。 20、控制性口语教学时指整个口语教学以（教师的控制）为中心。 21、指物说词多用于（名词）的训练，做动作说词则可用于（动词或词组）的训练。 22、在控制性语言训练时，要注意（意义）与（价值）的结合 23、交集价值教学，是指在（真实的环境）中教授语言。 24、口语从意念到表达的过程，中间要经历三个阶段：（话语计划、话语构建、话语执行）。 25、词组时话语的半成品，积累多了，说话也会流利起来。 26、（释义法）是设想读者全部认识解释所用的词语为前提的，因为对外汉语教学不能把词典的解释原封不动地搬进课堂，要考虑学习者所积累的词汇量和实际接收的能力。 27、替换法的目的是使学习者能够熟练地从同义词和类义词中选词成句，较快地组织话语。 28、自由性口语教学不能搞成单一的会话教学，它应该从（内容）和（形式）两个方面作出必要的更新。 29、对外汉语教学在吸取国外语言教学流派的精髓以及长期的教学实践过程中，逐渐形成了