(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
中英文对照外文翻译
外文文献：
Changing roles of the clients,architects and contractors through BIM
Abstract
Purpose– This paper aims to present a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature and case studies. It seeks to address the necessity for applying BIM and re-organising the processes and roles in hospital building projects. This type of project is complex due to complicated functional and technical requirements, decision making involving a large number of stakeholders, and long-term development processes.
Design/methodology/approach– Through desk research and referring to the ongoing European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Through several real cases, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated.
Findings–One of the main findings is the identification of the main factors for a successful collaboration using BIM, which can be recognised as “POWER”: product information sharing (P),organisational roles synergy (O), work processes coordination (W), environment for teamwork (E), and reference data consolidation (R). Furthermore, it is also found that the implementation of BIM in hospital building projects is still limited due to certain commercial and legal barriers, as well as the fact that integrated collaboration has not yet been embedded in the real estate strategies of healthcare institutions.
Originality/value– This paper contributes to the actual discussion in science and practice on the changing roles and processes that are required to develop and operate sustainable buildings with the support of integrated ICT frameworks and tools. It presents the state-of-the-art of European research projects and some of the first real cases of BIM application in hospital building projects. Keywords Europe, Hospitals, The Netherlands, Construction works, Response flexibility, Project planning
Paper type General review
1. Introduction
Hospital building projects, are of key importance, and involve significant investment, and usually take a long-term development period. Hospital building projects are also very complex due to the complicated requirements regarding hygiene, safety, special equipments, and handling of a large amount of data. The building process is very dynamic and comprises iterative phases and intermediate changes. Many actors with shifting agendas, roles and responsibilities are actively involved, such as: the healthcare institutions, national and local governments, project developers, financial institutions, architects, contractors, advisors, facility managers, and equipment manufacturers and suppliers. Such building projects are very much influenced, by the healthcare policy, which changes rapidly in response to the medical, societal and technological developments, and varies greatly between countries (World Health Organization, 2000). In The
Netherlands, for example, the way a building project in the healthcare sector is organised is undergoing a major reform due to a fundamental change in the Dutch health policy that was introduced in 2008.
The rapidly changing context posts a need for a building with flexibility over its lifecycle. In order to incorporate life-cycle considerations in the building design, construction technique, and facility management strategy, a multidisciplinary collaboration is required. Despite the attempt for establishing integrated collaboration, healthcare building projects still faces serious problems in practice, such as: budget overrun, delay, and sub-optimal quality in terms of flexibility, end-user?s dissatisfaction, and energy inefficiency. It is evident that the lack of communication and coordination between the actors involved in the different phases of a building project is among the most important reasons behind these problems. The communication between different stakeholders becomes critical, as each stakeholder possesses different set of skills. As a result, the processes for extraction, interpretation, and communication of complex design information from drawings and documents are often time-consuming and difficult. Advanced visualisation technologies, like 4D planning have tremendous potential to increase the communication efficiency and interpretation ability of the project team members. However, their use as an effective communication tool is still limited and not fully explored (Dawood and Sikka, 2008). There are also other barriers in the information transfer and integration, for instance: many existing ICT systems do not support the openness of the data and structure that is prerequisite for an effective collaboration between different building actors or disciplines.
Building information modelling (BIM) offers an integrated solution to the previously mentioned problems. Therefore, BIM is increasingly used as an ICT support in complex building projects. An effective multidisciplinary collaboration supported by an optimal use of BIM require changing roles of the clients, architects, and contractors; new contractual relationships; and re-organised collaborative processes. Unfortunately, there are still gaps in the practical knowledge on how to manage the building actors to collaborate effectively in their changing roles, and to develop and utilise BIM as an optimal ICT support of the collaboration.
This paper presents a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature review and case studies. In the next sections, based on literature and recent findings from European research project InPro, the framework for integrated
collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Subsequently, through the observation of two ongoing pilot projects in The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated. In conclusion, the critical success factors as well as the main barriers of a successful integrated collaboration using BIM are identified.
2. Changing roles through integrated collaboration and life-cycle design approaches
A hospital building project involves various actors, roles, and knowledge domains. In The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors in hospital building projects are inevitable due the new healthcare policy. Previously under the Healthcare Institutions Act (WTZi), healthcare institutions were required to obtain both a license and a building permit for new construction projects and major renovations. The permit was issued by the Dutch Ministry of Health. The healthcare institutions were then eligible to receive financial support from the government. Since 2008, new legislation on the management of hospital building projects and real estate has come into force. In this new legislation, a permit for hospital building project under the WTZi is no longer obligatory, nor obtainable (Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, 2008). This change allows more freedom from the state-directed policy, and respectively, allocates more responsibilities to the healthcare organisations to deal with the financing and management of their real estate. The new policy implies that the healthcare institutions are fully responsible to manage and finance their building proje cts and real estate. The government?s support for the costs of healthcare facilities will no longer be given separately, but will be included in the fee for healthcare services. This means that healthcare institutions must earn back their investment on real estate through their services. This new policy intends to stimulate sustainable innovations in the design, procurement and management of healthcare buildings, which will contribute to effective and efficient primary healthcare services.
The new strategy for building projects and real estate management endorses an integrated collaboration approach. In order to assure the sustainability during construction, use, and maintenance, the end-users, facility managers, contractors and specialist contractors need to be involved in the planning and design processes. The implications of the new strategy are reflected in the changing roles of the building actors and in the new procurement method.
In the traditional procurement method, the design, and its details, are developed by the architect, and design engineers. Then, the client (the healthcare institution) sends an application
to the Ministry of Health to obtain an approval on the building permit and the financial support from the government. Following this, a contractor is selected through a tender process that emphasises the search for the lowest-price bidder. During the construction period, changes often take place due to constructability problems of the design and new requirements from the client. Because of the high level of technical complexity, and moreover, decision-making complexities, the whole process from initiation until delivery of a hospital building project can take up to ten years time. After the delivery, the healthcare institution is fully in charge of the operation of the facilities. Redesigns and changes also take place in the use phase to cope with new functions and developments in the medical world (van Reedt Dortland, 2009).
The integrated procurement pictures a new contractual relationship between the parties involved in a building project. Instead of a relationship between the client and architect for design, and the client and contractor for construction, in an integrated procurement the client only holds a contractual relationship with the main party that is responsible for both design and construction ( Joint Contracts Tribunal, 2007). The traditional borders between tasks and occupational groups become blurred since architects, consulting firms, contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers all stand on the supply side in the building process while the client on the demand side. Such configuration puts the architect, engineer and contractor in a very different position that influences not only their roles, but also their responsibilities, tasks and communication with the client, the users, the team and other stakeholders.
The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method requires a shift of mindset of the parties on both the demand and supply sides. It is essential for the client and contractor to have a fair and open collaboration in which both can optimally use their competencies. The effectiveness of integrated collaboration is also determined by the client?s capacity and strategy to organize innovative tendering procedures (Sebastian et al., 2009).
A new challenge emerges in case of positioning an architect in a partnership with the contractor instead of with the client. In case of the architect enters a partnership with the contractor, an important issues is how to ensure the realisation of the architectural values as well as innovative engineering through an efficient construction process. In another case, the architect can stand at the client?s side in a strategic advisory role instead of being the designer. In this case, the architect?s responsibility is translating client?s requirements and wishes into the architectural
values to be included in the design specification, and evaluating the contractor?s proposal against this. In any of this new role, the architect holds the responsibilities as stakeholder interest facilitator, custodian of customer value and custodian of design models.
The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method also brings consequences in the payment schemes. In the traditional building process, the honorarium for the architect is usually based on a percentage of the project costs; this may simply mean that the more expensive the building is, the higher the honorarium will be. The engineer receives the honorarium based on the complexity of the design and the intensity of the assignment. A highly complex building, which takes a number of redesigns, is usually favourable for the engineers in terms of honorarium.
A traditional contractor usually receives the commission based on the tender to construct the building at the lowest price by meeting the minimum specifications given by the client. Extra work due to modifications is charged separately to the client. After the delivery, the contractor is no longer responsible for the long-term use of the building. In the traditional procurement method, all risks are placed with the client.
In integrated procurement method, the payment is based on the achieved building performance; thus, the payment is non-adversarial. Since the architect, engineer and contractor have a wider responsibility on the quality of the design and the building, the payment is linked to a measurement system of the functional and technical performance of the building over a certain period of time. The honorarium becomes an incentive to achieve the optimal quality. If the building actors succeed to deliver a higher added-value that exceed the minimum client?s requirements, they will receive a bonus in accordance to the client?s extra gain. The level of transparency is also improved. Open book accounting is an excellent instrument provided that the stakeholders agree on the information to be shared and to its level of detail (InPro, 2009).
Next to the adoption of integrated procurement method, the new real estate strategy for hospital building projects addresses an innovative product development and life-cycle design approaches. A sustainable business case for the investment and exploitation of hospital buildings relies on dynamic life-cycle management that includes considerations and analysis of the market development over time next to the building life-cycle costs (investment/initial cost, operational cost, and logistic cost). Compared to the conventional life-cycle costing method, the dynamic life-cycle management encompasses a shift from focusing only on minimizing the costs to
focusing on maximizing the total benefit that can be gained. One of the determining factors for a successful implementation of dynamic life-cycle management is the sustainable design of the building and building components, which means that the design carries sufficient flexibility to accommodate possible changes in the long term (Prins, 1992).
Designing based on the principles of life-cycle management affects the role of the architect, as he needs to be well informed about the usage scenarios and related financial arrangements, the changing social and physical environments, and new technologies. Design needs to integrate people activities and business strategies over time. In this context, the architect is required to align the design strategies with the organisational, local and global policies on finance, business operations, health and safety, environment, etc. (Sebastian et al., 2009).
The combination of process and product innovation, and the changing roles of the building actors can be accommodated by integrated project delivery or IPD (AIA California Council, 2007). IPD is an approach that integrates people, systems, business structures and practices into a process that collaboratively harnesses the talents and insights of all participants to reduce waste and optimize efficiency through all phases of design, fabrication and construction. IPD principles can be applied to a variety of contractual arrangements. IPD teams will usually include members well beyond the basic triad of client, architect, and contractor. At a minimum, though, an Integrated Project should include a tight collaboration between the client, the architect, and the main contractor ultimately responsible for construction of the project, from the early design until the project handover. The key to a successful IPD is assembling a team that is committed to collaborative processes and is capable of working together effectively. IPD is built on collaboration. As a result, it can only be successful if the participants share and apply common values and goals.
3. Changing roles through BIM application
Building information model (BIM) comprises ICT frameworks and tools that can support the integrated collaboration based on life-cycle design approach. BIM is a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility. As such it serves as a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis for decisions during its lifecycle from inception onward (National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS, 2007). BIM facilitates time and place independent collaborative working. A basic premise of BIM is collaboration by
different stakeholders at different phases of the life cycle of a facility to insert, extract, update or modify information in the BIM to support and reflect the roles of that stakeholder. BIM in its ultimate form, as a shared digital representation founded on open standards for interoperability, can become a virtual information model to be handed from the design team to the contractor and subcontractors and then to the client (Sebastian et al., 2009).
BIM is not the same as the earlier known computer aided design (CAD). BIM goes further than an application to generate digital (2D or 3D) drawings (Bratton, 2009). BIM is an integrated model in which all process and product information is combined, stored, elaborated, and interactively distributed to all relevant building actors. As a central model for all involved actors throughout the project lifecycle, BIM develops and evolves as the project progresses. Using BIM, the proposed design and engineering solutions can be measured against the client?s requirements and expected building performance. The functionalities of BIM to support the design process extend to multidimensional (nD), including: three-dimensional visualisation and detailing, clash detection, material schedule, planning, cost estimate, production and logistic information, and as-built documents. During the construction process, BIM can support the communication between the building site, the factory and the design office– which is crucial for an effective and efficient prefabrication and assembly processes as well as to prevent or solve problems related to unforeseen errors or modifications. When the building is in use, BIM can be used in combination with the intelligent building systems to provide and maintain up-to-date information of the building performance, including the life-cycle cost.
To unleash the full potential of more efficient information exchange in the AEC/FM industry in collaborative working using BIM, both high quality open international standards and high quality implementations of these standards must be in place. The IFC open standard is generally agreed to be of high quality and is widely implemented in software. Unfortunately, the certification process allows poor quality implementations to be certified and essentially renders the certified software useless for any practical usage with IFC. IFC compliant BIM is actually used less than manual drafting for architects and contractors, and show about the same usage for engineers. A recent survey shows that CAD (as a closed-system) is still the major form of technique used in design work (over 60 per cent) while BIM is used in around 20 percent of projects for architects and in around 10 per cent of projects for engineers and contractors
(Kiviniemi et al., 2008).
The application of BIM to support an optimal cross-disciplinary and cross-phase collaboration opens a new dimension in the roles and relationships between the building actors. Several most relevant issues are: the new role of a model manager; the agreement on the access right and Intellectual Property Right (IPR); the liability and payment arrangement according to the type of contract and in relation to the integrated procurement; and the use of open international standards.
Collaborative working using BIM demands a new expert role of a model manager who possesses ICT as well as construction process know-how (InPro, 2009). The model manager deals with the system as well as with the actors. He provides and maintains technological solutions required for BIM functionalities, manages the information flow, and improves the ICT skills of the stakeholders. The model manager does not take decisions on design and engineering solutions, nor the organisational processes, but his roles in the chain of decision making are focused on:
●the development of BIM, the definition of the structure and detail level of the model, and the
deployment of relevant BIM tools, such as for models checking, merging, and clash detections;
●the contribution to collaboration methods, especially decision making and communication
protocols, task planning, and risk management;
●and the management of information, in terms of data flow and storage, identification of
communication errors, and decision or process (re-)tracking.
Regarding the legal and organisational issues, one of the actual questions is: “In what way does the intellectual property right (IPR) in collaborative working using BIM differ from the IPR in a traditional teamwork?”. In terms of combined work, the IPR of each element is attached to its creator. Although it seems to be a fully integrated design, BIM actually resulted from a combination of works/elements; for instance: the outline of the building design, is created by the architect, the design for the electrical system, is created by the electrical contractor, etc. Thus, in case of BIM as a combined work, the IPR is similar to traditional teamwork. Working with BIM with authorship registration functionalities may actually make it easier to keep track of the IPR(Chao-Duivis, 2009).
How does collaborative working, using BIM, effect the contractual relationship? On the one hand, collaborative working using BIM does not necessarily change the liability position in the contract nor does it obligate an alliance contract. The General Principles of BIM Addendum confirms: …This does not effectuate or require a restructuring of contractual relationships or shifting of risks between or among the Project Participants other than as specifically required per the Protocol Addendum and its Attachments? (ConsensusDOCS, 2008). On the other hand, changes in terms of payment schemes can be anticipated. Collaborative processes using BIM will lead to the shifting of activities from to the early design phase. Much, if not all, activities in the detailed engineering and specification phase will be done in the earlier phases. It means that significant payment for the engineering phase, which may count up to 40 per cent of the design cost, can no longer be expected. As engineering work is done concurrently with the design, a new proportion of the payment in the early design phase is necessary(Chao-Duivis, 2009).
4. Review of ongoing hospital building projects using BIM
In The Netherlands, the changing roles in hospital building projects are part of the strategy, which aims at achieving a sustainable real estate in response to the changing healthcare policy. Referring to literature and previous research, the main factors that influence the success of the changing roles can be concluded as: the implementation of an integrated procurement method and a life-cycle design approach for a sustainable collaborative process; the agreement on the BIM structure and the intellectual rights; and the integration of the role of a model manager. The preceding sections have discussed the conceptual thinking on how to deal with these factors effectively. This current section observes two actual projects and compares the actual practice with the conceptual view respectively.
The main issues, which are observed in the case studies, are:
●the selected procurement method and the roles of the involved parties within this method;
●the implementation of the life-cycle design approach;
●the type, structure, and functionalities of BIM used in the project;
●the openness in data sharing and transfer of the model, and the intended use of BIM in the
future; and
●the roles and tasks of the model manager.
The pilot experience of hospital building projects using BIM in the Netherlands can be
中文参考文献格式 参考文献（即引文出处）的类型以单字母方式标识： M——专著，C——论文集，N——报纸文章，J——期刊文章，D——学位论文，R——报告，S——标准，P——专利；对于不属于上述的文献类型，采用字母“Z”标识。 参考文献一律置于文末。其格式为： （一）专著 示例 [1] 张志建.严复思想研究[M]. 桂林：广西师范大学出版社，1989. [2] 马克思恩格斯全集：第1卷[M]. 北京：人民出版社，1956. [3] [英]蔼理士.性心理学[M]. 潘光旦译注.北京：商务印书馆，1997. （二）论文集 示例 [1] 伍蠡甫.西方文论选[C]. 上海：上海译文出版社，1979. [2] 别林斯基.论俄国中篇小说和果戈里君的中篇小说[A]. 伍蠡甫.西方文论选：下册[C]. 上海：上海译文出版社，1979. 凡引专著的页码，加圆括号置于文中序号之后。 （三）报纸文章 示例 [1] 李大伦.经济全球化的重要性[N]. 光明日报，1998-12-27，（3） （四）期刊文章 示例 [1] 郭英德.元明文学史观散论[J]. 北京师范大学学报（社会科学版），1995（3）. （五）学位论文 示例 [1] 刘伟.汉字不同视觉识别方式的理论和实证研究[D]. 北京：北京师范大学心理系，1998. （六）报告 示例 [1] 白秀水，刘敢，任保平. 西安金融、人才、技术三大要素市场培育与发展研究[R]. 西安：陕西师范大学西北经济发展研究中心，1998. （七）、对论文正文中某一特定内容的进一步解释或补充说明性的注释，置于本页地脚，前面用圈码标识。 参考文献的类型 根据GB3469-83《文献类型与文献载体代码》规定，以单字母标识： M——专著（含古籍中的史、志论著） C——论文集 N——报纸文章 J——期刊文章 D——学位论文 R——研究报告 S——标准 P——专利 A——专著、论文集中的析出文献 Z——其他未说明的文献类型 电子文献类型以双字母作为标识： DB——数据库 CP——计算机程序 EB——电子公告
英文论文APA格式 英文论文一些格式要求与国内期刊有所不同。从学术的角度讲，它更加严谨和科学，并且方便电子系统检索和存档。 版面格式
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零售企业营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
译文： 零售企业的营销策略 Philip Kotlor 今天的零售商为了招徕和挽留顾客，急欲寻找新的营销策略。过去，他们挽留顾客的方法是销售特别的或独特的花色品种，提供比竞争对手更多更好的服务提供商店信用卡是顾客能赊购商品。可是，现在这一切都已变得面目全非了。现在，诸如卡尔文·克连，依佐和李维等全国性品牌，不仅在大多数百货公司及其专营店可以看到，并且也可以在大型综合商场和折扣商店可以买到。全国性品牌的生产商为全力扩大销售量，它们将贴有品牌的商品到处销售。结果是零售商店的面貌越来越相似。 在服务项目上的分工差异在逐渐缩小。许多百货公司削减了服务项目，而许多折扣商店却增加了服务项目。顾客变成了精明的采购员，对价格更加敏感。他们看不出有什么道理要为相同的品牌付出更多的钱，特别是当服务的差别不大或微不足道时。由于银行信用卡越来越被所有的商家接受，他们觉得不必从每个商店赊购商品。 百货商店面对着日益增加的价格的折扣店和专业商店的竞争，准备东山再起。历史上居于市中心的许多商店在郊区购物中心开设分店，那里有宽敞的停车场，购买者来自人口增长较快并且有较高收入的地区。其他一些则对其商店形式进行改变，有些则试用邮购盒电话订货的方法。超级市场面对的是超级商店的竞争，它们开始扩大店面，经营大量的品种繁多的商品和提高设备等级，超级市场还增加了它们的促销预算，大量转向私人品牌，从而增加盈利。 现在，我们讨论零售商在目标市场、产品品种和采办、服务以及商店气氛、定价、促销和销售地点等方面的营销策略。 一、目标市场 零售商最重要的决策时确定目标市场。当确定目标市场并且勾勒出轮廓时，零售商才能对产品分配、商店装饰、广告词和广告媒体、价格水平等作出一致的决定。如沃尔玛的目标市场相当明确：
外文文献翻译 2.5.1译文：看电影的艺术 1930年代中期，沃尔特·迪斯尼才明确以动画电影娱乐观众的思想，动画片本身才成为放映主角（不再是其他剧情片的搭配）。于1937年下半年首映的动画片《白雪公主与七个小矮人》为动画片树立了极高的标准，至今任然指导着动画艺术家们。1940年，这一年作为迪斯尼制片厂的分水岭，诞生了《木偶奇遇记》和《幻想曲>。这些今天成为经典的作品在接下来的二十年中被追随效仿，产生了一系列广受欢迎的动画娱乐作品。包括《小飞象》，《灰姑娘》，《爱丽丝漫游仙境》，《彼得·潘》，《小姐与流浪儿》，他们的故事通常源自广为人知的文学故事。这些影片最不好的地方在于它们似乎越来越面向小观众。 在1966年第四你去死后，他的制片厂继续制作手绘动画影片，但是创作能量衰减，公司转而专注于著作真人是拍电影。然而1989年，对于我们所有孩子来说，动画《小美人鱼》赋予了迪士尼新的生命活力（就像animation这个词本身的定义一样——使有生命活力），从该片开始，出现了一系列令人惊叹不已的音乐动画片。两年后，《美女与野兽》问世，塔尔在制作过程中利用了计算机作为传统手绘技术的辅助手段，这部影片获得了奥斯卡最佳电影奖提名，它是第一部获此殊荣的动画片。更好的还在后面，就想着两部影片一样，后面紧接着出现的众多优秀作品——包括《狮子王》，《阿拉丁》，《花木兰》——延续了迪士尼的经典传统：大胆醒目的视觉效果、精致的剧本，以及我们在所有伟大的电影中，不管是动画还是其他类型中都能找到的普适性主题和出乎意料之处。迪士尼的新版《幻想曲》，又被称为《幻想曲2000》，把原版中的部分片段与新的创作部分糅合在一起。（而且，按照迪士尼管理层的说法，该片是首部在IMAX巨幕影院首映的剧情长片。） 亨利·塞利克执导了蒂姆·波顿出品的两部影片，即《圣诞惊魂夜》和《飞天巨桃历险记》——前者是一部完全原创的定格动画，影片画面有时渗透着无限的恐惧，后者改编自罗纳德·达尔的畅销儿童书，该影片以真人实景拍摄开始。《飞天巨桃历险记》对暴力画面和重大恐惧（比如说，离弃）的表达和处理毫无掩饰，表达的真实感受对成人来说和对儿童一样生动鲜明，而蒂姆·波顿的影片《僵尸新娘》，仅仅从名字上就已经显示出影片内容和该幽默表达的“成人”特
超详细中英文论文参考文献标准格式 1、参考文献和注释。按论文中所引用文献或注释编号的顺序列在论文正文之后，参考文献之前。图表或数据必须注明来源和出处。 （参考文献是期刊时，书写格式为： [编号]、作者、文章题目、期刊名（外文可缩写）、年份、卷号、期数、页码。参考文献是图书时，书写格式为： [编号]、作者、书名、出版单位、年份、版次、页码。） 2、附录。包括放在正文内过份冗长的公式推导，以备他人阅读方便所需的辅助性数学工具、重复性数据图表、论文使用的符号意义、单位缩写、程序全文及有关说明等。 参考文献（即引文出处）的类型以单字母方式标识，具体如下： [M]--专著,著作 [C]--论文集(一般指会议发表的论文续集，及一些专题论文集，如《***大学研究生学术论文集》[N]-- 报纸文章 [J]--期刊文章：发表在期刊上的论文，尽管有时我们看到的是从网上下载的（如知网），但它也是发表在期刊上的，你看到的电子期刊仅是其电子版 [D]--学位论文：不区分硕士还是博士论文 [R]--报告：一般在标题中会有"关于****的报告"字样 [S]-- 标准 [P]--专利 [A]--文章：很少用，主要是不属于以上类型的文章 [Z]--对于不属于上述的文献类型，可用字母"Z"标识，但这种情况非常少见 常用的电子文献及载体类型标识： [DB/OL] --联机网上数据(database online) [DB/MT] --磁带数据库(database on magnetic tape) [M/CD] --光盘图书(monograph on CDROM) [CP/DK] --磁盘软件(computer program on disk) [J/OL] --网上期刊(serial online) [EB/OL] --网上电子公告(electronic bulletin board online) 很显然，标识的就是该资源的英文缩写，/前面表示类型，/后面表示资源的载体，如OL表示在线资源 二、参考文献的格式及举例 1．期刊类 【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[J].刊名,出版年份,卷号(期号)起止页码. 【举例】 [1] 周融，任志国，杨尚雷，厉星星.对新形势下毕业设计管理工作的思考与实践[J].电气电子教学学报，2003(6):107-109. [2] 夏鲁惠.高等学校毕业设计(论文)教学情况调研报告[J].高等理科教育,2004(1):46-52. [3] Heider, E.R.& D.C.Oliver. The structure of color space in naming and memory of two languages [J]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 1999, (3): 62 67. 2．专著类
贯彻落实科学发展观大力发展节能与绿色建筑 （2005年2月23日） 中华人民共和国建设部 节能建筑是按节能设计标准进行设计和建造、使其在使用过程中降低能耗的建筑。 绿色建筑是指为人们提供健康、舒适、安全的居住、工作和活动的空间，同时在建筑全生命周期（物料生产，建筑规划、设计、施工、运营维护及拆除过程）中实现高效率地利用资源（能源、土地、水资源、材料）、最低限度地影响环境的建筑物。绿色建筑也有人称之为生态建筑、可持续建筑。 一、发展节能与绿色建筑的重要意义 建筑作为人工环境，是满足人类物质和精神生活需要的重要组成部分。然而，人类对感官享受的过度追求，以及不加节制的开发与建设，使现代建筑不仅疏离了人与自然的天然联系和交流，也给环境和资源带来了沉重的负担。据统计，人类从自然界所获得的50％以上的物质原料用来建造各类建筑及其附属设施，这些建筑在建造与使用过程中又消耗了全球能源的50％左右；在环境总体污染中，与建筑有关的空气污染、光污染、电磁污染等就占了34％；建筑垃圾则占人类活动产生垃圾总量的40％；在发展中国家，剧增的建筑量还造成侵占土地、破坏生态环境等现象日益严重。中国正处于工业化和城镇化快速发展阶段，要在未来15年保持GDP年均增长7％以上，将面临巨大的资源约束瓶颈和环境恶化压力。严峻的事实告诉我们，中国要走可持续发展道路，发展节能与绿色建筑刻不容缓。 绿色建筑通过科学的整体设计，集成绿色配置、自然通风、自然采光、低能耗围护结构、新能源利用、中水回用、绿色建材和智能控制等高新技术，具有选址规划合理、资源利用高效循环、节能措施综合有效、建筑环境健康舒适、废物排放减量无害、建筑功能灵活适宜等六大特点。它不仅可以满足人们的生理和心理需求，而且能源和资源的消耗最为经济合理，对环境的影响最小。 胡锦涛同志指出：要大力发展节能省地型住宅，全面推广节能技术，制定并强制执行节能、节材、节水标准，按照减量化、再利用、资源化的原则，搞好资源综合利用，实现经济社会的可持续发展。温家宝和曾培炎同志也多次指出，建筑节能不仅是经济问题，而且是重要的战略问题。 发展节能与绿色建筑是建设领域贯彻“三个代表”重要思想和十六大精神，认真落实以人为本，全面、协调、可持续的科学发展观，统筹经济社会发展、人与
顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销 原文来源：《Marketing Customer Satisfaction 》自20世纪八十年代末以来, 顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额, 获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。 一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝随着时代的变迁, 社会物质财富的极大充裕, 顾客中的主体———消费者的需求也先后跨越了物质缺乏的时代、追求数量的时代、追求品质的时代, 到了20世纪八十年代末进入了情感消费时代。在我国, 随着经济的高速发展,我们也已迅速跨越了物质缺乏时代、追求数量的时代乃至追求品质的时代, 到今天也逐步迈进情感消费时代。在情感消费时代, 各企业的同类产品早已达到同时、同质、同能、同价, 消费者追求的已不再是质量、功能和价格, 而是舒适、便利、安全、安心、速度、跃动、环保、清洁、愉快、有趣等,消费者日益关注的是产品能否为自己的生活带来活力、充实、舒适、美感和精神文化品位, 以及超越消费者期望值的售前、售中、售后服务和咨询。也就是说, 今天人们所追求的是具有“心的满足感和充实感”的商品, 是高附加值的商品和服务,追求价值观和意识多元化、个性化和无形的满足感的时代已经来临。 与消费者价值追求变化相适应的企业间的竞争, 也由产品竞争、价格竞争、技术竞争、广告竞争、品牌竞争发展到现今的形象竞争、信誉竞争、文化竞争和服务竞争, 即顾客满意竞争。这种竞争是企业在广角度、宽领域的时空范围内展开的高层次、体现综合实力的竞争。它包括组织创新力、技术创新力、管理创新力、产业预见力、产品研发力、员工向心力、服务顾客力、顾客亲和力、同行认同力、社会贡献力、公关传播沟通力、企业文化推动力、环境适应力等等。这些综合形象力和如何合成综合持久的竞争力, 这就是CSft略所要解决的问题。CS寸代,企业不再以“自己为中心”,而是以“顾客为中心”；“顾客为尊”、“顾客满意”不再是流于形式的口号, 而是以实实在在的行动为基础的企业经营的一门新哲学。企业不再以质量达标, 自己满意为经营理念, 而是以顾客满意, 赢得顾客高忠诚度为经营理念。企业经营策略的焦点不再以争取或保持市场占有率为主, 而是以争取顾客满意为经营理念。因此, 营销策略的重心不再放在竞争对手身上而是放在顾客身上, 放在顾客现实的、潜在的需求上。当企业提供的产品和服务达到了顾客事先的期望值, 顾客就基本满意；如果远远超越顾客的期望值, 且远远高于其他同行, 顾客才真正满意；如果企业能不断地或长久地令顾客满意, 顾客就会忠诚。忠诚的顾客不仅会经常性地重复购买, 还会购买企业其它相关的产品或服务；忠诚的顾客不仅会积极向别人推荐他所买的产品, 而且对企业竞争者的促销活动具有免疫能力一个不满意的顾客会将不满意告诉16-20个人, 而每一个被告知者会再传播给12-15个人。这样, 一个不满意者会影响到二、三百人。在互联网普及的今天, 其影响则更大。据美国汽车业的调查, 一个满意者会引发8笔潜在的生意, 其中至少有一笔会成交。而另一项调查表明, 企业每增加5%的忠诚顾客, 利润就会增长25%-95%。一个企业的80%的利润来自20%的忠诚顾客；而获取一个新顾客的成本是维持一个老顾客成本的6倍。所以,美国著名学者唐?佩 珀斯指出: 决定一个企业成功与否的关键不是市场份额, 而是在于顾客份额。 于是, 企业纷纷通过广泛细致的市场调研、与消费者直接接触、顾客信息反馈等方式来了解顾客在各方面的现实需求和潜在需求。依靠对企业满意忠诚的销售、服务人员, 定期、定量地对顾客满意度进行综合测定, 以便准确地把握企业经营中与“顾客满意” 目标的差距及其重点领域, 从而进一步改善企业的经营活动。依靠高亲和力的企业文化、高效率的人文管理和全员共同努力, 不断地向顾客提供高附加值的产品, 高水准的亲情般的服
动画设计专业论文参考文献 在日常学习和工作中，许多人都有过写论文的经历，对论文都不陌生吧，论文是描述学术研究成果进行学术交流的一种工具。还是对论文一筹莫展吗？下面是小编精心整理的动画设计专业论文参考文献，仅供参考，希望能够帮助到大家。 [1]王兆.目标导向设计中人物角色的应用与研究[D].东华大学.2011 [2]陈龙，徐人平，王浩军.基于Freeform系统的玩偶设计开发.北京市经济管理干部学院学报，2006. [3]大而不强创新不足中国网游或死在同质化和抄袭之手. [4]肖冬.移动互联网引爆未来[J].理财.2014,01:46-48 [5]中国互联网络发展状况统计报告.2010 [6]李洪海，石爽，李霞.交互界面设计[M].北京：化学工业出版社.2011 [7]浅析移动应用软件现状.中国电子商务研究中心. [8]张宏江.移动设备的发展将成根本趋势[J].新领军.2012:24 [9]艾瑞咨询.2014移动互联网用户行为研究报告[R].2014,5 [10]阳俊.游戏界面的人性化设计研究[D].重庆大学.2008 [11]陈启安.软件人机界面设计[M].北京：高等教育出版社.2008 [12]2013年中国手机游戏发展现状及未来展望分析. [13]艾瑞咨询.2014Q1中国移动购物市场交易规模达1350.9亿元 [14]李念.基于游戏机制的互联网产品交互设计研究[D].华东理工大 学.2012 [15]吕锦扬.移动互联网环境下的终端与应用发展[N].广东通信技 术.2013(12) [16]许懋琦，于晓燕.从设计学角度分析手机游戏成功因素[J].设 计.2014,04（200）：135-136 [17]郭伏,郝哲哲,许娜,屈庆星,丁一.基于情感体验的应用软件可用性评估方法研究[J].工业工程与管理.2013 (4) : 152-164
中英文参考文献格式! (細節也很重要啊。。）来源：李菲玥的日志 规范的参考文献格式 一、参考文献的类型 参考文献（即引文出处）的类型以单字母方式标识，具体如下： M——专著C——论文集N——报纸文章J——期刊文章 D——学位论文R——报告S——标准P——专利 A——文章 对于不属于上述的文献类型，采用字母“Z”标识。 常用的电子文献及载体类型标识： ［ＤＢ/OL］——联机网上数据(database online) ［DB/MT］——磁带数据库(database on magnetic tape) ［Ｍ/CD］——光盘图书(monograph on CD ROM) ［ＣＰ／DK］——磁盘软件(computer program on disk) ［Ｊ／ＯＬ］——网上期刊(serial online) ［ＥＢ/OL］——网上电子公告(electronic bulletin board online) 对于英文参考文献，还应注意以下两点： ①作者姓名采用“姓在前名在后”原则，具体格式是：姓，名字的首字母. 如：Malcolm R ichard Cowley 应为：Cowley, M.R.，如果有两位作者，第一位作者方式不变，&之后第二位作者名字的首字母放在前面，姓放在后面，如：Frank Norris 与Irving Gordon应为：Norri s, F. & I.Gordon.； ②书名、报刊名使用斜体字，如：Mastering English Literature，English Weekly。二、参考文献的格式及举例 1．期刊类 【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[J].刊名，出版年份，卷号（期号）：起止页码. 【举例】 [1] 周融，任志国，杨尚雷，厉星星.对新形势下毕业设计管理工作的思考与实践[J].电气电子教学学报，2003(6)：107-109.
《文献检索》课程教学设计 目录 绪论：文献（信息）检索的意义及基础 (2) 项目一科技文献检索方法和图书馆的科学利用 (8) 项目二常见化学化工科技论文的写作 (11) 项目三美国化学文摘的使用 (14) 项目四专利文献的查询 (17) 项目五标准文献的查询 (20) 项目六计算机信息检索的应用 (23) 项目七信息检索策略综合应用训练 (26)
徐州工业职业技术学院教学设计（讲稿）
教学内容与设计 绪论：文献（信息）检索的意义及基础 自我介绍 提问一：你会检索吗？ 如果会，那么会用检索以下毕业专题的相关资料吗？ ?杜仲叶中绿原酸的提取分离 ?有机废水处理工艺设计 ?蚕丝蛋白制备工艺研究 ?铁矿石含铁量测定方法新工艺 ?基因工程干扰素生产工艺研究 提问的目的：突出检索技术直接是为毕业专题服务，这是一门技术。提问二：信息检索课是什么？ 学生如是说： 文献检索课程是井底之蛙的升降机，是雄鹰的翅膀，是横跨天堑的桥梁。 针对某一课题，通过电子检索查阅有关资料，才知道知识的浩瀚，才知道世界的宽广，才知道“山外青山，楼外楼”。 它是我在大学期间所学的最重要，最有用的课程之一，有了它，我们将会受益终生。教会我们一种方法，一种主动 了解外界，提高自己，放眼世界的方法。 检索不仅是我们学习的制胜法宝，更是一条贯穿我们生活的红线。正因为有了这门课的学习，现在大脑的检索意识 就比较强烈，越搜越快！前几天，问同学借自行车，他告 诉我车子大致地点，是永久牌，有车栏，略有一点蓝。到 了现场，脑海中一下就有了先找有栏的，再找蓝颜色的， 最后确定是不是永久的，很快就找到了。 我爱检索，就像爱自己的生命一样。 最后我想说，我们是幸运的！我们学到了一门真正有用的课，它对我的影响和帮助将是伴随我一身的。 提问三：借鉴与创新的关系？ 科学研究是“站在前人肩膀上”的事业，而创新又是科学研究的灵魂，即要求“前无古人”。 时间分配 2min 引导学生回答 8min 10min 通过往届学生对信息检索课的评价能够激起学生学习这门课的兴趣，也可以突出这门课对个人的作用。 10min 通过提问让学生
动脉粥样硬化所导致的心脑血管疾病是目前发病率和死亡率较高的疾病之一。在动脉粥样硬化的形成过程中, 内皮细胞病变是其中极其重要的因素，最显著的变化是动脉内皮功能紊乱, 血管内皮细胞的损伤和功能改变是动脉粥样硬化发生的起始阶段。 Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease caused by atherosclerosis is one of diseases with higher mortality and morbidity at present . In the formation of atherosclerosis, the endothelial cell lesion is one of the most important factors, in which, the most significant change is endothelial dysfunction. In addition, the injuries and the changes of vascular endothelial cells are the initial factors of atherosclerosis. 许多因素会导致血管内皮细胞受损, 主要包括脂多糖(Lipopolysaccharides , LPS)、炎症介质、氧自由基等。其中脂多糖因其广泛的生物学作用, 越来越引起研究者的关注。LPS 是一种炎症刺激物, 是革兰阴性杆菌细胞壁的主要组成成分，其通过刺激血管内皮细胞，引起其相关细胞因子和炎性因子的表达紊乱，尤其是Ca2+ 和活性氧簇(Reactive Oxygen Species , ROS的合成和释放发生改变诱导细胞氧化应激内环境紊乱。大量研究表明, LPS 直接参与动脉粥样硬化的形成过程, 特别是动脉粥样硬化血管炎症的初始阶段, LPS可通过直接作用或间接影响的方式激活并损伤内皮细胞，从而引 起血管内皮细胞形态与功能的改变。 Many factors induce vascular endothelial cell damage, including lipopolysaccharides (LPS), inflammatory mediators and oxygen free
文献出处: Dalman, M. Deniz, and Junhong Min. "Marketing Strategy for Unusual Brand Differentiation: Trivial Attribute Effect." International Journal of Marketing Studies 6.5 (2014): 63-72. 原文 Marketing Strategy for Unusual Brand Differentiation: Trivial Attribute Effect Dalman, M. Deniz & Junhong Min Abstract This research investigates that brand differentiation creating superior values can be achieved not only by adding meaningful attributes but also meaningless attributes, which is called "trivial attribute effect." Two studies provided empirical evidences as following; first, trivial attribute effect creates a strong brand differentiation even after subjects realize that trivial attribute has no value. Second, trivial attribute effect is more pronounced in hedonic service category compared to the utilitarian category. Last, the amount of willingness to pay is higher when trivial attribute is presented and evaluated in joint evaluation mode than separate evaluation mode. Finally, we conclude with discussion and provide suggestions for further research. Keywords: brand differentiation, evaluation mode, service industry, trivial attribute Introduction Problem Definition Perhaps the most important factor for new product success is to create the meaningful brand differentiation that provides customers with superior values beyond what the competitors can offer in the same industry (Porter, 1985). Not surprisingly, more than 50 percent of annual sales in consumer product industries including automobiles, biotechnology, computer software, and pharmaceuticals are attributed to such meaningful brand differentiation by including new or noble attributes (Schilling &Hill, 1998). However, the brand differentiation that increases consumer preference is not only by introducing meaningful attributes but also meaningless attributes. For
英文引用及参考文献格式要求 一、参考文献的类型 参考文献（即引文出处）的类型以单字母方式标识，具体如下： M——专著C——论文集N——报纸文章 J——期刊文章D——学位论文R——报告 对于不属于上述的文献类型，采用字母“Z”标识。 对于英文参考文献，还应注意以下两点： ①作者姓名采用“姓在前名在后”原则，具体格式是：姓，名字的首字母.如：MalcolmRichardCowley应为：Cowley,M.R.，如果有两位作者，第一位作者方式不变，&之后第二位作者名字的首字母放在前面，姓放在后面，如：FrankNorris与IrvingGordon应为：Norris,F.&I.Gordon.； ②书名、报刊名使用斜体字，如：MasteringEnglishLiterature，EnglishWeekly。 二、参考文献的格式及举例 1.期刊类 【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[J].刊名，出版年份，卷号（期号）：起止页码. 【举例】 [1]王海粟.浅议会计信息披露模式[J].财政研究，2004,21(1)：56-58. [2]夏鲁惠.高等学校毕业论文教学情况调研报告[J].高等理科教育，2004(1):46-52. [3]Heider,E.R.&D.C.Oliver.Thestructureofcolorspaceinnamingandmemo ryoftwolanguages[J].ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearch,1999,(3):62–6 7. 2.专著类 【格式】[序号]作者.书名[M].出版地：出版社，出版年份：起止页码. 【举例】[4]葛家澍，林志军.现代西方财务会计理论[M].厦门：厦门大学出版社，2001：42. [5]Gill,R.MasteringEnglishLiterature[M].London:Macmillan,1985:42-45. 3.报纸类 【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[N].报纸名，出版日期（版次）. 【举例】 [6]李大伦.经济全球化的重要性[N].光明日报，1998-12-27(3). [7]French,W.BetweenSilences:AVoicefromChina[N].AtlanticWeekly,198 715(33). 4.论文集 【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[C].出版地：出版者，出版年份：起始页码. 【举例】 [8]伍蠡甫.西方文论选[C].上海：上海译文出版社，1979：12-17. [9]Spivak,G.“CantheSubalternSpeak?”[A].InC.Nelson&L.Grossberg(e ds.).VictoryinLimbo:Imigism[C].Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1988, pp.271-313.
外文文献—动画
Animation Animation is the rapid display of a sequence of images of 2-D or 3-D artwork or model positions to create an illusion of movement. The effect is an optical illusion of motion due to the phenomenon of persistence of vision, and can be created and demonstrated in several ways. The most common method of presenting animation is as a motion picture or video program, although there are other methods. Early examples An Egyptian burial chamber mural, approximately 4000 years old, showing wrestlers in action. Even though this may appear similar to a series of animation drawings, there was no way of viewing the images in motion. It does, however, indicate the artist's intention of depicting motion. Five images sequence from a vase found in Iran There is no single person who can be considered the "creator" of film animation, as there were several people working on projects which could be considered animation at about the same time. Georges Méliès was a creator of special-effect films; he was generally one of the first people to use animation with his technique. He discovered a technique by accident which was to stop the camera rolling to change something in the scene, and then continue rolling the film. This idea was later known as stop-motion animation. Early examples of attempts to capture the phenomenon of motion drawing can be found in paleolithic cave paintings, where animals are depicted with multiple legs in superimposed positions, clearly attempting to convey the perception of motion. An Egyptian burial chamber mural , approximately 4000 years old, showing wrestlers in action. Even though this may appear similar to a series of animation drawings, there was no way of viewing the images in motion. It does, however, indicate the artist's intention of depicting motion. A 5,000 year old earthen bowl found in Iran.It has five images of a goat painted along the sides. This has been claimed to be an example of early animation. However, since no equipment existed to show the images in motion, such a series of images cannot be called animation in a true sense of the word. A Chinese zoetrope-type device had been invented in 180 AD. The phenakistoscope, praxinoscope, and the common flip book were early popular animation devices invented during the 19th century. These devices produced the appearance of movement from sequential drawings using technological means, but animation did not really develop much
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 中英文翻译 平面设计 任何时期平面设计可以参照一些艺术和专业学科侧重于视觉传达和介绍。采用多种方式相结合，创造和符号，图像和语句创建一个代表性的想法和信息。平面设计师可以使用印刷，视觉艺术和排版技术产生的最终结果。平面设计常常提到的进程，其中沟通是创造和产品设计。 共同使用的平面设计包括杂志，广告，产品包装和网页设计。例如，可能包括产品包装的标志或其他艺术作品，举办文字和纯粹的设计元素，如形状和颜色统一件。组成的一个最重要的特点，尤其是平面设计在使用前现有材料或不同的元素。 平面设计涵盖了人类历史上诸多领域，在此漫长的历史和在相对最近爆炸视觉传达中的第20和21世纪，人们有时是模糊的区别和重叠的广告艺术，平面设计和美术。毕竟，他们有着许多相同的内容，理论，原则，做法和语言，有时同样的客人或客户。广告艺术的最终目标是出售的商品和服务。在平面
设计，“其实质是使以信息，形成以思想，言论和感觉的经验”。 在唐朝（ 618-906 ）之间的第4和第7世纪的木块被切断打印纺织品和后重现佛典。阿藏印在868是已知最早的印刷书籍。 在19世纪后期欧洲，尤其是在英国，平面设计开始以独立的运动从美术中分离出来。蒙德里安称为父亲的图形设计。他是一个很好的艺术家，但是他在现代广告中利用现代电网系统在广告、印刷和网络布局网格。 于1849年，在大不列颠亨利科尔成为的主要力量之一在设计教育界，该国政府通告设计在杂志设计和制造的重要性。他组织了大型的展览作为庆祝现代工业技术和维多利亚式的设计。 从1892年至1896年威廉?莫里斯凯尔姆斯科特出版社出版的书籍的一些最重要的平面设计产品和工艺美术运动，并提出了一个非常赚钱的商机就是出版伟大文本论的图书并以高价出售给富人。莫里斯证明了市场的存在使平面设计在他们自己拥有的权利，并帮助开拓者从生产和美术分离设计。这历史相对论是，然而，重要的，因为它为第一次重大的反应对于十九世纪的陈旧的平面设计。莫里斯的工作，以及与其他私营新闻运动，直接影响新艺术风格和间接负责20世纪初非专业性平面设计的事态发展。 谁创造了最初的“平面设计”似乎存在争议。这被归因于英国的设计师和大学教授Richard Guyatt，但另一消息来源于20世纪初美国图书设计师William Addison Dwiggins。 伦敦地铁的标志设计是爱德华约翰斯顿于1916年设计的一个经典的现代而且使用了系统字体设计。 在20世纪20年代，苏联的建构主义应用于“智能生产”在不同领域的生产。个性化的运动艺术在俄罗斯大革命是没有价值的，从而走向以创造物体的功利为目的。他们设计的建筑、剧院集、海报、面料、服装、家具、徽标、菜单等。 Jan Tschichold 在他的1928年书中编纂了新的现代印刷原则，他后来否认他在这本书的法西斯主义哲学主张，但它仍然是非常有影响力。 Tschichold ，包豪斯印刷专家如赫伯特拜耳和拉斯洛莫霍伊一纳吉，和El Lissitzky 是平面设计之父都被我们今天所知。 他们首创的生产技术和文体设备，主要用于整个二十世纪。随后的几年看到平面设计在现代风格获得广泛的接受和应用。第二次世界大战结束后，美国经济的建立更需要平面设计，主要是广告和包装等。移居国外的德国包豪斯设计学院于1937年到芝加哥带来了“大规模生产”极简到美国;引发野火的“现代”建筑和设计。值得注意的名称世纪中叶现代设计包括阿德里安Frutiger ，设计师和Frutiger字体大学;保兰德，从20世纪30年代后期，直到他去世于1996年，采取的原则和适用包豪斯他们受欢迎的广告和标志设计，帮助创造一个独特的办法，美国的欧洲简约而成为一个主要的先驱。平面设计称为企业形象;约瑟夫米勒，罗克曼，设计的海报严重尚未获取1950年代和1960年代时代典型。 从道路标志到技术图表，从备忘录到参考手册，增强了平面设计的知识转让。可读性增强了文字的视觉效果。 设计还可以通过理念或有效的视觉传播帮助销售产品。将它应用到产品和公司识别系统的要素像标志、颜色和文字。连同这些被定义为品牌。品牌已日益成为重要的提供的服务范围，许多平面设计师，企业形象和条件往往是同时交替使用。
Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails selecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment. Positioning the Product Management's ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a long way toward determining that product's revenues.Thus management needs to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firm's other products. Marketing executives can choose from a variety of positioning strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies: