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牛至精油在畜禽养殖业中的应用研究进展牛金玲1，刘永需2，张玉娟3，赵红2，李福昌1，刘磊1*（1.山东农业大学动物科技学院/山东省动物生物工程与疾病防治重点实验室，山东泰安271000；2.青岛康大食品有限公司，山东青岛；3.山东省康复医院，山东济南）中图分类号：S816.5 文献标识码：B 文章编号：1007-1733（2021）04-0060-05牛至精油是从植物牛至的全草中提取出的挥发油，具有抗菌、抗氧化、抗炎症等作用。
近年来，牛至精油作为饲料添加剂在畜禽养殖业中应用广泛，并取得了良好效果。
在动物生产中，牛至精油能增加动物活力和提高抗逆性，增强免疫能力，改善肉质品质等。
本文综述了牛至精油在畜禽生产中的应用研究进展，为牛至精油在畜牧业中生产中的进一步开发利用提供参考和借鉴。
抗生素在当今畜牧业生产中发挥着重要作用[1]。
但是随着禁止添加抗生素作为饲料添加剂的禁令的颁布，急需开发能够替代畜禽饲料中抗生素的添加剂[2]。
秦春力等[3]研究发现，许多植物提取物具有一定的抗菌活性、能提高家兔养分消化率、微生物蛋白浓度，并改善肉兔盲肠发酵状况。
刘汉锁等[4]研究发现，植物提取物单宁酸具有抗菌抑菌、抗氧化和抗炎症等作用,可以提高畜禽生长性能及改善肠道健康。
刘娇等[5]研究发现，在肉鸡日粮中添加0.50g/kg辣木提取物能够提高肉鸡的增重和抗氧化性能、降低肉鸡死淘率。
李连涛等[6]研究发现，植物提取物亚抑菌浓度山奈酚能够抑制鼠伤寒沙门氏菌侵袭鸡肠道上皮细胞,并降低鼠伤寒沙门氏菌对雏鸡的致病性。
因此，植物提取物在养殖投入品中备受关注[7]。
其中，牛至精油是一种较为典型的植物提取物，被称为天然抗生素，在实验与生产中均取得显著效果[8]。
孔繁云等[9]研究发现，饲料中添加牛至精油可以提高绵羊生长性能和屠宰性能，并增加肌间脂肪沉积，改善羊肉质量，增强绵羊抗氧化能力。
特别是日粮中添加牛至精油的育肥效果高于添加罗伊乳杆菌和莫能菌素。
2.1干茶形状术语2.3汤色术语2.3.1清澈clear清净、透明、光亮、无沉淀物。
2.3.2鲜艳fresh brilliant鲜明艳丽，清澈明亮。
2.3.3鲜明fresh bright新鲜明亮。
此术语也适用于叶底。
2.3.4深deep茶汤颜色深。
2.3.5浅light colour茶汤色浅似水。
2.3.6明亮bright茶汤清净透明。
2.3.7暗dull不透亮。
此术语也适用于叶底。
2.3.8混浊suspension茶汤中有大量悬浮物，透明度差。
2.3.9沉淀物precipitate茶汤中沉于碗底的物质。
2.4香气术语2.4.1高香high aroma茶香高而持久。
2.4.2纯正pure and normal茶香不高不低，纯净正常。
2.4.3平正normal较低,但无异杂气。
2.4.4低low低微，但无粗气。
2.4.5钝浊stunt滞钝不爽。
2.4.6闷气sulks odour沉闷不爽。
2.4.7粗气harsh odour粗老叶的气息。
2.4.8青臭气green odour带有青草或青叶气息。
2.4.9高火high-fired微带烤黄的锅巴或焦糖香气。
老火over-fired火气程度重于高火。
陈气stale odour茶叶陈化的气息。
劣异气gone-off and tainted odour烟、焦、酸、馊、霉等茶叶劣变或污染外来物质所产生的气息。
使用时应指明属何种劣异气。
2.5滋味术语2.5.1回甘sweet after taste回味较佳，略有甜感。
2.5.2浓厚heavy and thick茶汤味厚，刺激性强。
2.5.3醇厚mellow and thick爽适甘厚，有刺激性。
2.5.4浓醇heavy and mellow浓爽适口。
回味甘醇。
刺激性比浓厚弱而比醇厚强。
2.5.5醇正mellow and normal清爽正常，略带甜。
2.5.6醇和mellow醇而平和，带甜。
刺激性比醇正弱而比平和强。
一制茶1 tea bush :茶树2 tea harvesting 采青3 tea leaves 茶青4 withering 萎凋Sun withering 日光萎凋 indoor withering 室内萎凋 setting 静置 tossing 搅拌浪青5 fermentation 发酵6 oxidation 氧化7 fixation 杀青: Steaming 蒸青 stir fixation 炒青 baking 烘青 sunning 晒青8 rolling 揉捻: Light rolling 轻揉 heavy rolling 重揉 cloth rolling 布揉9 drying 干燥: Pan firing 炒干 baking 烘干 sunning 晒干10 piling 渥堆11 refining 精制: Screening 筛分 cutting 剪切 de-stemming 把梗 shaping 整形winnowing 风选 blending 拼配 compressing 紧压 re-drying覆火 aging 陈放12 added process 加工: Roasting 焙火 scenting 熏花 spicing调味 tea beverage 茶饮料13 Packing包装: Vacuum packaging真空包装 nitrogen packs 充氮包装 shredded-tea bag 碎形小袋茶 leave-tea bag 原片小袋茶二：分类 classificationAccording to the degree of :fermentation ,rolling, baking and tea leaf maturity :根据制造时发酵,揉捻焙火与采摘时原料成熟度来分类Non-fermented :不发酵茶,即绿茶Post –fermented ：后发酵茶即普洱茶Partially fermented 部分发酵茶,半发酵茶,即乌龙茶Complete fermentation：全发酵茶,即红茶再把这四大分类细分：绿茶分为：Steamed green tea蒸青绿茶 Powdered green tea 粉末绿茶Silver needle green tea 银针绿茶 Lightly rubbed green tea 原形绿茶Curled green tea 松卷绿茶 Sword shaped green tea剑片绿茶Twisted green tea 条形绿茶 Pearled green tea 圆珠绿茶普洱茶分为Age-puer :陈放普洱 pile-fermented puer:渥堆普洱r乌龙可以分为：White oolong:白茶乌龙 twisted oolong:条形乌龙Pelleted oolong 球形乌龙 roasted oolong熟火乌龙White tipped oolong:白毫乌龙红茶分为：Unshredded black tea：功夫红茶 shredded black tea:碎形红茶熏花茶可以分：Scented green tea 熏花绿茶 scented puer tea熏花普洱Scented oolong tea 熏花乌龙 scented black tea熏花红茶Jasmine scented green tea熏花茉莉上述各类如果加入食品或香料,就成为调味茶spiced tea,如果加到绿茶,则成为：spiced green tea 调味绿茶,以此类推;三：常见茶名的英译White tipped oolong 白毫乌龙 wuyi rock武夷岩茶Green blade 煎茶 yellow mountain fuzz tip 黄山毛峰Dragon well 龙井 green spiral 碧螺春Gunpower 珠茶 age cake puer 青沱Pile cake puer 青饼 jun mountain silver needle 君山银针White tip silver needle 银针白毫 white peony 白牡丹Long brow jade dew 玉露Robe tea 大红袍 cassia tea 肉桂Narcissus 水仙 finger citron 佛手Iron mercy goddess 铁观音 osmanthus oolong桂花乌龙Ginseng oolong 人参乌龙茶 jasmine tea 茉莉花茶Rose bulb 玫瑰绣球 gongfu black 功夫红茶Smoke black 烟熏红茶 roast oolong 熟火乌龙Light oolong 清茶 anji white leaf 安吉白茶Liu’an leaf 六安瓜片 fenghuang unique bush 凤凰单从Tea powder 茶粉 fine powder tea 抹茶四茶具名称Tea pot 茶壶 tea pad 壶垫 tea plate 茶船 tea pitcher茶盅 Lid saucer盖置tea serving tray奉茶盘 tea cup 茶杯 cup saucer杯托 Tea towel tray茶巾盘tea holder茶荷 tea towel茶巾 tea brush 茶拂 Timer 定时器 water heater煮水器water kettle 水壶 heating base煮水器底坐 Tea cart 茶车 seat cushion座垫cup cover 杯套 packing wrap包壶巾 Tea ware bag 茶具袋 ground pad 地衣tea ware tray 茶托 strainer cup 同心杯 Personal tea set 个人品茗组茶具tea basin 水盂 brewing vessel 冲泡盅 covered bowl 盖碗 Tea spoon 茶匙tea ware 茶器 thermos 热水瓶 tea canister 茶罐 tea urn茶瓮 tea table 茶桌side table侧柜 Tea bowl 茶碗 spout bowl 有流茶碗五泡茶程序英译1 perpare tea ware备具2 from still to ready position :从静态到动态3 prepare water 备水4 warm pot:温壶5 prepare tea 备茶6 recognize tea识茶7 appreciate tea 赏茶8 warmpitcher温盅 9 put in tea 置茶 10smell fragrance闻香 11 first infusion 第一道茶12settimer计时 13 warm cups烫杯 14 pour tea 倒茶 15 prepare cups 备杯16 divide tea分茶 17serve tea by cups 端杯奉茶 18 second infusion :冲第二道茶 19serve tea by pitcher 持盅奉茶 20 supply snacks or water供应茶点或品泉21 take out brewed leaves :去渣 22 appreciate leaves赏叶底 23 rinse pot 涮壶24 return to seat 归位 25 rinse pitcher 清盅 26 collect cups 收杯 27 conclude 结束六茶叶审评术语Dried teaMade teaTea liquorInfused leaf 叶底Sensory evaluation清香 clean aroma 清鲜爽快;此术语也适用于乌龙茶香气;花香 flowery flavour 茶香鲜悦,具有令人愉快的似鲜花香气;甜香 sweet aroma 香高有甜感;嫩香 tender flavour 清爽细腻,有毫香;焦香 scorch aroma 炒麦香强烈持久;松烟香 pine smoky flavour 带有松木烟香;高火味 high-fire taste 高火气的茶叶,在尝味时也有火气味;老火味 over-fired taste 近似带焦的味感;陈味 stale taste 陈变的滋味;劣异味 gone-off and tainted taste 烟、焦、酸、馊、霉等茶叶劣变或污染外来物质所产生的味感;浓 heavy 花香浓郁,强烈持久;纯 pure 花香、茶香比例调匀,无其他异杂气;鲜爽 fresh and brisk 新鲜爽快;此术语也适用于绿茶滋味、红茶香味和乌龙茶滋味;爽口 brisk 有刺激性,回味好,不苦不涩;此术语也适用于乌龙茶和红茶滋味;鲜浓 fresh and heavy 鲜洁爽口,富收敛性;此术语也适用于红茶滋味;浓强 heavy and strong 茶味浓厚,刺激性强;浓厚 heavy and thick 茶汤味厚,刺激性强;醇厚 mellow and thick 爽适甘厚,有刺激性;浓醇 heavy and mellow 浓爽适口;回味甘醇;刺激性比浓厚弱而比醇厚强;醇正 mellow and normal 清爽正常,略带甜;醇和 mellow 醇而平和,带甜;刺激性比醇正弱而比平和强;甘醇 sweet and mellow 味醇而带甜;淡薄 plain and thin 入口稍有茶味,以后就淡而无味;涩 astringency `strindnsi 茶汤入口后,有麻嘴厚舌的感觉;粗 harsh 粗糙滞钝;青涩 green and astringency 涩而带有生青味;苦 bitter 入口即有苦味,后味更苦;Body-茶汤味厚；bold-壮结；brassy-青铜味,指茶汤滋味苦涩而带不良的金属味；bright-茶汤汤色明亮；brisk-爽口,用于指经过良好发酵和烘焙的茶叶；choppy-破口多,指茶叶精制时因轧切过多而导致的条索两端的切口粗糙；coarse-粗淡味；colory-汤色好；dull-暗,指干茶色泽深暗或茶汤色泽发暗；even-匀齐,指干茶叶型大小差不多一致；flaky-片状,茶叶末卷紧的一种表现；flat-扁平,指茶叶初制不良,呈未卷紧的扁块型；flavory-花香味显；grainy-颗粒状,用于描述制作优良的片茶或末茶；gray-灰色,指由于切削过渡或筛分过度使茶叶表面胶质层被擦去而使叶片呈现出灰色；greenish-略青涩,因叶片揉捻不足或发酵不足而不匀；malty-麦芽味,常用于制作优良的茶叶；mellow-甜醇,与greenish,harsh相对而言；piont-很爽口,plain-平淡,缺乏应有的香味和品质特征；pungent-有刺激性,指茶汤有收敛性而无苦味；ragged-粗杂,指茶叶外形规格紊乱、粗糙、不匀；smooth-滑润；tainted-有异味,由于种植过程中使用的化学物质,或由于环境潮湿,或由于运输过程中被污染而使茶叶带有令人讨厌的外来气味；thin-味薄,由于叶片萎凋过度,或揉捻不足,或揉捻时叶温过高所引起；tip-有毫,指加工的叶片含有毫尖；wiry-紧细,指茶叶条索卷紧而细;干茶形状术语2.1.1 显毫tippy 茸毛含量特别多; 茸毛显露锋苗tip 芽叶细嫩,紧卷而有尖锋;身骨body 茶身轻重;重实heavy body 身骨重,茶在手中有沉重感;轻飘light 身骨轻,茶在手中份量很轻;匀整evenly 上中下三段茶的粗细、长短、大小较一致,比例适当,无脱档现象; 同义词匀齐；匀衬脱档unsymmetry 上下段茶多,中段茶少,三段茶比例不当;匀净neat 匀整,不含梗朴及其他夹杂物;挺直straight 光滑匀齐,不曲不弯; 同义词平直干茶色泽术语油润bloom 干茶色泽鲜活,光泽好;枯暗dry dull 色泽枯燥,无光泽;调匀even colour 叶色均匀一致;花杂mixed 叶色不一,形状不一;此术语也适用于叶底;汤色术语清澈clear 清净、透明、光亮、无沉淀物;鲜艳fresh brilliant 鲜明艳丽,清澈明亮;鲜明fresh bright 新鲜明亮;此术语也适用于叶底;深deep 茶汤颜色深;浅light colour 茶汤色浅似水;明亮bright 茶汤清净透明;暗dull 不透亮;此术语也适用于叶底;混浊suspension 茶汤中有大量悬浮物,透明度差;沉淀物precipitate 茶汤中沉于碗底的物质;香气术语高香high aroma 茶香高而持久;纯正pure and normal 茶香不高不低,纯净正常;平正normal 较低,但无异杂气;低low 低微,但无粗气;钝浊stunt 滞钝不爽;闷气sulks odour 沉闷不爽;粗气harsh odour 粗老叶的气息;青臭气green odour 带有青草或青叶气息;高火high-fired 微带烤黄的锅巴或焦糖香气;滋味术语回甘sweet after taste 回味较佳,略有甜感;浓厚heavy and thick 茶汤味厚,刺激性强;醇厚mellow and thick 爽适甘厚,有刺激性;浓醇heavy and mellow 浓爽适口;回味甘醇;刺激性比浓厚弱而比醇厚强;醇正mellow and normal 清爽正常,略带甜;醇和mellow 醇而平和,带甜;刺激性比醇正弱而比平和强;平和neutral 茶味正常、刺激性弱;淡薄plain and thin 入口稍有茶味,以后就淡而无味; 同义词和淡；清淡；平淡涩astringency 茶汤入口后,有麻嘴厚舌的感觉;叶底术语细嫩fine and tender 芽头多;叶子细小嫩软;柔嫩soft and tender 嫩而柔软;柔软soft 手按如绵,按后伏贴盘底;匀even 老嫩、大小、厚薄、整碎或色泽等均匀一致;杂uneven 老嫩、大小、厚薄、整碎或色泽等不一致;嫩匀tender and even 芽叶匀齐一致,嫩而柔软;肥厚fat and thick 芽头肥壮,叶肉肥厚,叶脉不露;开展open 叶张展开,叶质柔软; 同义词舒展摊张open leaf 老叶摊开;1、茶类头春茶 early spring tea, first season tea头泡茶 first infusion of tea茶末 tea dust粉末茶 tea powder煎茶 fried tea芽茶 bud-tea新茶 fresh tea砖茶 brick tea毛茶 crude tea散茶 loose tea碎茶 broken tea香片 perfumed tea茶片 tea siftings花茶 scentedjasmine tea茶叶梗 tea stale, tea stem淡茶weak tea浓茶 strong tea茶园 tea garden茶馆tea house茶几 tea table减肥茶 dietslimmingtea保健茶 tonic tea美容茶 cosmetic tea人参茶ginseng tea姜茶 ginger tea速溶茶instant tea茶叶蛋 salty eggs cooked in tea擂茶 mashed tea盖碗茶 tea served in a set of cups茶叶表演 tea-serving performance早茶 morning tea茶锈 tea stain茶底tea dregs茶渣 tea grounds茶香 tea aroma2、茶具类茶具 tea set.茶杯 tea cup.茶盘 tea tray.茶碟 tea saucer.茶壶 tea pot.茶缸 tea container紫砂茶壶 ceramic tea pot .茶叶罐 tea caddy .茶杯垫 coaster.茶壶套 tea cosy.滤茶器 tea strainer.茶匙 teaspoon3、乌龙茶术语1干茶形状术语蜻蜓头：dragenflyhead,茶条叶端卷曲,紧结沉重,状如蜻蜓头; 壮结：bold,肥壮紧结;扭曲：curled,茶条扭曲,折皱重叠;2干茶色泽术语砂绿：sandgreen,似蛙皮绿而有光泽;枯燥：dry,干燥无光泽,按叶色深浅程度不同有乌燥、褐燥之分; 3汤色术语金黄：goldenyellow,以黄为主,带有橙色,有深浅之分;清黄：clearyellow,茶汤黄而清澈;红色：redcolour,色红,有深浅之分;4香气术语岩韵：YENflavour,武夷岩茶具岩骨花香韵味特征;音韵：IN-flavour,铁观音特有的香味特征;浓郁：heavyflavour,浓而持久的特殊花果香;闷火：sullkyfired,乌龙茶烘焙后,未适当摊凉而形成一种令人不快的火气;猛火：toohighfiring,烘焙温度过高或过急所产生的不良火气;5滋味术语清醇：cleanandmellow,茶汤味新鲜,入口爽适;甘鲜：sweetandfresh,鲜洁有甜感;粗浓：coarseandheavy,味粗而浓;6味底术语肥亮：fatandbright,叶肉肥厚,叶色透明发亮;软亮：softandbright,叶质柔软,叶色透明发亮;红边：redside,做青适度,绿叶有红边或红点;暗红张：dullredleaf,叶张发红,夹杂的暗红叶片;死张：deadleaf,叶张发红,夹杂伤红叶片;硬挺：hard,叶质老,按后叶张很快恢复原状;黑茶、压制茶术语4、黑茶术语1干茶形状术语泥鳅条 fishery 茶条圆直较大,状如泥鳅;折叠条 enveloped 茶条折皱重叠;端正 normal brick 砖身形态完整,砖面平整,棱角分明;纹理清晰 clean mark 砖面花纹、商标、文字等标记清晰;起层 open 砖茶表层翘起而未脱落;落面 broken cover 砖茶表层有部分茶脱落;脱面 cover drop 饼茶的盖面脱落;紧度适合 well-comperessed 压制松紧适度;平滑 flat and smooth 砖面平整,无起层落面或茶梗突出现象;金花 golden flower 茯砖茶中灰绿曲霉菌的金黄色孢子;金花普遍茂盛,品质为佳; 斧头形 axe-shape 砖身一端厚、一端薄、形似斧头;缺口 broken piece 砖茶、饼茶等边缘有残缺现象;包心外露 heart unenveloped 里茶外露于表面;龟裂 crack 砖面有裂缝现象;烧心 heart burnt 砖茶中心部分发暗、发黑或发红;烧心砖多发生霉变;断甑 broken layer 金尖中间断落,不成整块;2干茶色泽术语乌润 black bloom 乌而油润;此术语也适用于红茶和乌龙茶干茶色泽;半筒黄 semi-yellow 色泽花杂,叶尖黑色,柄端黄黑色;黑褐 black auburn 褐中带黑;此术语也适用于压制茶汤色、叶底色泽,乌龙茶和红茶干茶色泽;铁黑 iron black 色黑似铁;棕褐 brownish auburn 褐中带棕;此术语也适用于压制茶汤色、叶底和红茶干茶色泽; 青黄 blueish yellow 黄中泛青,原料后发酵不足所致;猪肝色 liver colour 红而带暗,似猪肝色;褐红 auburnish red 红中带褐;3汤色术语橙红 orange red 红中泛橙色;此术语也适用于乌龙茶汤色;红暗 red dull 红而深暗;此术语也适用于红茶汤色;棕红 brownish red 红中泛棕,似咖啡色;此术语也适用于红茶干茶色泽及红碎茶茶汤加奶后的汤色;棕黄 brownish yellow 黄中泛棕;此术语也适用于红碎茶干茶色泽;红黄 reddish yellow 黄中带红;5、白茶术语1干茶形状术语毫心肥壮 fatbud 芽肥嫩壮大,茸毛多;茸毛洁白 whitehair 茸毛多、洁白而富有光泽;芽叶连枝 wholeshoot 芽叶相连成朵;叶缘垂卷 leafsiderolldown 叶面隆起,叶缘向叶背微微翘起;平展 flatleafside 叶缘不垂卷而平展;破张 brokenleaves 叶张破碎;腊片 waxy 表面形成腊质的老片;2干茶色泽术语铁板色 irongrey 深红而暗似铁锈色,无光泽;铁青 ironblue 似铁色带青;3汤色术语微红 slightred 色微泛红;黄暗 yellowdull 色黄较深暗;此术语也适用于黄茶和绿茶的汤色和叶底色泽;香气术语嫩爽 tenderandbrisk 活泼、爽快的嫩茶香气;毫香 pekoeflavour 白毫显露的嫩芽叶所具有的香气;鲜纯 freshandpure 新鲜纯和,有毫香;酵气 fermentodour 白茶萎凋过度,有红茶发酵气;失解 freshless 极不鲜爽,有时接近变质;滋味术语清甜 cleanandsweet 入口感觉清鲜爽快,有甜味;醇爽 mellowandbris 醇而鲜爽,毫味足;此术语也适用于黄茶滋味;青味 greentaste 茶味淡而青草味重;4叶底术语红张 redleaf 萎凋过度,叶张红变;暗张 dullleaf 暗黑,多为雨天制茶形成死青;茶叶英语,茶叶相关术语中英文对照版;一、制茶术语中英文对照版1、tea bush 茶树2、tea harvesting 采青3、tea leaves 茶青4、withering 萎凋Sun withering 日光萎凋indoor withering 室内萎凋etting 静置tossing 搅拌浪青5、fermentation 发酵6、oxidation 氧化7、fixation 杀青Steaming 蒸青 stir fixation 炒青 baking 烘青 sunning 晒青8、rolling 揉捻Light rolling 轻揉 heavy rolling 重揉 cloth rolling 布揉9、drying 干燥Pan firing 炒干 baking 烘干 sunning 晒干10、piling 渥堆11、refining 精制Screening 筛分 cutting 剪切 de-stemming 把梗 shaping 整形winnowing 风选blending 拼配 compressing 紧压 re-drying覆火 aging 陈放12、added process 加工 Roasting 焙火 scenting 熏花 spicing调味 tea beverage 茶饮料13、Packing包装Vacuum packaging真空包装 nitrogen packs 充氮包装 shredded-tea bag 碎形小袋茶leave-tea bag 原片小袋茶二：茶叶分类相关术语中英文对照版 classificationAccording to the degree of :fermentation ,rolling, baking and tea leaf maturity 根据制造时发酵,揉捻焙火与采摘时原料成熟度来分类Non-fermented 不发酵茶,即绿茶Post-fermented 后发酵茶即普洱茶Partially fermented 部分发酵茶,半发酵茶,即乌龙茶铁观音Complete fermentation 全发酵茶,即红茶1绿茶分类术语中英文对照版：Steamed green tea蒸青绿茶Powered green tea 粉末绿茶Silver needle green tea 银针绿茶Lightly rubbed green tea 原形绿茶Curled green tea 松卷绿茶Sword shaped green tea剑片绿茶Twisted green tea 条形绿茶Pearled green tea 圆珠绿茶2普洱茶分类术语中英文对照版：Age-puer 陈放普洱pile-fermented puer 渥堆普洱3乌龙茶分类术语中英文对照版：White oolong 白茶乌龙twisted oolong 条形乌龙Pelleted oolong 球形乌龙roasted oolong 熟火乌龙White tipped oolong 白毫乌龙4红茶分类术语中英文对照版：Unshredded black tea 功夫红茶shredded black tea:碎形红茶5熏花茶分类术语中英文对照版：Scented green tea 熏花绿茶scented puer tea 熏花普洱Scented oolong tea 熏花乌龙scented black tea 熏花红茶Jasmine scented green tea 熏花茉莉上述各类如果假如食品或香料,就成为调味茶spiced tea,如果加到绿茶,则成为：spiced green tea 调味绿茶,以此类推;三：常见茶名的英译中英文对照版：White tipped oolong 白毫乌龙wuyi rock武夷岩茶Green blade 煎茶yellow mountain fuzz tip 黄山毛峰Dragon well 龙井green spiral 碧螺春Gunpower 珠茶age cake puer 青沱Pile cake puer 青饼jun mountain silver needle 君山银针White tip silver needle 银针白毫white peony 白牡丹Long brow jade dew 玉露Robe tea 大红袍cassia tea 肉桂Narcissus 水仙finger citron 佛手Iron mercy goddess 铁观音osmanthus oolong桂花乌龙Ginseng oolong 人参乌龙茶jasmine tea 茉莉花茶Rose bulb 玫瑰绣球gongfu black 功夫红茶Smoke black 烟熏红茶roast oolong 熟火乌龙Light oolong 清茶anji white leaf 安吉白茶Liu’an leaf 六安瓜片fenghuang unique bush 凤凰单从Tea powder 茶粉fine powder tea 抹茶四、茶具名称中英文对照版：Lid saucer盖置tea serving tray奉茶盘tea cup 茶杯cup saucer杯托Tea towel tray茶巾盘tea holder茶荷tea towel 茶巾tea brush 茶拂Timer 定时器water heater煮水器water kettle 水壶heating base 煮水器底坐Tea cart 茶车 seat cushion 座垫cup cover 杯套packing wrap包壶巾Tea ware bag 茶具袋ground pad 地衣tea ware tray 茶托 strainer cup 同心杯Personal tea set 个人品茗组茶具tea basin 水盂 brewing vessel 冲泡盅covered bowl 盖碗 Tea spoon 茶匙tea ware 茶器thermos 热水瓶tea canister 茶罐 tea urn 茶瓮tea table 茶桌side table侧柜Tea bowl 茶碗 spout bowl 有流茶碗五、泡茶程序术语中英文对照版：1、perpare tea ware 备具2、from still to ready position :从静态到动态3、prepare water 备水4、warm pot 温壶5、prepare tea 备茶；6、recognize tea 识茶7、appreciate tea 赏茶；8、warm pitcher 温盅9、put in tea 置茶；10、smell fragrance 闻香11、first infusion 第一道茶；12、set timer 计时13、warm cups 烫杯；14、pour tea 倒茶15、prepare cups 备杯；16、divide tea 分茶17、serve tea by cups 端杯奉茶；18、second infusion 冲第二道茶19、serve tea by pitcher 持盅奉茶；20、supply snacks or water 供应茶点或品泉21、take out brewed leaves 去渣；22、appreciate leaves 赏叶底23、rinse pot 涮壶；24、return to seat 归位25、rinse pitcher 清盅；26、collect cups 收杯27、conclude 结束a tea hound在茶话会、舞会或各种社交场合,总有些喜欢追逐漂亮女子并对她们大献殷勤的家伙;这类就被称为tea hounds 爱交际的男子;例句：John is much mature now, I think he's no longer a tea hound. 约翰现在成熟多了,我想他不再是爱交际的了;somebody's cup of tea英国人对茶情有独钟,无论什么饮品都代替不了茶在他们心中的位置;因此somebody's cup of tea指的就是to be something that one prefers or desires 对某人胃口的东西,使某人感兴趣的东西;例句：Football/Opera/Chemistry is not his cup of tea. 足球/歌剧/化学可不是他的爱好;This spy novel is just my cup of tea. 这本侦探小说正对我的胃口;a storm in a tea cup这是18世纪法国哲学家孟德斯鸠的一句名言;有一次他听说圣马力诺发生了一场骚乱,就用了a storm in a tea cup这个比喻来形容整个事件;圣马力诺是欧洲最小的共和国,人口稀少,因此孟德斯鸠认为那里的骚乱对整个欧洲局势无关紧要;If someone exaggerates a problem or makes a small problem seem far greater than it really is, then they are making a storm in a teacup. 顾名思义,“茶杯里的风暴”自然算不得什么大事,所以就被用来表示“小题大做,大惊小怪”的意思;例句：That couple often quarrel, but it is a storm in a tea cup. 那对夫妻经常吵架,没什么大惊小怪的;Storm in a teacup是大惊小怪的英式英语表达,美式英语的说法是 tempest in a teapot;此外,大惊小怪相似的说法还有：a storm in a cream-bowl,a tempest in a glass of water,a storm in a hand-wash basin;tea break饮茶一直被英国人看作是一种悠闲和舒适的享受;英国人喝茶的时间比较固定,不像我们那样随时随地都可以喝茶;他们习惯于三餐两茶,每天工作、学习一段时间后,喜欢停下来休息一刻钟左右,喝杯茶,吃些点心,补充体力;这段时间叫做tea break茶休：an intermission from work, usually in the middle of the morning or afternoon, for a cup of tea, a snack, etc.;茶休有morning tea上午茶和afternoon tea下午茶之分：上午茶一般在十点半左右；下午茶一般在下午四五点钟;茶休的习惯源于英国18世纪的一位贝德芙公爵夫人安娜;她每天在午餐和晚餐之间总会感到有点饥饿,于是就在每天下午四点到五点之间邀请三五位知心好友,来喝点茶吃点点心;再后来就演变为“上下午工间或课间吃茶点的休息时间”;这种茶休在英国可是雷打不动的小憩时间;例句：Our bloody-minded foreman wouldn't give us a tea break. 我们残忍的工头不给我们工间茶休的时间;茶叶感官审评术语词汇3黑茶、压制茶术语干茶形状术语泥鳅条fishery茶条圆直较大,状如泥鳅;折叠条enveloped茶条折皱重叠;端正normalbrick砖身形态完整,砖面平整,棱角分明;纹理清晰cleanmark砖面花纹、商标、文字等标记清晰;起层open砖茶表层翘起而未脱落;落面brokencover砖茶表层有部分茶脱落;脱面coverdrop饼茶的盖面脱落;紧度适合well-comperessed压制松紧适度;平滑flatandsmooth砖面平整,无起层落面或茶梗突出现象;金花goldenflower茯砖茶中灰绿曲霉菌的金黄色孢子;金花普遍茂盛,品质为佳;斧头形axe-shape砖身一端厚、一端薄、形似斧头;缺口brokenpiece砖茶、饼茶等边缘有残缺现象;包心外露heartunenveloped里茶外露于表面;龟裂crack砖面有裂缝现象;烧心heartburnt砖茶中心部分发暗、发黑或发红;烧心砖多发生霉变;断甑brokenlayer金尖中间断落,不成整块;干茶色泽术语乌润blackbloom乌而油润;此术语也适用于红茶和乌龙茶干茶色泽;半筒黄semi-yellow色泽花杂,叶尖黑色,柄端黄黑色;黑褐blackauburn褐中带黑;此术语也适用于压制茶汤色、叶底色泽,乌龙茶和红茶干茶色泽;铁黑ironblack色黑似铁;棕褐brownishauburn褐中带棕;此术语也适用于压制茶汤色、叶底和红茶干茶色泽;青黄blueishyellow黄中泛青,原料后发酵不足所致;猪肝色livercolour红而带暗,似猪肝色;褐红auburnishred红中带褐;汤色术语橙红orangered红中泛橙色;此术语也适用于乌龙茶汤色;红暗reddull红而深暗;此术语也适用于红茶汤色;棕红brownishred红中泛棕,似咖啡色;此术语也适用于红茶干茶色泽及红碎茶茶汤加奶后的汤色;棕黄brownishyellow黄中泛棕;此术语也适用于红碎茶干茶色泽;红黄reddishyellow黄中带红;12A滋味术语爽口brisk有刺激性,回味好,不苦不涩;此术语也适用于乌龙茶和红茶滋味;鲜浓freshandheavy鲜洁爽口,富收敛性;此术语也适用于红茶滋味;熟闷味stewedtaste软熟沉闷不爽;此术语也适用于黄茶和红茶滋味;叶底术语青张blueleaf夹杂青色叶片;此术语也适用于乌龙茶叶底色泽;靛青blue蓝绿色黄茶术语干茶形状术语扁直flatandstraight扁平挺直;肥直fatandstraight芽头肥壮挺直,满坡白毫;形状如针;此术语也适用于黄绿茶和白茶干茶形状;梗叶连枝wholeflush叶大梗长而相连;鱼子泡scorchedpoints干茶有如鱼子大的突起泡点;干茶色泽术语金黄光亮goldenbright芽头肥壮,芽色金黄,油润光亮;嫩黄光亮tenderyellowbright色浅黄,光泽好;褐黄auburnishyellow黄中带褐,光泽稍差;青褐blueishauburn褐中带青;此术语也适用于压制茶干茶、叶底色泽和乌龙茶干茶色泽; 黄褐yellowishauburn褐中带黄;此术语也适用于乌龙茶干茶色泽和压制茶干茶、叶底色泽; 黄青yellowishblue青中带黄;汤色术语黄亮yellowbright黄而明亮;有深浅之分;此术语也适用于黄茶叶底色泽和白茶汤色;橙黄orangeyellow黄中微泛红,似桔黄色,有深浅之分;此术语也适用于压制茶、白茶和乌龙茶汤色;香气术语嫩香tenderflavour清爽细腻,有毫香;此术语也适用于绿茶、白茶和红茶香气清鲜cleanandfresh清香鲜爽,细而持久;此术语也适用于绿茶和白茶香气;清纯cleanandpure清香纯和;此术语也适用于绿茶、乌龙茶和白茶香气;焦香scorcharoma炒麦香强烈持久;松烟香pinesmokyflavour带有松木烟香;此术语也适用于黄茶、黑茶和小种红茶特有的香气;滋味术语甜爽sweetandbrisk爽口而感有甜味;甘醇sweetandmellow味醇而带甜;此术语也适用于乌龙茶、白茶和条红茶滋味同义词甜醇鲜醇freshandmellow清鲜醇爽,回甘;此术语也适用于绿茶、白茶、乌龙茶和条红茶滋味; 叶底术语肥嫩fatandtender芽头肥壮,叶质柔软厚实;此术语也适用于绿茶、白茶和红茶叶底嫩底; 12A8A.html灰绿greyishgreen绿中带灰,光泽不及银绿;此术语也适用于白茶干茶色泽;青绿blueishgreen绿中带青;此术语也适用于绿茶叶底色泽和乌龙茶干茶色泽黄绿yellowishgreen以绿为主,绿中带黄;此术语也适用于绿茶汤色和叶底；黄茶干茶和叶底的正常色泽及白茶不正常的干茶色泽;绿黄greenishyellow以黄为主,黄中泛绿;此术语也适用于汤色和叶底;露黄littleyellow面张含有少量黄朴、片及黄条;灰黄greyishyellow色黄带灰;枯黄dryyellow色黄而枯燥;此术语也适用于白茶干茶色泽;灰暗greyishdull色深暗带死灰色;灰褐greyishauburn色褐带灰无光泽;此术语也适用于红茶干茶色泽;汤色术语绿艳brilliantgreen绿中微黄,鲜艳透明;浅黄lightyellow黄色较浅;此术语也适用于黄茶和白茶汤色;深黄deepyellow黄色较深;此术语也适用于白茶和黄茶汤色;红汤redliquor汤色发红,绿茶已变质;黄暗yellowdull色黄而暗;此术语也适用于叶底色泽;青暗bluedull色青而暗;此术语也适用于绿茶、压制茶和红茶叶底色泽;香气术语一般绿茶香气术语馥郁fragrance芬芳持久,沁人心肺;此术语也适用于乌龙茶和红茶香气;鲜嫩freshandtender具有新鲜悦鼻的嫩茶香气;此术语也适用于红茶香气;鲜爽freshandbrisk新鲜爽快;此术语也适用于绿茶滋味、红茶香味和乌龙茶滋味;清高cleanandhigh清香高而持久;此术语也适用于黄茶和乌龙茶香气;清香cleanaroma清鲜爽快;此术语也适用于乌龙茶香气;花香floweryflavour茶香鲜悦,具有令人愉快的似鲜花香气;此术语也适用于乌龙茶和红茶香气;板栗香chestuntflavour似熟栗子香;此术语也适用于黄茶香气;。
一、制茶Making Tea1 tea bush 茶树2 tea harvesting 采青3 tea leaves 茶青4 withering 萎凋sun withering 日光萎凋indoor withering 室内萎凋setting 静置tossing 搅拌（浪青5 fermentation 发酵 6 oxidation 氧化7 fixation 杀青steaming 蒸青stir fixation炒青baking 烘青sunning 晒青8 rolling 揉捻light rolling 轻揉heavy rolling 重揉cloth rolling 布揉9 drying 干燥pan firing 炒干baking 烘干sunning 晒干10 piling 渥堆11 refining 精制screening 筛分cutting 剪切de-stemming 把梗shaping 整形winnowing 风选blending 拼配compressing 紧压re-drying覆火aging 陈放12 added process 加工roasting 焙火scenting 熏花spicing调味tea beverage 茶饮料13 Packing包装vacuum packaging 真空包装nitrogen packs 充氮包装shredded-tea bag 碎形小袋茶leave-tea bag 原片小袋茶其它1、焙火roastingotte 生茶Half-baked 半熟Well-done 熟茶2、Shelf Life 保质期3、Effect 功效health tea保健茶slimming tea减肥茶organic tea有机茶4、Form Style 形态类别Compressed tea 紧压茶砖Brick tea 茶砖Loose tea 散茶5、Packaging 包装Bag 袋Box 箱Gift packing 礼品包装Vacuum pack 真空包装Bottle 瓶Cup 杯Mason jar 玻璃杯Bulk 大容量二、分类ClassificationAccording to the degree of fermentation, rolling, baking and tea leaf maturity.根据制造时发酵，揉捻焙火与采摘时原料成熟度来分类。
水分活度water activity碳水化合物carbohydrate单糖Monosaccharide低聚糖oligosaccharide多糖Polysaccharide蔗糖sucrose果糖fructose葡萄糖glucose淀粉starch果胶pectin纤维素cellulose美拉德反应Mailard reaction 持水性water binding capacity 粘度viscosity脂质lipid脂肪酸fatty acid氧化oxidation酶促氧化 Enzymatic oxidation 乳化emulsification过氧化物 peroxid抗氧化剂antioxidant麦芽糖maltose水解hydrolyze水解物hydrolyzate凝胶gel 胆固醇cholesterin肽peptide碱alkali脱水dehydration辐照irradiation酶enzyme色素pigment胡萝卜素carotene多酚 Polyphenol丹宁tannin焦糖caramel非酶褐变Nonenzymic browning异构化Isomerization reaction聚合polymerization变性denaturalization交联cross-linked;果蔬加工Fruit and Vegetable Processing 肉品加工Meat Products Processing饮料工业Beverage industry乳品工业Dairy Industry焙烤工业baking industry发酵工业fermentation industry食品检验Food Inspection污染物Contaminant罐藏工业Canning industry商业无菌commercial sterilization 孢子Spore属性Attribute变化altering褐变darken叶绿素chlorophyll改性淀粉modified starch考拉胶garrageenanalmond杏仁apple苹果apple core苹果核apple juice苹果汁apple skin苹果皮apricot杏子apricot flesh杏肉apricot pit杏核areca nut槟榔子banana香蕉banana skin香蕉皮bargain price廉价beechnut山毛榉坚果Beijing flowering crab海棠果bilberry 越桔bitter苦的bitterness苦味bitter orange酸橙blackberry黑莓blood orange 红橙canned fruit罐头水果carambola杨桃cherry樱桃cherry pit樱桃核cherry pulp樱桃肉chestnut栗子Chinese chestnut板栗Chinese date枣Chinese gooseberry猕猴桃Chinese walnut山核桃coconut椰子coconut milk椰奶coconut water椰子汁cold storage冷藏cold store冷藏库crisp脆的cumquat金桔currant 醋粟damson plum西洋李子Dangshan pear砀山梨date枣date pit枣核decayed fruit烂果downy pitch毛桃dry fruit干果early-maturing早熟的fig无花果filbert榛子first class一等地，甲等的flat peach蟠桃flavour味道flesh果肉flesh fruit肉质果fresh新鲜的fresh litchi鲜荔枝fruit in bags袋装水果fruits of the season应时水果gingko白果，银杏grape葡萄grape juice葡萄汁grape skin葡萄皮grapestone葡萄核greengage青梅Hami melon哈密瓜Hard坚硬的haw山楂果hawthorn山楂hazel榛子honey peach水蜜桃in season应时的juicy多汁的juicy peach水蜜桃jujube枣kernel仁kumquat金桔late-maturing晚熟的lemon柠檬litchi荔枝litchi rind荔枝皮longan桂圆，龙眼loguat枇杷mandarine柑桔mango芒果mature成熟的medlar 枇杷,欧查果morello黑樱桃mulberry 桑椹muskmelon香瓜，甜瓜navel orange脐橙nectarine 油桃nut坚果nut meat坚果仁nut shell坚果壳oleaster沙枣olive橄榄orange柑桔orange peel柑桔皮papaya木瓜peach桃子pear梨persimmon 柿子pineapple菠萝plum李子plumcot李杏pomegranate石榴pomelo柚子，文旦red bayberry杨梅reduced price处理价ripe成熟的rotten fruit烂果seasonable应时的seedless orange无核桔special-grade特级的strawberry草莓sultana无核小葡萄superfine特级的tangerine柑桔tart酸的tender嫩的tinned fruit罐头水果unripe未成熟的walnut胡桃，核桃walnut kernel核桃仁water chestnut荸荠watermelon西瓜食品包装food packaging （food packing ， food package ）真空包装 vacuum packing充气包装gas flush packaging （gas packing ）无菌包装 aseptic packaging （ aseptic packing ）营养素 nutrient蛋白质 protein粗蛋白质 crude protein植物蛋白 vegetable protein动物蛋白 animal protein蛋白质营养学评价nutritional evaluation蛋白质变性 protein denaturation蛋白质互补complementary action of protein氨基酸 amino acid必需氨基酸 essential amino acid脂肪 fat (oil and fat)粗脂肪 crude fat脂肪酸 fatty acid饱和脂肪酸 saturated fatty acid不饱和脂肪酸 unsaturated fatty acid碳水化合物 carbohydrate有效碳水化合物 effective carbohydrate 粗纤维 crude fiber膳食纤维 dietary fiber矿物质 mineral matter微量元素 trace element维生素 vitamin脂溶性维生素 liposoluble vitamin (fat soluble vitamin)水溶性维生素 water soluble vitamin 每日推荐的营养素供给量(RDA) recommended daily nutrient allowance 水分 moisture content水分活度 water activity热量 calorie固形物 solid content可溶性固形物 soluble solid不溶性固形物 insoluble solid食品污染 food contamination生物性污染 biologic contamination化学性污染 chemical contamination放射性污染 radioactive contamination 重金属 heavy metal微生物毒素 microbial toxin农药残留 residue of pesticide兽药残留 residue of veterinary drug食物中毒 food poisoning酸败 rancidity腐败 spoilage霉变 mould褐变 browning食物安全毒理学评价toxicological evaluation for food safety人体每日允许摄入量(ADI) acceptable daily intake (ADI)食品感官检验 sensory analysis ( sensory evaluation)感官特性 organoleptic attribute食品理化检验 food physical and chemical analysis总糖 total reducing sugar还原糖 reducing sugar酸度 acidity总酸 total acid碘价 iodine value酸价 acid value过氧化值 peroxide value食品微生物学检验 food microbiological analysis菌落总数 total plate count大肠菌群 coliform致病菌 pathogenic bacterium抗生素 antibiotic原料清理raw material handling (rawmaterial cleaning)原料预处理 pretreatment of raw material 酸处理 acid treatment硫处理 sulphuring treatment碱处理 alkali treatment粉碎 grinding破碎 cracking (crushing)打浆 mashing搅拌 mixing分离 separation离心分离 centrifugal separation过滤 filtration膜分离 membrane separation筛分 screening (sifting)沉降 precipitation浓缩 concentration蒸馏 distillation精馏 rectification (distilling)蒸发 evaporation闪蒸 flash evaporation离子交换 ion exchange吸附 adsorption吸收 absorption解吸 deabsorption干燥 drying脱水 dehydration复水 rehydration浸取 extraction压榨 pressing乳化 emusifying均质 homogenizing发酵 fermentation酿造 brewing糊化 gelatinization凝沉 retrogradation液化 liquifying (liquefaction)糖化 saccharification (conversion)氢化 hydrogenation嫩化 tenderization软化 softening营养强化 fortification (enrichment)膨化 extrusion (puffing)精制 refining烘焙 baking 熏制 smoking保鲜 refreshment (refreshing)冷藏 cold storage , frozen storage速冻 quick-freezing气调贮藏storage in controlled atmosphere干制保藏drying preservation (preserved by dehydration ; drying process)腌制保藏curing preservation (preserved by curing process)盐渍 salting酱渍 saucing糖渍 sugaring酸渍 pickling糟渍cured or pickled with germented grains辐照保藏 irradiation preservation化学保藏 chemical preservation成熟 ripening后熟 maturation灭菌 sterilization超高温瞬时灭菌 ultra high temperature short time sterilization商业无菌 commercial sterilization消毒 disinfection巴氏消毒 pasteurization接种 inoculation培菌 cultivation染菌microbiological contamination （ contamination ）动物性食品food of animal origin (animal food)植物性食品 vegetable food (plant food) 传统食品 traditional food干制食品 dehydrated food糖制食品 confectionery腌制品 curing food烘焙食品 bakery熏制食品 smoking food膨化食品 puffed food (extruded food) 速冻食品 quick-frozen food罐藏食品 canned food方便食品convenient food(fast food,prepared food, instant food)特殊营养食品food of special nutrients婴幼儿食品 infant or baby food强化食品 nutrient fortified food天然食品 natural food摸拟食品 imitation food预包装食品 prepackaged food食品制造 food manufacturing食品加工 food processing食品工业 food industry食品资源 food resource食品新资源 new resource for food原料 raw material配料 ingredient主料major ingredient (major material)辅料 minor ingredient食品添加剂 food additive食品营养强化剂 food enrichment加工助剂 processing aid酶 enzyme配料表 list of ingredients配方 formula食品包装材料 packaging material for food食品包装容器 food container软包装 flexible package硬包装 rigid package食品标签 food labelling保质期 date of minimum durability食品质量管理 food quality control食品质量监督food quality supervision食品质量检验 food quality inspection 食品卫生 food hygiene (food safety)食品营养 food nutrition食品成分 food composition食品分析 food analysis食品工业标准化food industry standardization 食品标准 food standard食品产品标准 food product standard食品卫生标准 food hygienic standard 食品厂卫生规范 hygienic code of food factory食品分析方法标准food analysing standard methed良好加工规范good manufacturing practice (GMP)危害分析关键控制点 hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP)食品生产许可证 food production licence 食品产品合格证food product qualification食品卫生许可证 food hygiene licence 食品卫生合格证food hygiene qualification食品工业副产品by-product of food industry粮食 grain粮食制品 cereal product肉制品 meat product食用油脂 edible oil and fat乳制品 dairy product水产品 sea food水果制品 fruit product蔬菜制品 vegetable product植物蛋白食品 vegetable protein food淀粉制品 starch-based product蛋制品 egg product糕点 pastry糖果 candy调味品 condiment (seasoning)食用盐 edible salt (food grade salt)饮料酒 alcoholic drink无酒精饮料non-alcoholic drink （ soft drink ）单糖Monosaccharide多糖Polysaccharide污染物Contaminant罐藏工业Canning industry商业无菌commercial sterilization 孢子Spore 属性Attribute 变化altering 褐变darken。
险分别是：养老保险:单位每个月为你缴纳21%,你自己缴纳8%;医疗保险:单位每个月为你缴纳9%,你自己缴纳2%外加10块钱的大病统筹(大病统筹主要管住院这块);失业保险:单位每个月为你缴纳2%,你自己缴纳1%;工伤保险:单位每个月为你缴纳0.5%,你自己一分钱也不要缴;生育保险:单位每个月为你缴纳0.8%,你自己一分钱也不要缴;住房公积金:单位每个月为你缴纳8%,你自己缴纳8%以上,这么算下来,单位每个月为你缴纳的社保比例应该是21%+9%+2%+0.5%+0.8%+8%=41.3%你自己每个月为你缴纳的社保比例应该是8%+2%+10块+1%+8%=19%+10块statement of agreement 协议声明Participant Information 参加者信息Informed Consent Form 知情同意书Sponsor 申办者Study Site 研究地址approve 批准moderate to severe psoriasis 中度至重度银屑病local operation entity 当地运营实体Research and Development, Inc 研发公司Xian-Janssen Pharmaceutical Ltd 西安杨森制药有限公司the electrical activity of the heartover time心脏随时间推移的电活动be required to fast from food andliquid禁用食物和液体qualitative analysis 定性分析quantitative analysis 定量分析instrumental analysis 仪器分析法flow injection analysis；FIA 流动注射分析法determinate error 可定误差coefficient of variation 变异系数confidence level 置信水平level of significance 显著性水平pooled standard debiation 合并标准偏差（组合标准差）rejection quotient ;Q 舍弃商volumetric analysis 容量分析法titrametric analysis 滴定分析法stoichiometric point 化学计量点equivalent point 等当点charge balance 电荷平衡charge balance equation 电荷平衡式mass balance 质量平衡material balance 物料平衡mass balance equation 质量平衡式acid-base indicator 酸碱指示剂acid-base titrations 酸碱滴定法autoprotolysis reaction 质子自递反应constant 常数proton balance equation 质子条件式colour change interval 变色范围protonic solvent 质子溶剂aprotic solvent 无质子溶剂differentiating effect 均化效应differentiating solvent 区分性溶剂amphototeric solvent 两性溶剂dissociation 离解crystal violet 结晶紫α-naphthalphenol benzyl alcohol 萘酚苯甲醇quinadinered 奎哪啶红thymol blue 百里酚蓝azo violet 偶氮紫bromophenol blue 溴酚蓝compleximetry 配位滴定法ischemic preconditioning 缺血预适应simple ischemia-reperfusion injury单纯缺血与再灌注损伤组groupLeukocyte 白血球Floating gel 漂浮凝胶acid concentration of the medium 介质酸浓度Alginic acid 海藻酸Aluminium hydroxide 氢氧化铝antacid activity 抗酸活性Antacid agent 抗酸剂Anti-reflux agent 抗返流剂benzyl alcohol 苯甲醇blinding agent 粘合剂Bulking agent 填充剂Calcium carbonate 碳酸钙carbonate 碳酸盐combinations 复方Comparative active ingredient活性成分组成的比较compositionsDetermination of pH gradient in vitro 体外PH梯度测定Dextrates 葡萄糖结合剂drug product 制剂drug substance 原料药duration 持续时间Excipients 辅料Filling agent 填充剂Flavour 香精/香料Formation of a floating gel in vitro 漂浮凝胶在体外的形成function of the acid concentration of介质酸浓度函数the mediumGaviscon? tablets Gaviscon?片Glucose monohydrate 一水葡萄糖Granulating agent 制粒溶剂Heavy magnesium carbonate 重质碳酸镁In-house monograph 内部专论Lemon cream flavour 柠檬奶油香精/香料Lubricant 润滑剂magnesium carbonate 碳酸镁magnesium carbonate gel 碳酸镁凝胶magnesium chloride 氯化镁Magnesium stearate 硬脂酸镁Magnesium trisilicate 三硅酸镁Mean “raft” pH平均“筏”PhPeak “intra-gastric” pH胃内峰PHpeppermint flavour 薄荷香料/香精pH gradient pH 梯度pharmaceutical development 制药开发Povidone 聚维酮Quantitative composition 定量组成raft 筏Raft booster 筏推动剂Rennie? Dual Action tablets 罗内?双效片Rennie? Duo, chewable tablets 罗内?Duo咀嚼片Rennie? Duo, oral suspension 罗内?Duo口服混悬剂RENNIE? LIQUID 罗内?液体剂Saccharin sodium 糖精钠Sodium alginate海藻酸钠 Sodium bicarbonate碳酸氢钠 sodium chloride氯化钠 Sodium hydrogen carbonate碳酸氢钠 sodium propyl p-hydroxybenzoate对羟基苯甲酸丙酯钠 stearate硬脂酸盐 Sucrose蔗糖 Sweetener甜味剂 symptomatic treatment症状性治疗 Talc滑石粉 Xanthan gum黄原胶 6-1 ：David Grimes 教授演讲部分 long acting contraception长效避孕法 The role of long acting contraception in family planning长效避孕法在计划生育中发挥的作用 long-acting reversible contraception 长效可逆性避孕法 forgettable contraception遗忘式避孕法 overt act专门措施 Coital frequency性交频率 Progestin injection黄体酮注射 Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate 长效醋酸甲羟孕酮（DMPA ）Intrauterine Contraception 宫内避孕法 Levonorgestrel Releasing System 左炔诺孕酮释放系统 Levonorgestrel intrauterine system (LNG-IUS)左炔诺孕酮宫内节育系统（LNG-IUS ） Single-rod progestin implant单棒黄体酮植入物 fibroids, hemoglobinopathy纤维瘤，血红蛋白病 surrogate end points替代终点 risk of ectopic pregnancies异位妊娠风险 tubal infertility输卵管性不孕 Gross Removal Rates总取出率 Levonorgestrel IUS左炔诺孕酮IUS Barrier methods屏障法 Venous thromboembolism静脉血栓形成 hysterectomy子宫切除术 endometriosis子宫内膜异位症 perimenopausal symptoms围绝经期症状 Hemoglobin and ferritin血红蛋白和铁蛋白 parous women经产妇 nulliparous women未产妇 menorrhagia / dysmenorrhea 月经过多/痛经uterine involution 子宫复旧Perforation rate 穿孔率Expulsion frequency 排出率estrogen and progesterone receptors 雌激素和孕酮受体expulsion / salpingitis 排出/输卵管炎curettage 刮除术mifepristone 米非司酮Lactation 哺乳期/泌乳partum 分娩spotting and bleeding 出血和点状出血Full breast-feeding 完全母乳喂养antiphospholipid syndrome 抗磷脂综合征anticoagulation 抗凝药estradiol 雌二醇6-2 ：Dr. Ritva Hurskainen 演讲部分endometrial resection / ablation 子宫内膜切除/消融术Submucous fibroids 黏膜下纤维化Endometrial polyps 子宫内膜息肉Ovarian tumours or cysts 卵巢肿瘤或囊肿uterine malformation 子宫畸形acne 痤疮Levonorgestrel-ReleasingIntrauterine System左炔诺孕酮宫内缓释系统Health-Related Quality of Life 健康相关生存质量Bladder-emptying 膀胱排空Urge incontinence 尿失禁Stress incontinence 压力性失禁Tranexamic acid 氨甲环酸Norethisterone 炔诺酮Myomectomy or uterine artery embolisation 子宫肌瘤剔除术或子宫动脉栓塞术endometrial ablation 子宫内膜消融术6-2 ：Yu Qi 教授演讲部分Heavy menstrual bleeding (HMB) 月经过多 (HMB) injected progestogens 孕激素注射剂Health Economics 卫生经济学Oophorectomy with hysterectomy 卵巢切除术联合子宫切除术Dilatation and curettage 扩刮术Impedance-controlled bipolar 阻抗控制双极射频消融术radiofrequency ablationFluid-filled thermal balloon endometrial ablation (TBEA) 充液热球囊子宫内膜消融术Microwave endometrial ablation(MEA)微波子宫内膜消融术Free fluid thermal endometrial ablation 自由流体热子宫内膜消融术Care Pathway for HMB (1) HMB的诊治路径Intermenstrual bleeding 月经间期出血Anovulatory DUB 无排卵型DUB Ovulatory DUB 排卵型DUB gynecologic complaints 妇科主诉Anti-fibrinolysis drugs 抗纤溶药Endometrial Atrophy Therapy 子宫内膜萎缩疗法Inhibitor of prostaglandin synthesis 前列腺素合成抑制剂Flufenamic Acid 氟芬那酸6-2：Session 4 (Day 2) 部分的词汇menstrual disorders 月经紊乱Cervical glands 宫颈腺体Abortifacient 堕胎者Cervical smears 宫颈涂片Pelvic infection 盆腔感染Valvular heart disease 心脏瓣膜疾病Amenorrhea 闭经Menache 初潮Menstruation 行经Menopause 绝经cyclical norethisterone 环炔诺酮Non steroidal antiinflammatory drugs 非甾体类抗炎药Strong premenstrual symptoms 重度经前症状 (PMS) Contraceptive patch or ring 避孕贴或避孕环Progestin oral pills 孕激素口服片剂drospirenon 屈螺酮Migraine 偏头痛Migraine without aura 无预兆的偏头痛Ovarian cysts 卵巢囊肿flange 凸缘Paracervical blockade 宫颈旁阻滞麻醉Ibuprofen 布洛芬anteverted uterus 前倾子宫retroverted uterus 后倾子宫misoprostol 米索前列醇bleeding pattern 出血模式endometrial hyperplasia 子宫内膜增生tamoxifen 他莫西芬Clin Conf 1 - Contraception &ProfGrimes1 词汇Anovulation 停止排卵Premature ovarian failure 卵巢早衰Hyperprolactinaemia 高泌乳素血症Hypothyroidism 甲减Transvaginal ultrasound 经阴道超声Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) 多囊卵巢综合征(PCOS) Combined oral contraception 联合口服药避孕说明书Packaging Insert药品名称Article Name通用名称Generic Name汉语拼音Name In Bopomofo成分Ingredients作用类别/主治功能Function and indication 规格Strengths注意事项Precautions药物相互作用Drug Interaction有效期Expire date执行标准Executive Standard国家药品标准National drug standard批准文号Approval Document No 国药准字Guo yao zhun zi修订日期Revision Date生产地址Address of Facility如果有问题Please contact the manufacturer in case of any problem止痒Relieving Itching消炎Diminishing Inflammation非处方non-prescription (OTC) 英文中文Fly Sheet 扉页intra-individually controlled 个体自身对照dose-eomparative 剂量比较open-label 公开标签Clinical trial phase 临床试验阶段diagnostic confidence 诊断置信度qualitative evaluation 定性评价quantitative evaluation 定量评价global evaluation 总体评价physical examination 体格检查Synopsis 纲要confidence intervals. 置信区间Duration of treatment 治疗期/治疗持续时间mode of admin. 给药方式Reference therapy 参照疗法Criteria for evaluation 评价标准Efficacy 有效性signal intensity ratio 信号强度比overall visualization 总体显影c1inieal differenee 临床差异Trial Manager 试验主管Trial Director 试验总监Co-investigator 助理研究者Formulation 制剂Type of formulation 剂型Specific radioactivity 比放射性drug substance 原料药Vehicle composition 赋形剂成分Generic name 通用名Study design and plan 研究设计和计划description of rationale 原理说明Overview and justification 概述和论证Study configuration: 研究结构Level of blinding: 设盲水平Investigational product 试验性药物Interim analyses 中期分析steering committees 指导委员会Protocol amendments 方案修正Sampie size 样本量Molecular weight 分子量Structural formula 结构式Molecular formula: 分子式osmolality 克分子渗透压浓度viscosity 粘度Qualitative evaluation 定量评价localisation of lesion ? 病灶定位visualization of lesion ? 病灶显影characterization of lesion ? 病灶特征记述Equivocal 模糊No contrast 无差异Referral diagnosis 转诊诊断Pre-conifastt MRI diagnosis 增强前MRI诊断Drug relationship 药物相关性Intensity 严重程度Flow chart of trial activities 试验流程图imaging 影像学检查Baseline period 基线期Drop-outs 脱落Deviations from the trial protocol 与试验方案的背离Target variabies 靶变量Disposition of sUbjects 受试者安排Ethnic group 种族Medication history 治疗史Medical and surgical history 病史和手术史abnormal findings 异常发现pulse rate 脉率systolic blood pressure 收缩压diastolic blood pressure 舒张压general appearanee 一般状态primary tumor 原发肿瘤metastases 转移灶multiple sclerosis 多发性硬化症angiography 血管造影myelography 脊髓造影Data sets analyzed 数据组分析Diagnostic confidence: 诊断置信度Optimal injection 最佳注射Overall visualization 总体显影度signal intensity ratio 信号强度比contrast to noise ratio 对比噪声比Total drug exposure 总的药物暴露test article 供试品Text tables 正文表格Box plot 箱线图Scatter diagrams 散点图contrast agents造影剂 efficacy evaluation有效性评价 plain scans平扫 worsened变差 extent of exposure暴露程度 Total drug exposure总的药物暴露 Display and analysis of adverse events 不良事件的陈述和分析 weakness of extension伸展无力 involuntary tremor不自主震颤 tolerance indicators容许指示剂 Title Page标题页 Good Clinical Practice (GCP).药物临床试验质量管理规范（GCP ） Analysis set分析集 Intent - to - treat population意向治疗人群 Preferred population首选人群 Reader 1读片者1 blinded reading盲态读片 False positive lesions假阳性病变 Sensitivity and specificity in liver segment involvement肝段受累的敏感性和特异性 liver lobes肝叶 pooled segments混合段 pre-contrast MRI造影前MRI combined pre-and post MRI联合造影前/后MRI Lesion classification病变分类 lesion type病变类型 Assessment of enhancement增强的评估 (dynamic imaging and hepatocytephase)动态影像和肝细胞相 Signal-to-noise ratio信噪比 Contrast-to-noise ratio对比噪声比 Independent Ethics Committee (IEC) 独立伦理委员会（IEC ）Institutional Review Board (IRB)机构审查委员会（IRB ） Ethical conduct伦理学实施 study administrative structure研究行政结构 Comparators对比方法 Prior and concomitant therapy既往和目前的合用药物 Diffuse liver disease弥漫性肝病 Focal liver lesions 肝脏局灶性病变 Trackable/untrackable focal liver 可追踪性/不可追踪性肝lesions脏局灶性病变 Liver maps肝脏图谱 Lesion detection病变检出 Lesion characterization病变鉴定 Morphology形态学 Biliary system imaging增强的评估 Artifacts伪像 pre-contrast T2-weighted sequences 造影前T2加权序列 Intraoperative ultrasound (IOUS)术中超声（IOUS ） Required pulse sequences规定的脉冲序列 Adjustments of image size and contrast 图像大小和对比度的调整 Biliary system imaging胆道系统成像 presence of thrombus有血栓 Adjustments for covariates对协变量的调整 Examination of subgroups亚组检查 Drug-drug and drug-diseaseinteractions药物-药物相互作用和药物-疾病相互作用 specified diffuse liver disease特定弥漫性肝病 matched lesions匹配病变 Number of correctly and incorrectly classified lesions正确和错误分类病变的数量 Mass Effect占位效应 Enhancement patterns 增强模式 New Atrial Extrasystoles Postbaseline 基线后新出现房性期外收缩New Ventricular ExtrasystolesPostbaseline基线后新出现室性期外收缩 PRODUCT MONOGRAPH药品专论 Intravenous contrast enhancement agent for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)静脉注射的磁共振成像（MRI ）造影剂 Submission Control No:提交文件控制号 Elimination清除 Hepatic Insufficiency肝功能不全 DOSAGE FORMS, COMPOSITION ANDPACKAGING剂型、成分和包装 Proper name专有名称 Physical form外观 Solubility溶解性 pH in water水溶液的pH Osmolality 渗透压Density密度 Bi-phasic enhanced spiral CT双相增强螺旋CT Animal Pharmacology动物药理学 Human Pharmacology人体药理学 Insufficiency功能不全 Repeated-Dose Toxicity多次给药毒性 Genotoxic Potential遗传毒性可能性 Tumorigenicity and Carcinogenicity 致肿瘤性和致癌性 Reproductive Toxicology生殖毒理学 Local Tolerance and SensitizingPotential局部耐受性和致敏可能性 Formulation number制剂编号 Substance code number原料药代码编号 specifications规格 release date发布日期 This edition supersedes替代版本 Property of Bayer Schering Pharma 所有权归Bayer ScheringPharma 所有Physical, chemical and pharmaceutical properties and formulation 物理、化学以及药理学特性和剂型Description of Drug Substance 药品说明Product interaction 产品相互作用Special Populations 特殊人群Mean (SD) serum concentrations 平均（SD ）血清浓度fecal excretion 粪便排泄量compartment model dependent （CMD ） 间室模型依赖 renal clearance 肾清除率total clearance 总清除率beats per minute(bpm) 每分钟心跳次数end stage renal failure （ESRF ） 终末阶段肾衰focal nodular hyperplasia(FNH) 局灶结节性增生field of view(FOV) 视野gradient echo(GRE) 梯度回波Hoechst Adverse Events Reaction Thesaurus System(HARTS) Hoechst 不良事件反应词典系统Gd-EOB-DTPA 钆-EOB-DTPA ，钆塞酸high pressure liquidchromatography(HPLC)高压液相色谱 Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy(ICPAES )电感耦合等离子体原子发射光谱法 Specific Rotation 比旋光度Partition Coefficient 分配系数Time Profile 时间特征Elimination Profile 消除曲线Biotransformation 生物转化volume of distribution at steady state 稳态下分布体积repetition time 保留时间time of echo 回声时间terminal half-life 终末半衰期initial half-life 初始半衰期no observable effect level 不可观察的反应水平microsoft disk operating system 微软磁盘操作系统mean residence time 平均停留时间magnetic resonance imaging 磁共振成像magnetic resonance 核磁共振minimum lethal dose 最低致死剂量Medical Dictionary for Regulatory国际医学用语词典Activitiesmean corpuscular volume 平均血细胞体积mean corpuscular hemoglobin 红细胞平均血红蛋白含量Intraoperative ultrasound 术中超声医学英语中的缩写词aa——各et——及、和Rp.——取、请取sig./S.——用法、指示St./Stat.——立即、急速Cit.——急速s.o.s.——需要时p.r.n——必要时a.c.——饭前p.c.——饭后a.m.——上午p.m.——下午q.n.——每晚h.s.——睡前q.h.——每小时q.d.——每日1次B.i.d.——每日2次T.i.d.——每日3次Q.i.d.——每日4次q.4h.——每4小时1次p.o.——口服ad us.int.——内服ad us.ext.——外用H.——皮下注射im./M.——肌肉注射iv./V.——静脉注射iv gtt.——静脉滴注Inhal.——吸入O.D.——右眼O.L.——左眼O.S.——单眼O.U.——双眼No./N.——数目、个s.s——一半ug.——微克mg.——毫克g.——克kg.——千克（公斤）ml.——毫升L.——升q.s——适量Ad.——加至Aq.——水Aq.dest.——蒸馏水Ft.——配成Dil——稀释M.D.S.——混合后给予Co./Comp.——复方的Mist——合剂Pulv.——散剂Amp.——安瓿剂Emul.——乳剂Syr.——糖浆剂Tr.——酊剂Neb.——喷雾剂Garg.——含漱剂rtt./gutt.——滴、滴眼剂collyr.——洗眼剂Ocul.——眼膏Liq.——溶液剂Sol.——溶液Lot.——洗剂Linim.——擦剂Crem.——乳膏剂（冷霜）Ung.——软膏剂Past.——糊剂Ol.——油剂Enem.——灌肠剂Supp.——栓剂Tab.——片剂Pil.——丸剂Caps.——胶囊剂Inj.——注射剂。
茶叶感官审评术英语词汇茶叶感官审评术英语词汇英语学习应该从词汇开始。
下面是店铺分享的茶叶感官审评术英语词汇，欢迎大家阅读！红茶术语干茶形状术语毫尖 golden pekoe 金黄色茸毫的嫩芽。
紧卷 twisted 碎茶颗粒卷得很紧。
折皱 shrink 颗粒虽卷得不紧,但边缘折皱是片茶好的形状。
粗大 large 比正常规格大的茶。
细小 small 比正常规格小的茶。
毛衣 fibre 茶叶中的细筋毛,红碎茶中含量较多。
筋皮 fibrou and skin 嫩茎和梗揉碎的皮。
毛糙 regged 形状大小,粗细不匀,有毛衣,筋皮。
轻松 light and loose 颗粒松,身骨轻。
干茶色泽术语褐黑auburnish black 乌中带褐有光泽。
此术语也适用于压制茶干茶色泽。
栗褐 chestnut auburn 褐中带深棕色,似成熟栗壳色。
栗红 chestnut red 红中带深棕色。
泛红 reddish 色带红而无光泽。
枯红 dry red 色红而枯燥。
灰枯 dry grey 色灰而枯燥。
汤色术语红艳 red brilliant 似琥珀色,鲜艳明亮,金圈厚而艳。
红亮 red bright 红而透明光亮。
此术语也适用于叶底色泽。
红明 red clear 红而透明,亮度次于“红亮”。
深红 deep red 红较深。
此术语也适用于压制茶汤色。
浅红 light red 泛红。
深度不足。
冷后浑 cream down 茶汤冷却后出现浅褐色或橙色乳状的浑浊现象,为优质红茶象征之一。
姜黄 ginger yellow 红碎茶茶汤加牛奶后呈姜黄明亮。
粉红 pink 红碎茶茶汤加牛奶后,呈明亮玫瑰红色。
灰白 greyish white 红碎茶茶汤加牛奶后,呈灰暗混浊的乳白色。
香气术语鲜甜 fresh and sweet 鲜爽带甜感。
此术语也适用于滋味。
高甜 high and sweet 高而带甜感。
焦糖香 camerlsed 烘干充足或火功高致使香气带有饴糖甜香。
茶产品中英文介绍一、绿茶1、春眉茶Chunmee Tea 432-22 春眉茶其外形纤细如眉峰毫显露色泽绿润内质香气飘香持久汤色嫩绿明亮滋味鲜醇爽口叶底嫩绿匀齐。
Chunmee Tea eyebrow tea gets its name from the curve of the processed leaf. It was thought when viewing the beautifully shaped leaf that it resembled that of a womans finely formed eyebrow -- as opposed to an older mans bristly brow. Great skill is required to produce this very high-quality green tea. The fine eyebrow-shaped leaves produce a clear yellow-greenish brew with a distinctive sweet plum-like flavor. 2、绿珠茶Gunpowder Tea 32-24 绿珠茶揉叶成丸浑圆紧实落杯有声色泽绿润香味浓郁被誉为“绿色珍珠”。
Gunpowder Tea is Chinese green tea named for the way the tea leaves are rolled into small pellets which look like old-fashioned gunpowder. Rolling the tea leaves helps preserve its freshing flavor produce an aromatic light liquor which opens with a crisp astringency and develops into a well-rounded sweetness with a lingering mellow finish. 3、野山茶Wild Tea 480-84 野山茶以采自远离人类生活区无任何污染的高山原生态茶园的优质茶片为原料采用古老的手工制作方式精心制作而成加工过程不采用任何现代机器设备和工艺不添加任何辅助原料能够较大程度的保留茶叶中儿茶素、茶多酚等营养物质不流失从而保持了茶叶最原始的风味。
a rXiv:h ep-ph/951253v19Oct1995CERN-TH/95-256IFUM 519/FTHeavy Flavour Production Paolo Nason 1CERN TH-Division,CH-1211Geneva 23,Switzerland Stefano Frixione Dip.di Fisica,Universit`a di Genova,and INFN,Sezione di Genova,Genoa,Italy Giovanni Ridolfi2CERN TH-Division,CH-1211Geneva 23,Switzerland Abstract We review the status of heavy flavour production in parison of experimental and theoretical results for top and bottom production are given.Selected topics in charm production are also discussed.Invited talk given at theXV International conference “Physics in Collisions”Cracow,Poland,June 8-10,1995.CERN-TH/95-256IFUM 519/FTSeptember 1995Although thefirst next-to-leading-order calculations of heavyflavour production were performed more thanfive years ago[1][2],progress in thisfield is constantly being made.The work of ref.[3]has confirmed the results of ref.[1].A calculation of the next-to-leading cross section for the photoproduction of heavy quarks has been given in ref.[4],and has been confirmed by ref.[5].The computation of the radiative corrections to the electroproduction of heavy quarks,via an off-shell photon,was presented in ref.[6].A method that accounts for the correlation of heavy quarks at next-to-leading order was developed in ref.[7]for heavy quark hadroproduction.An application of this calculation tofixed-target production of heavy quarks is given in ref.[8].The method was extended to the photoproduction of heavy quarks in ref.[9].In the following I will describe some recent experimental and theoretical progress in top,bottom and charm production.I briefly remind the reader of the QCD mechanism for heavy quark production.The hadroproduction process is depicted infig.1.TheFigure1:The heavy quark production process in perturbative QCD.high energy colliding hadrons can be viewed as a broad band beam of partons(quarks and gluons),which collide and fuse to produce the heavy quark pair.Thus the cross section is given by the formulaσQ¯Q= dx1dx2f H1i(x1,µ)f H2k(x2,µ)ˆσij(x1p1,x2p2,m Q,µ,αS)(1) whereˆσis the short–distance cross section,which is calculable order by order in perturbation theory.Infig.1only one lowest order diagram is represented.Diagramslike the one offig.1,after squaring the amplitude to obtain a cross section,give rise to a contribution of orderα2S.Thus,the leading process is of orderα2S,and the next–to–leading one isα3S.The coupling constantαS is evaluated at a scale of the order of the mass of the heavyflavour.Thus,for charm the coupling constantαS is roughly0.3to0.5,for bottom is around0.2,and for top is0.1.We expect therefore that theoretical predictions should be very reliable for top,less for bottom,and even less for charm.In fact,next–to–leading corrections are around30–40%for top,100% for bottom,and even larger and less controllable for charm.It is clear therefore that for top we expect to be able to predict the cross section rather well.For bottom,and expecially for charm,we can expect deviations from theoretical predictions due to higher order and non–perturbative effects.In these cases,we also must keep in mind whether certain effects have a simple explanation in terms of some non–perturbative effects,and whether one can model the cross section with the perturbative result supplemented with some model for the non–perturbative effects.I willfirst deal with the issue of comparing the measured top cross section to theoretical expectations.I will then discuss the status of bottom production.Charm production physics is a rather wide and complexfield,mostly because of the fact that non-perturbative effects in charm production do play an important role.Thus,there are several experimental issues of a certain interest,like the A dependence,and the leading particle effect.Here I will focus upon what I think are the most important discrepancies between perturbation theory predictions and experimental results.I will show that certain distributions,like the transverse momentum of charmed mesons, the transverse momentum of the pair,the azimuthal distance of the pair,and the invariant mass of the pair,are somewhat in contrast with each other,and that they may give an indication of how the comparison of theory and data should be performed.1.Top productionFor top hadroproduction,it was found that radiative corrections are generally well under control.This allows us to make predictions for top cross sections with a relatively small error.The recent measurements of top cross section at the Tevatron [10],[11]have turned out to be in remarkable agreement with the theoretical predic-tions.This is illustrated infig.2.In thefigure we have reported the result of the old calculation of ref.[12],using the DFLM structure functions,a next–to–leadingcalculation using the MRSD-set,and the calculation of ref.[13]which attempts to resummation of Sudakov threshold effects.Other calculations are reported in ref[14] [15],where in the latter an alternative approach to the inclusion of threshold effects is attempted.When estimating the cross section,one should not forget that the uncer-tainty onΛ5,which defines the strenght of the QCD coupling constant,is larger than what is usually assumed in structure functionfits.In fact,all LEP determinations [16]tend to give a larger value.Therefore,for comparison,we also show the computed cross section in case one uses a value ofΛ5more compatible with LEP determination. The corresponding increase of the cross section is presumably an overestimate,since a larger value ofΛ5implies stronger evolution of the parton densities,which soften more rapidly as the momentum scale increases.Thefigure shows that only minor changes in the theoretical predictions have taken place in the last few years.We can expect that in spite of the fact that more subleading contributions may be added in the future to the top strong cross section,they will not change substantially the pure next–to–leading result.Figure2:Cross sections for top production:various calculations versus the CDF and D0measurements.2.Bottom productionIn bottom production radiative corrections are large,and various estimates of corrections of even higher order(as given for example by the renormalization and fac-torization scale dependence)lead to theoretical uncertainties of the order of a factor of2.These uncertainties,when combined with other physical uncertainties,such as the error in the knowledge ofΛQCD and of the structure functions,result in a rather poor theoretical prediction.The CDF[17],D0[18]and UA1[19]experiments have all measurements of the spectrum of B mesons.The earliest CDF measurements reported a cross section which was much higher than QCD prediction,and seemed to be in contrast with CDF measurements.This problem was due to the poor the-oretical understanding of the direct J/Ψproduction,and after the introduction of microvertexing techniques,the cross sections have come down to smaller values.The remaining discrepancy which is often quoted in CDF publications is due to the fact that modern sets of structure functions tend to favour small values forΛ5,and there-fore smaller cross sections.If we instead allow for larger values ofΛ5,as favoured by LEP experiments,all we can conclude is that all data(including UA1data)are consistent with the theoretical prediction,although on the high side of the theoretical band.What once seemed to be a discrepancy between CDF and UA1data,is now gone,both data sets bearing the same relation with respect to the theoretical curves. This is illustrated infig.3.The main band(solid)is obtained using the MRSA parton densities,except that for the upper line the value ofΛ5is taken to be300 MeV,not quite consistent with DIS data,but closer to what is indicated by LEP measurements.The same curves are also shown without fragmentation effects,in comparison with the full band(dotted lines)obtained interpolating table6of ref.[2]. As one can see not much has changed since then in the theoretical prediction,and the only thing one can say is that the CDF measurement is closer to the upper limit of the theoretical band.For comparison,I also show data from the D0collaboration infig.4. The old UA1data is shown infig.5.When comparing theoretical and experimental curves,one should remember that certain experimental results are deconvoluted from the heavy quark fragmentation effects,and are given as a bare quark cross section, while others are heavyflavour meson’s cross sections.The former should be compared to the theoretical prediction obtained without the inclusion of fragmentation effects, while for the latter one should include fragmentation.The UA1experiment presented both a B hadron cross section and a b quark cross section,by deconvoluting the effectof fragmentation.In thefigure we show both the predicitons of ref.[2],and a more modern one,performed using the MRSA structure functions,and the same variation of parameters we used at Tevatron energy.Again,we see that the theoretical band has not changed much.The UA1quark data is on the high side of the theoretical band,as the CDF and D0data.This fact has been quantified in the study of ref.[20], where it is found that the ratio of the data over theoretical upper band is0.97for D0,1.3for CDF,and0.84for UA1.We can conclude by saying that data on inclusive b production at hadron colliders is consistent with QCD expectation,and lies on the upper extreme of the prediction band.In other words,in order tofit the cross section,one is forced to use values of the parameters(like the scales,the mass,and the value ofΛ)that favour higher cross section.Figure3:Transverse momentum spectrum of B mesons at Tevatron energies,as measured by the CDF collaboration.The main prediction band(solid lines)is also shown without the inclusion of fragmentation effects.The dotted lines are the old prediction of ref.,using the DFLM structure functions sets.Asfirst pointed out in ref.[1],the perturbative computation of the b cross section at hadron colliders reaches a difficult kinematical regime when going from the Spof this kind may shed a light also on the problems observed in the single inclusive p T distribution.3.Charm productionFigure6gives an instructive picture of the uncertainties in charm and bottom cross sections atfixed-target experiments.Observe the considerable improvement that takes place when going from charm to bottom.Observe also the strong mass dependence of the charm result.Needless to say,similar uncertainties plague the pN cross sections,as shown infig.7.The experimental measurement of bottom production cross section in proton-nucleon collisions atfixed target is a new result [24].New-generationfixed-target experiments have accumulated very large statistics of charm events.For a(possibly incomplete)list of recently published results,see refs.[25]and[26].For recent reviews of the current experimental situation and futureFigure5:Transverse momentum spectrum of B mesons at630GeV center of mass energy,measured by the UA1collaboration.perspectives,see refs.[27],[28].For an older review see[29].Results on bottom production atfixed target are given in refs.[30]–[31].As one can see,experimental results on total cross sections for charm and bottom production atfixed target are in reasonable agreement with theoretical expectations.We remind the reader that many puzzling ISR results in pp collisions at62GeV remain difficult to explain(see the review[29]),in particular the largeΛb production rates reported in ref.[31].Photoproduction results are also in fairly good agreement with theory,as can be seen fromfig.8.The large band in thefigure is obtained by varying all parameters, including a variation of the charm quark mass from1.2to1.8GeV.The dashed and dotted bands are instead obtained by varying all other parameters,and keeping the mass of the charm quarkfixed to1.5GeV.Very recently a new data point has been added by HERA[32].At the Bruxelles conference a new H1result has been announced[33].Differential distributions for charm are at present in a more complex situation.ItFigure6:Cross sections for b and c production inπN collisions versus experimental results.turns out that in photoproduction onefinds a remarkably good agreement between theoretical expectations and experiments.One typically looks at the transverse mo-mentum distribution of a single quark,the transverse momentum of the pair,the invariant mass and the azimuthal correlation of the pair.All this quantities are in good agreement with theoretical expectations,provided one includes in the calcula-tion the effect of a fragmentation function,parametrized in the same way as in charm production in e+e−collisions.This is not the case in hadroproduction.Typically one sees that the inclusive p t distribution of a single meson is well described by pure QCD, without the inclusion of a fragmentation function.One also sees a similar behaviour for the x f distributions.The azimuthal correlation of charmed pairs requires the inclusion of some non-perturbative effects,that could be described as a primordial transverse momentum of the incoming quarks.This transverse momentum turns out to be of reasonable size,that is to say,below1GeV2.Another observable which is strongly sensitive to a primordial transverse momentum of the incoming quarks is the transverse momentum distribution of the charmed pair.In this case,only a veryFigure7:Cross sections for b and c production in pN collisions versus experimental results.large primordial transverse momentum could reproduce the measured cross section. In the following I will illustrate this problems.It is fair to say that a satisfactory answer to these problems is not known yet,but also that present data gives some hints for a direction in which to deepen theoretical work.I begin by showing infig.9 the azimuthal distance between the charm and anticharm,taken from ref.[34].It is quite obvious that a strong enhancement in the back-to-back region is observed, as expected from a hard production mechanism.Perturbative calculations display a similar behaviour,although they are generally much more peaked,as shown infig.10. The solid histogram in thefigure is obtain by a purely perturbative calculation.The dashed and dotted histogram are obtained by assuming that incoming partons do have some non-vanishing transverse momentum,which is transmitted to thefinal quark–antiquark pair.This transverse momentum can be viewed as a simple–minded model for non–perturbative effects,due to the fact that hadrons have afinite trans-verse size.Thefigure was obtained for a beam energy of230GeV,but for the sake of the following discussion it can be considered as energy independent.We see thatFigure8:Cross sections for c production inγN andγp collisions versus experimental results.all data seems to favour a k2T not larger than1GeV2,the WA92data favouring even smaller values.A value around1GeV2is roughly what one would expect,based upon experience with Drell-Yan pair production,which requires intrinsic transverse momenta of the order of600MeV2.Drell-Yan pairs are mainly produced via quark–antiquark annihilation,while heavyflavours are mostly produced by gluons.Since the gluons couple more strongly than quarks by a factor of9/4,one expects that the associated transverse momentum should be somewhat larger.Observe that the az-imuthal correlation is independent of fragmentation effets,since fragmentation does not change the direction of the outgoing particle.Infig.9,data from the E687pho-Figure9:Azimuthal correlation in the production of charmed pairs.toproduction experiment is also reported[35].Comparisons of the E687data with theoretical expectation are given in ref.[9],and a good agreement is found,whether or not one adds an intrinsic momentum kick to the incoming parton.In fact,in the case of photoproduction,a transverse momentum kick has a less dramatic effect,since only one parton is carrying the kick,and also because the perturbative distribution is already broad,and it washes out the effect of the kick.Let us now turn to the inclusive transverse momentum distributions.Here we find a problem in the comparison of photoproduction and hadropoduction data,as illustrated infigs.11and12.We see that photoproduction data is in good agreement with QCD predictions,including the effects of fragmentation.Transverse momentum kicks do not alter the distribution in an appreciable way.In the case of hadropro-duction,onefinds instead that the perturbative prediction is in good agreement with data,and that the inclusion of fragmentation effects spoil the agreement.In the figure,also a transverse momentum kick is included,which improves the agreement, but we still see that even a1GeV2primordial transverse momentum is not enoughFigure10:Theoretical predictions for the azimuthal correlation in the production of charmed pairs.to overcome the effect of fragmentation.A similar situation arises in the distributions of the transverse momentum of the charmed pair.As an example I report in table1a computation of various average quantities,in pion–nucleon collisions at230GeV,in comparison with the recent study of ref.[36].These results deserve a comment.We see that,aside from the rapidity difference,both the transverse momentum of the pair and the invariant mass of the pair would be in better agreement with the data if the effect of fragmentation was much less dramatic.In fact,if we don’t include fragmentation effects at all,we see that all transverse distributions are in good agreement with theoretical prediction, provided one is willing to accept the possibility of a non–perturbative intrinsic trans-verse momentum effect of the incoming parton of the order of1GeV2,which is a very reasonable value.It is often claimed that the fact that longitudinal distributions (like the x F distributions)are harder than theoretical predictions may require the inclusion of higher twist effects[37].On the other hand,the problem is there only if one insists in using the fragmentation functions for longitudinal distributions,aFigure11:Single inclusive p2T distribution measured by the E769experiment,com-pared to theoretical expectations.procedure that is not fully justified.Many models are capable of justifying easily the observed longitudinal distributions.On the contrary,the fact that transverse mo-mentum distributions are harder than expected is much more worrying,since in this case the factorization theorem should apply.One possible way out of this problemFigure12:Single inclusive p2T distribution measured by the E687experiment,com-pared to theoretical expectations.bare k2T =2GeV2no fragm.no fragm.2.24 4.21.98±0.11±0.094.20 4.204.45±0.03±0.130.8860.8520.54±0.02±0.24Table1:Various average quantities computed with and without fragmentationeffects,and transverse momentum kick of1and2GeV2,compared with the resultsof the data analysis of ref.[36].may be related to the fact that a large fraction of bottom cross section in hadropro-duction comes from gluon fragmentation into heavy quarks,while in the case of e+e−annihilation,and also in the case of photoproduction,this fraction is much smaller. 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